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Mc lc
Phn I : Gii quyt vn bng tm kim
1.1 Biu din vn trong khng gian trng thi 1.2 Cc chin lc tm kim 1.3 Cc chin lc tm kim m 1.3.1 Tm kim theo b rng 1.3.2 Tm kim theo su 1.3.3 Cc trng thi lp 1.3.4 Tm kim su lp 1.4 Quy vn v cc vn con. Tm kim trn th v/hoc 1.4.1 Quy vn v cc vn con 1.4.2 th v/hoc 1.4.3 Tm kim trn th v/hoc
4.1 Cy tr chi v tm kim trn cy tr chi 4.2 Chin lc Minimax 4.3 Phng php ct ct Alpha-Beta Phn II: Tri thc v lp lun
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Gio trnh
Tr tu Nhn to
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tm mt rt tm
Vn tm kim, mt cch tng mt i tng tha mn mt s tp hp rng ln cc i tng. nhiu vn m vic gii quyt kim.
Cc tr chi, chng hn c vua, c car c th xem nh vn tm kim. Trong s rt nhiu nc i c php thc hin, ta phi tm ra cc nc i dn ti tnh th k t cuc m ta l ngi thng. Chng minh nh l cng c th xem nh vn tm kim. Cho mt tp cc tin v cc lut suy din, trong trng hp ny mc tiu ca ta l tm ra mt chng minh (mt dy cc lut suy din c p dng) c a n cng th c m ta cn chng minh. Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu ca Tr Tu Nhn To, chng ta thng xuyn phi i u vi vn tm kim. c bit trong lp k hoch v hc my, tm kim ng vai tr quan trng. Trong phn ny chng ta s nghin cu cc k thut tm kim c bn c p dng gii quyt cc vn v c p dng rng ri trong cc lnh vc nghin cu khc c a Tr Tu Nhn To. Chng ta ln lt nghin cu cc k thut sau: Cc k thut tm kim m, trong chng ta khng c hiu bit g v cc i tng hng dn tm kim m ch n thun l xem xt theo mt h thng no t t c cc i tng pht hin ra i tng cn tm. Cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic) trong chng ta da vo kinh nghim v s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn cn gii quyt xy dng nn hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim. Cc k thut tm kim ti u. Cc phng php tm kim c i th, tc l cc chin lc tm kim nc i trong cc tr chi hai ngi, ch ng hn c vua, c tng, c car.
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Trong chng ny, chng ti s nghin cu cc chin lc tm kim m (blind search): tm kim theo b rng (breadth-first search) v tm kim theo su (depthfirst search). Hiu qu ca cc phng php tm kim ny cng s c nh gi. 1.4 Biu din vn trong khng gian trng thi Mt khi chng ta mun gii quyt mt vn no bng tm kim, u tin ta phi xc nh khng gian tm kim. Khng gian tm kim bao gm tt c cc i tng m ta cn quan tm tm kim. N c th l khng gian lin tc, chng hn khng gian cc vct thc n chiu; n cng c th l khng gian cc i tng ri rc. Trong mc ny ta s xt vic biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi sao cho vic gii quyt vn c quy v vic tm kim trong khng gian trng thi. Mt phm vi rng ln cc vn , c bit cc cu , cc tr chi, c th m t bng cch s dng khi nim trng thi v ton t (php bin i trng thi). Chng hn, mt khch du lch c trong tay bn mng l i giao thng ni cc thnh ph trong mt vng lnh th (hnh 1.1), du khch ang thnh ph A v anh ta mun tm ng i ti thm thnh ph B. Trong bi ton ny, cc thnh ph c trong cc bn l cc trng thi, thnh ph A l trng thi ban u, B l trng thi k t thc. Khi ang mt thnh ph, chng hn thnh ph D anh ta c th i theo cc con ng ni ti cc thnh ph C, F v G. Cc con ng ni cc thnh ph s c biu din bi cc ton t. Mt ton t bin i mt trng thi thnh m t tr ng thi khc. Chng hn, trng thi D s c ba ton t dn trng thi D ti cc trng thi C, F v G. Vn c a du khch by gi s l tm mt dy ton t a trng thi ban u A ti trng thi kt thc B. Mt v d khc, trong tr chi c vua, mi cch b tr cc qun trn bn c l mt trng thi. Trng thi ban u l s sp xp cc qun lc bt u cuc chi. Mi nc i hp l l mt ton t, n bin i mt cnh hung trn bn c thnh mt cnh hung khc.
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Nh vy mun biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi, ta cn xc nh cc yu t sau: Trng thi ban u.
Tp hp tt c cc trng thi c th t ti t trng thi ban u bng cch p dng mt dy ton t, lp thnh khng gian trng thi ca vn . Ta s k hiu khng gian trng thi l U, trng thi ban u l u0 (u0 U). Mi ton t R c th xem nh mt nh x R: UU. Ni chung R l mt nh x khng xc nh khp ni trn U.
Mt tp hp T cc trng thi kt thc (trng thi ch). T l tp con ca khng gian U. Trong vn ca du khch trn, ch c mt trng thi ch, l thnh ph B. Nhng trong nhiu vn (chng hn cc loi c) c th c nhiu trng thi ch v ta khng th xc nh trc c cc trng thi ch. Ni chung trong phn ln cc v n hay, ta ch c th m t cc trng thi ch l cc trng thi tha mn mt s iu kin no .
Khi chng ta biu din mt vn thng qua cc trng thi v cc ton t, th vic tm nghim ca bi ton c quy v vic tm ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch. (Mt ng i trong khng gian trng thi l mt dy ton t dn mt trng thi ti mt trng thi
khc).
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Chng ta c th biu din khng gian trng thi bng th nh hng, trong mi nh ca th tng ng vi mt trng thi. Nu c ton t R bin i trng thi u thnh trng thi v, th c cung gn nhn R i t nh u t i nh v. Khi mt ng i trong khng gian trng thi s l mt ng i trong th ny. Sau y chng ta s xt mt s v d v cc khng gian trng thi c xy dng cho mt s vn . V d 1: Bi ton 8 s. Chng ta c bng 3x3 v tm qun mang s hiu t 1 n 8 c xp vo tm , cn l i mt trng, chng hn nh trong hnh 2 bn tri. Trong tr chi ny, bn c th chuyn dch cc qun cch trng ti trng . Vn ca bn l tm ra mt dy cc chuyn dch bin i cnh hung ban u (hnh 1.2 bn tri) thnh mt cnh hung xc nh no , ch ng hn cnh
hung trong hnh 1.2 bn phi. Trong bi ton ny, trng thi ban u l cnh hu ng bn tri hnh 1.2, cn trng thi kt thc bn phi hnh 1.2. Tng ng vi cc quy tc chuyn dch cc qun, ta c bn ton t: up (y qun ln trn), down (y qun xung di), left (y qun sang tri), right (y qun sang phi). R rng l, cc ton t ny ch l cc ton t b phn; chng hn, t trng thi ban u (hnh 1.2 bn tri), ta ch c th p dng cc ton t down, left, right. Trong cc v d trn vic tm ra mt biu din thch hp m t cc trng thi ca vn l kh d dng v t nhin. Song trong nhiu vn vic tm hiu c biu din thch hp cho cc trng thi ca vn l hon ton khng n gin. Vic tm ra dng biu din t t cho cc trng thi ng vai tr ht sc quan trng trong qu trnh gii quyt mt vn . C th ni rng, nu ta tm c dng biu din tt cho cc trng thi ca vn , th vn hu nh c gii quyt. V d 2: Vn triu ph v k cp. C ba nh triu ph v ba tn cp bn b t ngn mt con sng, cng mt chic thuyn ch c mt hoc hai ngi. Hy tm cch a mi ngi qua sng sao cho khng li bn b sng k cp nhiu hn triu ph. ng nhin trong bi ton ny,
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cc ton t tng ng vi cc hnh ng ch 1 hoc 2 ngi qua sng. Nhng y ta cn lu rng, khi hnh ng x y ra (lc thuyn ang bi qua sng) th bn b sng thuyn va di ch, s k cp khng c nhiu hn s triu ph. Tip theo ta cn quyt nh ci g l trng thi c a vn . y ta khng cn phn bit cc nh triu ph v cc tn cp, m ch s lng ca h bn b sng l quan trng. biu din cc trng thi, ta s dng b ba (a, b, k), trong a l s triu ph, b l s k c p bn b t ngn vo cc thi im m thuyn b ny hoc b kia, k = 1 nu thuyn b t ngn v k = 0 n u thuy n b hu ngn. Nh vy, khng gian trng thi cho bi ton triu ph v k cp c xc nh nh sau: Trng thi ban u l (3, 3, 1).
Cc ton t. C nm ton t tng ng vi hnh ng thuyn ch qua sng 1 triu ph, hoc 1 k cp, hoc 2 triu ph, hoc 2 k cp, hoc 1 triu ph v 1 k cp.
Trng thi kt thc l (0, 0, 0).
1.5 Cc chin lc tm kim Nh ta thy trong mc 1.1, gii quyt mt vn bng tm kim trong khng gian trng thi, u tin ta cn tm dng thch hp m t cc trng thi cu vn . Sau cn xc nh: Trng thi ban u. Tp cc ton t.
Tp T cc trng thi kt thc. (T c th khng c xc nh c th gm cc trng thi no m ch c ch nh bi mt s iu kin no ). Gi s u l mt trng thi no v R l mt ton t bin i u thnh v. Ta s gi v l trng thi k u, ho c v c sinh ra t trng thi u bi ton t R. Qu trnh p dng cc ton t sinh ra cc trng thi k u c gi l pht trin trng thi u. Chng hn, trong bi ton ton s, pht trin trng thi ban u (hnh 2 bn tri), ta nhn c ba trng thi k (hnh 1.3). Khi chng ta biu din mt vn cn gii quyt thng qua cc trng thi v cc ton t th vic tm l i gii ca vn c quy v vic tm ng i t trng thi ban u ti mt trng thi kt thc no . C th phn cc chin lc tm kim thnh hai loi:
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kim ny, khng c mt s hng dn no cho s tm kim, m ta ch pht trin cc trng thi ban u cho ti khi gp mt trng thi ch no . C hai k thut tm kim m, l tm kim theo b rng v tm kim theo su. T tng ca tm kim theo b rng l cc trng thi c pht trin theo th t m chng c sinh ra, tc l trng thi no c sinh ra trc s c pht trin trc.
Trong nhiu vn , d chng ta pht trin cc trng thi theo h thng no (theo b rng hoc theo su) th s lng cc trng thi c sinh ra trc khi ta gp trng thi ch thng l cc k ln. Do cc thut ton tm kim m km hiu qu, i hi rt nhiu khng gian v thi gian. Trong thc t, nhiu vn khng th gii quyt c bng tm kim m. nhiu vn , chng ta c th da vo s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn , da vo kinh nghim, trc gic, nh gi cc trng thi. S dng s nh gi cc trng thi hng dn s tm kim: trong qu trnh pht trin cc trng thi, ta s chn trong s cc trng thi ch pht trin, trng thi c nh gi l tt nh t pht trin. Do tc tm kim s nhanh hn. Cc phng php tm kim da vo s nh gi cc trng thi hng dn s tm kim gi chung l cc phng php tm ki m kinh nghim. Nh vy chin lc tm kim c xc nh bi chin lc chn trng thi pht trin mi bc. Trong tm
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kim m, ta chn trng thi pht trin theo th t m ng c sinh ra; cn trong tm kim kinh nghim ta ch n trng thi da vo s nh gi cc trng thi.
Cy tm kim
Chng ta c th ngh n qu trnh tm kim nh qu trnh xy dng cy tm kim. Cy tm kim l cy m cc nh c gn bi cc trng thi ca khng gian trng thi. Gc ca cy tm kim tng ng vi trng thi ban u. Nu
mt nh ng vi trng thi u, th cc nh con ca n ng vi cc trng thi v k u. Hnh 1.4a l th biu di n mt khng gian trng thi vi trng thi ban u l A, hnh 1.4b l cy tm kim tng ng vi khng gian trng thi . Mi chin lc tm kim trong khng gian trng thi tng ng vi mt phng php xy dng cy tm kim. Qu trnh xy dng cy bt u t cy ch c mt nh l trng thi ban u. Gi s ti mt bc no trong chin lc tm kim, ta xy dng c mt cy no , cc l ca cy tng ng vi cc trng thi cha c pht trin. Bc tip theo ph thuc vo chin lc tm kim m mt nh no trong cc l c chn pht trin. Khi pht trin nh , cy tm kim c m rng bng cch thm vo cc nh con ca nh . K thut tm kim theo b rng (theo su) tng ng vi phng php xy dng cy tm kim theo b rng (theo su). 1.6 Cc chin lc tm kim m Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by hai chin lc tm kim m: tm kim theo b rng v tm kim theo su. Trong tm kim theo b rng, ti mi bc ta s ch n trng
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thi pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra trc cc trng thi ch pht trin khc. Cn trong tm kim theo su, trng thi c chn pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra sau cng trong s cc trng thi ch pht trin. Chng ta s dng danh sch L lu cc trng thi c sinh ra v ch c pht trin. Mc tiu ca tm kim trong khng gian trng thi l tm ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch, do ta cn lu li vt ca ng i. Ta c th s dng hm father lu li cha c a mi nh trn ng i, father(v) = u nu cha ca nh v l u. 1.6.1 Tm kim theo b rng
Chng ta c mt s nhn xt sau y v thut ton tm kim theo b rng: Trong tm kim theo b rng, trng thi no c sinh ra trc s c pht trin trc, do danh sch L c x l nh hng i. Trong bc 2.3, ta cn kim tra xem u c l trng thi kt thc hay khng. Ni chung cc tr ng thi kt thc c xc nh bi mt s iu kin no , khi ta cn kim tra xem u c tha mn cc iu kin hay khng. ban u ti trng thi ch), th thut ton tm kim theo
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b rng s tm ra nghim, ng thi ng i tm c s l ngn nht. Trong trng hp bi ton v nghim v khng gian trng thi hu hn, thut ton s dng v cho thng bo v nghim.
nh gi tm kim theo b rng
By gi ta nh gi thi gian v b nh m tm kim theo b rng i hi. Gi s rng, mi trng thi khi c pht trin s sinh ra b trng thi k. Ta s gi b l nhn t nhnh. Gi s rng, nghim ca bi ton l ng i c di d. Bi nhiu nghim c th c tm ra t i m t nh bt k mc d ca cy tm kim, do s nh cn xem xt tm ra nghim l: 1 + b + b2 + ... + bd-1 + k Trong k c th l 1, 2, ..., b d. Do s ln nht cc nh cn xem xt l: 1 + b + b2 + ... + bd Nh vy, phc tp thi gian ca thut ton tm kim theo b rng l O(bd). phc tp khng gian cng l O(bd), bi v ta cn lu vo danh sch L tt c cc nh ca cy tm kim mc d, s cc nh ny l bd. thy r tm kim theo b rng i hi thi khng gian ln ti mc no, ta xt trng h p nhnh b = 10 v su d thay i. Gi s pht kim tra 1000 trng thi cn 1 giy, v lu gi thi cn 100 bytes. Khi thi gian v khng thut ton i hi c cho trong bng sau: su d 4 6 8 10 12 14 1.6.2 Thi gian 11 giy 18 giy 31 gi 128 ngy 35 nm 3500 nm Khng gian 1 megabyte 111 megabytes 11 gigabytes 1 terabyte 111 terabytes 11.111 terabytes gian v nhn t hin v 1 trng gian m
Tm kim theo su
Nh ta bit, t tng ca chin lc tm kim theo su l, ti mi bc trng thi c chn pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra sau cng trong s cc trng
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thi ch pht trin. Do thut ton tm kim theo su l hon ton tng t nh thut ton tm kim theo b rng, ch c mt iu khc l, ta x l danh sch L cc trng thi ch pht trin khng phi nh hng i m nh ngn xp. C th l trong bc 2.4 ca thut ton tm kim theo b rng, ta cn sa li l t v vo u danh sch L. Sau y chng ta s a ra cc nhn xt so snh hai chin lc tm kim m:
Thut ton tm kim theo b rng lun lun tm ra nghim nu bi ton c nghim. Song khng phi vi b t k bi ton c nghim no thut ton tm kim theo su cng tm ra nghim! Nu bi ton c nghim v khng gian trng thi hu hn, th thut ton tm kim theo su s tm ra nghim. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp khng gian trng thi v hn, th c th n khng tm ra nghim, l do l ta lun lun i xung theo su, nu ta i theo mt nhnh v hn m nghim khng nm trn nhnh th thut ton s khng dng. Do ngi ta khuyn rng, khng nn p dng tm kim theo d su cho cc bi ton c cy tm kim cha cc nhnh v hn.
phc tp ca thut ton tm kim theo su. Gi s rng, nghim ca bi ton l ng i c di d, cy tm kim c nhn t nhnh l b v c chiu cao l d. C th xy ra, nghim l nh ngoi cng bn ph i trn mc d ca cy tm kim, do phc tp thi gian c a tm kim theo su trong trng hp xu nht l O(b d), tc l cng nh tm kim theo b rng. Tuy nhin, trn thc t i vi nhiu bi ton, tm kim theo su th c s nhanh hn tm kim theo b rng. L do l tm kim theo b rng phi xem xt ton b cy tm kim ti mc d-1, ri mi xem xt cc nh mc d. Cn trong tm kim theo su, c th ta ch cn xem xt mt b phn nh ca cy tm kim th tm ra nghim. nh gi phc tp khng gian ca tm kim theo su ta c nhn xt rng, khi ta pht trin mt nh u trn cy tm kim theo su, ta ch cn lu cc nh cha c pht trin m chng l cc nh con ca cc nh nm trn ng i t gc ti nh u. Nh vy i vi cy tm kim c nhn t nhnh b v su ln nh t l d, ta ch cn lu t hn db nh. Do phc tp khng gian ca tm kim theo su l O(db), trong khi tm kim theo b rng i hi khng gian nh O(bd)!
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1.6.3
Cc trng thi lp
Nh ta thy trong mc 1.2, cy tm kim c th ch a nhiu nh ng vi cng mt trng thi, cc trng thi ny c gi l trng thi lp. Chng hn, trong cy tm ki m hnh 4b, cc trng thi C, E, F l cc trng thi l p. Trong th biu din khng gian trng thi, cc tr ng thi lp ng vi cc nh c nhiu ng i dn ti n t trng thi ban u. Nu th c chu trnh th cy tm kim s cha cc nhnh vi mt s nh lp li v hn l n. Trong cc thut ton tm kim s lng ph rt nhiu th i gian pht trin li cc trng thi m ta gp v pht trin. V vy trong qu trnh tm kim ta cn trnh pht sinh ra cc trng thi m ta pht tri n. Chng ta c th p dng mt trong cc gii php sau y: 1. Khi pht trin nh u, khng sinh ra cc nh trng v i cha ca u. mt nh no nm trn ng i dn ti u.
3. Khng sinh ra cc nh m n c sinh ra, tc l ch sinh ra cc nh mi. Hai gii php u d ci t v khng tn nhiu khng gian nh, tuy nhin cc gii php ny khng trnh c ht cc trng thi lp. thc hin gii php th 3 ta cn lu cc trng thi pht trin vo tp Q, lu cc trng thi ch pht trin vo danh sch L. ng nhin, trng thi v ln u c sinh ra nu n khng c trong Q v L. Vic lu cc trng thi pht trin v kim tra xem mt trng thi c phi ln u c sinh ra khng i hi rt nhiu khng gian v thi gian. Chng ta c th ci t tp Q bi bng bm (xem [ ]). 1.6.4 Tm kim su lp
Nh chng ta nhn xt, nu cy tm kim ch a nhnh v hn, khi s dng tm kim theo su, ta c th mc kt nhnh v khng tm ra nghim. khc phc hon cnh , ta tm kim theo su ch ti mc d no ; n u khng tm ra nghim, ta tng su ln d+1 v li tm kim theo su ti mc d+1. Qu trnh trn c lp li vi d ln lt l 1, 2, ... dn mt su max no . Nh vy, thut ton tm kim su lp (iterative deepening search) s s dng th tc tm kim su hn ch (depth_limited search) nh th tc con. l th t c tm
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kim theo su, nhng ch i ti su d no r i quay ln. Trong th tc tm kim su hn ch, d l tham s su, hm depth ghi li su ca mi nh
procedure Depth_Limited_Search(d); begin 1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u u0; depth(u0) 0; 2. loop do 2.1 if L rng then {thng bo tht bi; stop}; 2.2 Loi trng thi u u danh sch L; 2.3 if u l trng thi kt thc then {thng bo thnh cng; stop}; 2.4 if depth(u) <= d then for mi trng thi v k u do {t v vo u danh sch L; depth(v) depth(u) + 1}; end;
procedure Depth_Deepening_Search; begin for d 0 to max do {Depth_Limited_Search(d); if thnh cng then exit} end;
K thut tm kim su lp kt hp c cc u im ca tm kim theo b rng v tm kim theo su. Chng ta c mt s nhn xt sau:
Cng nh tm kim theo b rng, tm kim su lp lun lun tm ra nghim (nu bi ton c nghim), min l ta chn su m ln.
Tm kim su lp ch cn khng gian nh nh tm kim theo su.
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nhiu ln cng mt trng thi. iu lm cho ta c cm gic rng, tm kim su lp lng ph nhiu th i gian. Th c ra thi gian tiu tn cho pht trin l p li cc trng thi l khng ng k so vi thi gian tm kim theo b rng. Tht vy, mi ln gi th tc tm kim su hn ch ti mc d, nu cy tm kim c nhn t nhnh l b, th s nh cn pht trin l: 1 + b + b2 + ... + bd Nu nghim su d, th trong tm kim su l p, ta phi gi th tc tm kim su hn ch vi su ln l t l 0, 1, 2, ..., d. Do cc nh mc 1 ph i pht tri n lp d ln, cc nh mc 2 lp d-1 l n, ..., cc nh mc d lp 1 ln. Nh vy tng s nh cn pht tri n trong tm kim su lp l: (d+1)1 + db + (d-1)b2 + ... + 2bd-1 + 1bd Do thi gian tm kim su lp l O(bd). Tm li, tm kim su lp c phc tp thi gian l O(bd) (nh tm kim theo b rng), v c ph c tp khng gian l O(biu din) (nh tm kim theo su). Ni chung, chng ta nn p dng tm kim su l p cho cc vn c khng gian trng thi ln v su ca nghim khng bit trc. 1.7 Quy vn v cc vn con. Tm kim trn th v/hoc. 1.7.1 Quy vn v cc vn con: Trong mc 1.1, chng ta nghin cu vic biu din vn thng qua cc trng thi v cc ton t. Khi vic tm nghim ca vn c quy v vic tm ng trong khng gian trng thi. Trong mc ny chng ta s nghin cu mt phng php lun khc gii quyt vn , da trn vic quy vn v cc vn con. Quy vn v cc vn con (cn gi l rt gn vn ) l mt ph ng php c s dng rng ri nht gii quyt cc vn . Trong i sng hng ngy, cng nh trong khoa h c k thut, mi khi gp mt vn cn gii quyt, ta vn thng c gng tm cch a n v cc vn n gin hn. Qu trnh rt gn vn s c tip tc cho ti khi ta dn ti cc vn con c th gii quyt c d dng. Sau y chng ta xt mt s vn .
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Gi s ta cn tnh mt tch phn bt nh, ch ng h n (xe + x3) dx. Qu trnh chng ta vn thng lm tnh tch phn bt nh l nh sau. S dng cc quy tc tnh tch phn (quy tc tnh tch phn ca mt t ng, quy t c tnh tch phn tng phn...), s dng cc php bin i bin s, cc php bin i cc hm (chng h n, cc php bin i lng gic),... a tch phn cn tnh v tch phn ca cc hm s s cp m chng ta bit cch tnh. Chng hn, i vi tch phn (xex + x3) dx, p dng quy tc tch phn ca tng ta a v hai tch phn xexdx v x3dx. p dng quy tc tch phn tng ph n ta a tch
x
phn xexdx v tch phn exdx. Qu trnh trn c th biu din bi th trong hnh 1.5. Cc tch phn exdx v x3dx l cc tch phn c bn c trong bng tch phn. Kt hp cc kt qu ca cc tch phn c bn, ta nhn c kt qu ca tch phn cho. Chng ta c th biu din vic quy mt vn v cc vn con c bi cc trng thi v cc ton t. y, bi ton cn gii l trng thi ban u. M i cch quy bi ton v cc bi ton con c biu din bi mt ton t, ton t AB, C biu din vic quy bi ton A v hai bi ton B v C. Chng hn, i vi bi ton tnh tch phn bt nh, ta c th xc nh cc ton t dng: (f1 + f2) dx f1 dx, f2 dx du Cc trng thi kt thc l cc bi ton s cp (cc bi ton bit cch gii). Chng hn, trong bi ton tnh tch phn, cc tch phn c bn l cc trng thi k t thc. Mt iu cn lu l, trong khng gian trng thi biu din vic quy vn v cc vn con, cc ton t v u dv v
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Nh vy bi ton tm ng i t A n B c quy v: 1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E (hoc) 2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n b qua G. Mi mt trong hai bi ton trn li c th phn nh nh sau 1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E c quy v: 1.1 Tm ng i t A n E (v) 1.2 Tm ng i t E n B. 2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua G c quy v: 2.1 Tm ng i t A n G (v) 2.2 Tm ng i t G n B.
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Qu trnh rt gn vn nh trn c th biu din di dng th ( th v/hoc) trong hnh 1.7. y mi bi ton tm ng i t mt thnh ph ti mt thnh ph khc ng vi mt trng thi. Cc trng thi k t thc l cc trng thi ng vi cc bi ton tm ng i, ch ng hn t A n C, hoc t D n E, bi v c ng n i A
vi C, ni D vi E. 1.7.2 th v/hoc
Khng gian trng thi m t vic quy vn v cc vn con c th biu din di dng th nh hng c bit c gi l th v/hoc. th ny c xy dng nh sau: Mi bi ton ng vi mt nh ca th. Nu c mt ton t quy mt bi ton v mt bi ton khc, chng hn R : a b, th trong th s c cung gn nhn i t nh a ti nh b. i vi mi ton t quy mt bi ton v m t s bi ton con, chng hn R : a b, c, d ta a vo mt nh
mi a1, nh ny biu din tp cc bi ton con {b, c, d} v ton t R : a b, c, d c biu din bi th hnh 1.8.
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V d: Gi s chng ta c khng gian trng thi sau: Trng thi ban u (bi ton cn gii) l a. Tp cc ton t quy gm: R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 : : : : : : : : a a a d f f k k d, d, g, b, i c, e, h e, f k h c j l
= {b, c, e, j, l}. Khng gian trng thi trn c th biu din bi th v/hoc trong hnh 1.9. Trong th , cc nh, chng hn a1, a2, a3 c gi l nh v, cc nh chng hn a, f, k c gi l nh hoc. L do l, nh a1 biu din tp cc bi ton {d, e, f} v a 1 c gii quyt nu d v e v f c gii quyt. Cn ti nh a, ta c cc ton t R 1, R2, R3 quy bi ton a v cc bi ton con khc nhau, do a c gii quyt nu hoc a1 = {d, e, f}, hoc a2 = {d, k}, hoc a3 = {g, h} c gii quyt.
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Ngi ta thng s dng th v/hoc dng rt gn. Chng hn, th v/hoc trong hnh 1.9 c th rt gn thnh th trong hnh 1.10. Trong th rt gn ny, ta s ni chng hn d, e, f l cc nh k nh a theo ton t R1, cn d, k l cc nh k a theo ton t R2.
Khi c cc ton t rt gn vn , th bng cch p dng lin tip cc ton t, ta c th a bi ton cn gii v mt tp cc bi ton con. Chng hn, trong v d trn nu ta p dng cc ton t R1, R4, R6, ta s quy bi ton a v tp cc bi ton con {b, c, e, f}, t t c cc bi ton con ny u l s cp. T cc ton t R1, R4 v R6 ta xy dng c mt cy trong hnh 1.11a, cy ny c gi l cy nghim. Cy nghim c nh ngha nh sau:
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Cc nh kt thc l cc nh gii c. Nu u khng phi l nh kt thc, nhng c mt ton t R sao cho tt c cc nh k u theo R u gii c th u gii c.
Cc nh khng gii c c xc nh quy nh sau: k, l cc nh khng gii c.
Ta s s dng k thut tm kim theo su trn th v/hoc nh du cc nh. Cc nh s c nh du gii c hoc khng gii c theo nh ngha quy v nh gii c v khng gii c. Xut pht t nh ng vi bi ton ban u, i xung theo su, n u gp nh u l nh kt thc th n c nh du gii c. Nu gp nh u khng phi l nh kt thc v t u khng i tip
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c, th u c nh du khng gii c. Khi i t i nh u, th t u ta ln lt i xung cc nh v k u theo m t ton t R no . Nu nh du c mt nh v khng gi i c th khng cn i tip xung cc nh v cn l i. Ti p tc i xung cc nh k u theo mt ton t khc. N u t t c cc nh k u theo mt ton t no c nh du gi i c th u s c nh du gii c v quay ln cha ca u. Cn nu t u i xung cc nh k n theo mi ton t u gp cc nh k c nh du khng gii c, th u c nh du khng gii c v quay ln cha ca u. Ta s biu din th tc tm kim theo su v nh du cc nh trnh by trn bi hm quy Solvable(u). Hm ny nhn gi tr true nu u gii c v nhn gi tr false nu u khng gii c. Trong hm Solvable(u), ta s s dng: nhn gi tr true nu tt c cc nh v k u theo R u gii c, v Ok nhn gi tr false nu c mt nh v k u theo R khng gii c.
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Nhn xt trong khng gian trng thi (mc 1.3.2), thut ton tm kim theo su trn th v/hoc s xc nh c bi ton ban u l gii c hay khng gii c, nu cy tm kim khng c nhnh v hn. Nu cy tm kim c nhnh v hn th cha chc thut ton dng, v c th n b xa ly khi i xung nhnh v hn. Trong trng h p ny ta nn s dng thut ton tm kim su lp (mc 1.3.3). Nu bi ton ban u gii c, th bng cch s dng hm Operator ta s xy dng c cy nghim.
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Trong chng I, chng ta nghin cu vic biu di n vn trong khng gian trng thi v cc k thut tm kim m. Cc k thut tm kim m rt km hiu qu v trong nhiu trng hp khng th p dng c. Trong chng ny, chng ta s nghin cu cc phng php tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic), l cc phng php s dng hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim. Hm nh gi v tm kim kinh nghim: Trong nhiu vn , ta c th s dng kinh nghim, tri thc ca chng ta v vn nh gi cc trng thi ca vn . Vi mi trng thi u, chng ta s xc nh m t gi tr s h(u), s ny nh gi s gn ch ca trng thi u. Hm h(u) c gi l hm nh gi. Chng ta s s dng hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim. Trong qu trnh tm kim, ti mi bc ta s chn trng thi pht trin l trng thi c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht, trng thi ny c xem l trng thi c nhiu ha h n nh t hng ti ch. Cc k thut tm kim s dng hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim c gi chung l cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (heuristic search). Cc giai on c bn gii quyt vn bng tm kim kinh nghim nh sau: 1. Tm biu din thch hp m t cc trng thi v cc ton t ca vn .
2. Xy dng hm nh gi.
3. Thit k chin lc chn trng thi pht trin mi bc.
Hm nh gi
Trong tm kim kinh nghim, hm nh gi ng vai cc k quan trng. Chng ta c xy dng c hm nh cho ta s nh gi ng cc trng thi th tm kim hiu qu. Nu hm nh gi khng chnh xc, n c th ta i chch hng v do tm kim km hiu qu. tr gi m i dn
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Trong bi ton tm kim ng i trn bn giao thng, ta c th ly di ca ng chim bay t mt thnh ph ti mt thnh ph ch lm gi tr ca hm nh gi.
Bi ton 8 s. Chng ta c th a ra hai cch xy dng hm nh gi. Hm h1: Vi mi trng thi u th h 1(u) l s qun khng nm ng v tr ca n trong trng thi ch. Ch ng hn trng thi ch bn phi hnh 2.1, v u l trng thi bn tri hnh 2.1, th h1(u) = 4, v cc qun khng ng v tr l 3, 8, 6 v 1.
Hm h2: h2(u) l tng khong cch gia v tr ca cc qun trong trng thi u v v tr ca n trong trng thi ch. y khong cch c hiu l s t nh t cc dch chuyn theo hng hoc ct a mt qun t i v tr ca n trong trng thi ch. Chng hn vi trng thi u v trng thi ch nh trong hnh 2.1, ta c: h2(u) = 2 + 3 + 1 + 3 = 9 V qun 3 cn t nht 2 dch chuyn, qun 8 cn t nht 3 dch chuyn, qun 6 cn t nht 1 dch chuyn v qun 1 cn t nht 3 dch chuyn. Hai chin lc tm kim kinh nghim quan trng nht l tm kim tt nht - u tin (best-first search) v tm kim leo i (hill-climbing search). C th xc nh cc chin lc ny nh sau: Tm kim tt nht u tin + Hm nh gi Tm kim leo i nh gi = Tm kim theo b rng + Hm
= Tm kim theo su
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Tm kim tt nht - u tin: Tm kim tt nht - u tin (best-first search) l tm kim theo b rng c hng dn bi hm nh gi. Nh ng n khc vi tm kim theo b rng ch, trong tm kim
theo b rng ta ln lt pht trin tt c cc nh mc hin ti sinh ra cc nh mc tip theo, cn trong tm kim tt nht - u tin ta chn nh pht trin l nh tt nht c xc nh bi hm nh gi (tc l nh c gi tr hm nh gi l nh nht), nh ny c th mc hin ti hoc cc mc trn. V d: Xt khng gian trng thi c biu din bi th trong hnh 2.2, trong trng thi ban u l A, trng thi kt thc l B. Gi tr ca hm nh gi l cc s ghi cnh mi nh. Qu trnh tm kim tt nht - u tin di n ra nh sau: u tin pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh k l C, D v E. Trong ba nh ny, nh D c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht, n c chn pht trin v sinh ra F, I. Trong s cc nh cha c pht trin C, E, F, I th nh E c gi tr nh gi nh nht, n c ch n pht tri n v sinh ra cc nh G, K. Trong s cc nh cha c pht trin th G tt nht, pht trin G sinh ra B, H. n y ta t ti trng thi kt thc. Cy tm kim tt nh t u tin c biu din trong hnh 2.3.
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Sau y l th tc tm kim tt nht - u tin. Trong th tc ny, chng ta s dng danh sch L l u cc trng thi ch pht trin, danh sch c sp theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi sao cho trng thi c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht u danh sch.
procedure Best_First_Search; begin 1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u; 2. loop do 2.1 if L rng then {thng bo tht bi; stop}; 2.2 Loi trng thi u u danh sch L; 2.3 if u l trng thi kt thc then {thng bo thnh cng; stop} 2.4 for mi trng thi v k u do Xen v vo danh sch L sao cho L c sp theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi; end;
Tm kim leo i: Tm kim leo i (hill-climbing search) l tm kim theo su c hng dn bi hm nh gi. Song khc vi tm kim theo su, khi ta pht trin mt nh u th b c tip theo, ta chn trong s cc nh con ca u, nh c nhiu ha hn nht pht trin, nh ny c xc nh bi hm nh gi. V d: Ta li xt th khng gian trng thi trong hnh 2.2. Qu trnh tm kim leo i c tin hnh nh sau. u tin pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh con C, D, E. Trong cc nh ny chn D pht trin, v n sinh ra cc nh con B, G. Qu trnh tm kim kt thc. Cy tm kim leo i c cho trong hnh 2.4.
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Trong th tc tm kim leo i c trnh by di y, ngoi danh sch L lu cc trng thi ch c pht trin, chng ta s dng danh sch L 1 lu gi tm thi cc trng thi k trng thi u, khi ta pht trin u. Danh sch L1 c sp xp theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi, ri c chuyn vo danh sch L sao trng thi tt nht k u ng danh sch L.
procedure Hill_Climbing_Search; begin 1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u; 2. loop do 2.1 if L rng then {thng bo tht bi; stop}; 2.2 Loi trng thi u u danh sch L; 2.3 if u l trng thi kt thc then {thng bo thnh cng; stop}; 2.3 for mi trng thi v k u do t v vo L1; 2.5 Sp xp L1 theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi; 2.6 Chuyn danh sch L1 vo u danh sch L; end;
Tm kim beam Tm kim beam (beam search) ging nh tm kim theo b rng, n pht trin cc nh mt mc ri pht trin cc nh mc tip theo. Tuy nhin, trong tm kim theo b rng, ta pht trin tt c cc nh mt mc, cn trong tm kim beam, ta hn ch ch pht trin k nh t t nht (cc nh ny c xc nh bi hm nh gi). Do trong tm kim beam, bt k mc no cng ch c nhiu nh t k nh c pht trin, trong khi tm kim theo b rng, s nh cn pht trin mc d l bd (b l nhn t nhnh). V d: Chng ta li xt th khng gian trng thi trong hnh 2.2. Chn k = 2. Khi cy tm kim beam c
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Cc k thut tm ng i ngn nht trong khng gian trng thi: Thut ton A*, thut ton nhnh_v_cn.
Cc k thut tm kim i tng tt nht: Tm kim leo i, tm kim gradient, tm kim m phng luyn kim. Tm kim bt chc s tin ha: thut ton di truyn.
1.8 Tm ng i ngn nht. Trong cc chng trc chng ta nghin cu vn tm kim ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi k t thc trong khng gian trng thi. Trong mc ny, ta gi s rng, gi phi tr a trng thi a ti trng thi b (bi mt ton t no ) l mt s k(a,b) 0, ta s gi s ny l di cung (a,b) hoc gi tr ca cung (a,b) trong th khng gian trng thi. di ca cc cung c xc nh ty thuc vo vn . Chng hn, trong bi ton tm ng i trong bn giao thng, gi ca cung (a,b) chnh l di ca ng ni thnh ph a vi thnh ph b. di ng c xc nh l tng di ca cc cung trn ng i. Vn ca chng ta trong mc ny, tm ng i ngn nht t trng thi ban u ti tr ng thi ch. Khng gian tm kim y bao gm tt c cc ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi kt thc, hm mc tiu c xc nh y l di ca ng i. Chng ta c th gii quyt vn t ra bng cch tm tt c cc ng i c th c t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch (chng hn, s sng cc k thut tm kim m), sau so snh di ca chng, ta s tm ra ng i ngn nht. Th tc tm kim ny thng c gi l th tc bo tng Anh Quc (British Museum Procedure). Trong
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thc t, k thut ny khng th p dng c, v cy tm kim thng rt ln, vic tm ra tt c cc ng i c th c i hi rt nhiu thi gian. Do ch c m t cch tng hiu qu tm kim l s dng cc hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim. Cc phng php tm kim ng i ngn nht m chng ta s trnh by u l cc ph ng php tm kim heuristic. Gi s u l mt trng thi t ti (c dng i t trng thi ban u u0 ti u). Ta xc nh hai hm nh gi sau: (ng i t u0 ti trng thi u khng phi l trng thi ch c gi l ng i mt phn, phn bit vi ng i y , l ng i t u0 ti trng thi ch). h(u) l nh gi di ng i ngn nh t t u t i trng thi ch. Hm h(u) c gi l chp nhn c (hoc nh gi thp) nu vi mi trng thi u, h(u) di ng i ngn nht thc t t u ti trng thi ch. Chng h n trong bi ton tm ng i ngn nht trn bn giao thng, ta c th xc nh h(u) l di ng chim bay t u ti ch. Ta c th s dng k thut tm kim leo i vi hm nh gi h(u). Tt nhin phng php ny ch cho php ta tm c ng i tng i tt, cha chc l ng i ti u. Ta cng c th s dng k thut tm kim tt nht u tin vi hm nh gi g(u). Phng php ny s tm ra ng i ngn nht, tuy nhin n c th km hiu qu. tng hiu qu tm kim, ta s dng hm nh gi mi : f(u) = g(u) + h(u) Tc l, f(u) l nh gi di ng i ngn nh t qua u t trng thi ban u ti trng thi kt thc.
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1.8.1
Thut ton A*
Thut ton A* l thut ton s dng k thut tm ki m tt nht u tin vi hm nh gi f(u). thy c thut ton A* lm vic nh th no, ta xt th khng gian trng thi trong hnh 3.1. Trong , trng thi ban u l trng thi A, trng thi ch l B, cc s ghi cnh cc cung l di ng i, cc s cnh cc nh l gi tr ca hm h.u tin, pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh con C, D, E v F. Tnh gi tr c a hm f ti cc nh ny ta c: g(C) =9, + 6 = 13, f(C) = 9 + 15 = 24, g(D) = 7, f(D) = 7 g(F) = 20, f(F)
Nh vy nh tt nht l D (v f(D) = 13 l nh nh t). Pht trin D, ta nhn c cc nh con H v E. Ta nh gi H v E (mi): g(H) = g(D) + di cung (D, H) = 7 + 8 = 15, f(H) = 15 + 10 = 25. ng i ti E qua D c di: g(E) = g(D) + di cung (D, E) = 7 + 4 = 11. Vy nh E mi c nh gi l f(E) = g(E) + h(E) = 11 + 8 = 19. Trong s cc nh cho pht trin, th nh E vi nh gi f(E) = 19 l nh tt nht. Pht trin nh ny, ta nhn c cc nh con ca n l K v I. Chng ta tip t c qu trnh trn cho ti khi nh c chn pht trin l nh kt thc B, di ng i ngn nh t t i B l g(B) = 19. Qu trnh tm kim trn c m t bi cy tm kim
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Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu hm nh gi h(u) l nh gi thp nht (trng hp c bit, h(u) = 0 vi mi trng thi u) th thut ton A* l thut ton ti u, tc l nghim m n tm ra l nghim ti u. Ngoi ra, n u di ca cc cung khng nh hn mt s dng no th thut ton A* l thut ton y theo ngha rng, n lun dng v tm ra nghim.
Chng ta chng minh tnh ti u ca thut ton A*. Gi s thut ton dng li nh kt thc G vi di ng i t trng thi ban u u 0 ti G l g(G). V G l nh kt thc, ta c h(G) = 0 v f(G) = g(G) + h(G) = g(G).
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Gi s nghim ti u l ng i t u0 ti nh kt thc G1 vi di l. Gi s ng i ny thot ra khi cy tm kim ti nh l n (Xem hnh 3.3). C th xy ra hai kh nng: n trng vi G1 hoc khng. Nu n l G1 th v G c chn pht trin trc G1, nn f(G) f(G1), do g(G) g(G1) = l. Nu n G1 th do h(u) l hm nh gi thp, nn f(n) = g(n) + h(n) l. Mt khc, cng do G c chn pht trin trc n, nn f(G) f(n), do , g(G) l. Nh vy, ta chng minh c rng di ca ng i m thut ton tm ra g(G) khng di hn di l ca ng i ti u. Vy n l di ng i ti u.
Trong trng hp hm nh gi h(u) = 0 vi mi u, thut ton A* chnh l thut ton tm kim t t nh t u tin vi hm nh gi g(u) m ta ni n. Thut ton A* c chng t l thut ton hiu qu nht trong s cc thut ton y v ti u cho vn tm kim ng i ngn nht.
1.8.2 Thut ton tm kim nhnh-v-cn. Thut ton nhnh_v_cn l thut ton s dng tm kim leo i vi hm nh gi f(u). Trong thut ton ny, ti mi bc khi pht trin trng thi u, th ta s chn trng thi tt nh t v (f(v) nh nht) trong s cc trng thi k u pht trin bc sau. i xung cho ti khi gp trng thi v l ch, hoc gp trng thi v khng c nh k, hoc gp trng thi v m f(v) ln hn di ng i ti u tm th i, tc l ng i y ngn nht trong s cc ng i y m ta tm ra. Trong cc trng hp ny, ta khng pht trin nh v na, hay ni cch khc, ta ct i cc nhnh cy xut pht t v, v quay ln cha ca v tip t c i xung trng thi tt nht trong cc trng thi cn l i cha c pht trin. V d: Chng ta li xt khng gian trng thi trong hnh 3.1. Pht trin nh A, ta nhn c cc nh con C, D, E v F, f(C) = 24, f(D) = 13, f(E) = 21, f(F) = 27. Trong s ny D l tt nht, pht trin D, sinh ra cc nh con H v E, f(H) = 25, f(E) = 19. i xung pht trin E, sinh ra cc nh con l K v I, f(K) = 17, f(I) = 18. i xung pht trin K sinh ra nh B vi f(B) = g(B) = 21. i xu ng B, v B l nh ch, vy ta tm c ng i t i u tm thi vi di 21. T B quay ln K, ri t K quay ln cha n l E. T E i xung J, f(J) = 18 nh h n di ng i tm thi (l 21). Pht trin I sinh ra cc con K v B,
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f(K) = 25, f(B) = g(B) = 19. i xung nh B, v nh B l ch ta tm c ng i y mi vi di l 19 nh hn di ng i ti u tm thi c (21). Vy di ng i ti u tm thi by gi l 19. By gi t B ta li quay ln cc nh cn li cha c pht trin. Song cc nh ny u c gi tr hm nh gi ln hn 19, do khng c nh no c pht trin na. Nh vy, ta tm c ng i ti u vi di 19. Cy tm kim c biu din trong hnh 3.4.
Thut ton nhnh_v_cn s c biu din bi th tc Branch_and_Bound. Trong th tc ny, bin cost c dng lu di ng i ngn nht. Gi tr ban u c a cost l s ln, hoc di ca mt ng i y m ta bit.
procedure Branch_and_Bound; begin 1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u; Gn gi tr ban u cho cost; 2. loop do 2.1 if L rng then stop; 2.2 Loi trng thi u u danh sch L; 2.3 if u l trng thi kt thc then if g(u) y then {y g(y); Quay li 2.1}; 2.4 if f(u) > y then Quay li 2.1; 2.5 for mi trng thi v k u do {g(v) g(u) + k(u,v); f(v) g(v) + h(v);
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t v vo danh sch L1}; 2.6 Sp xp L1 theo th t tng ca hm f; 2.7 Chuyn L1 vo u danh sch L sao cho trng thi u L1 tr thnh u L; end;
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, thut ton nhnh_v_cn cng l thut ton y v ti u nu hm nh gi h(u) l nh gi thp v c di cc cung khng nh h n mt s dng no .
K thut tm kim leo i tm kim i tng t t nht hon ton ging nh k thut tm kim leo i tm trng thi kt thc xt trong mc 2.3. Ch khc l trong thut ton leo i mc 2.3, t mt trng thi ta "leo ln" trng thi k tt nht (c xc nh bi hm gi), tip tc cho ti khi t ti trng thi ch; nu ch a t ti trng thi ch m khng leo ln c na, th ta tip tc "tt xung" trng thi trc n, ri li leo ln tr ng thi tt nht cn li. Cn y, t mt nh u ta ch leo ln nh tt nht v (c xc nh bi hm gi cost) trong ln cn u nu nh ny "cao hn" nh u, tc l cost(v) > cost(u). Qu trnh tm kim s dng li ngay khi ta khng leo ln nh cao hn c na.
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Trong th tc leo i di y, bin u lu nh hin thi, bin v lu nh tt nht (cost(v) nh nht) trong cc nh ln cn u. Khi thut ton dng, bin u s l u trong i tng tm c.
procedure Hill_Climbing; begin 1. u mt i tng ban u no ; 2. if cost(v) > cost(u) then u v else stop; end;
Ti u a phng v ti u ton cc
R rng l, khi thut ton leo i dng l i t i i tng u*, th gi ca n cost(u*) ln hn gi ca tt c cc i tng nm trong ln cn ca tt c cc i tng trn ng i t i tng ban u ti trng thi u*. Do nghim u* m thut ton leo i tm c l ti u a phng. Cn nhn mnh rng khng c g m bo nghim l ti u ton cc theo ngha l cost(u*) l ln nht trn ton b khng gian tm kim. nhn c nghim tt hn bng thut ton leo i, ta c th p dng lp li nhiu ln th tc leo i xut pht t mt dy cc i tng ban u c chn ngu nhin v lu li nghim tt nht qua mi ln lp. Nu s ln lp ln th ta c th tm c nghim ti u. Kt qu ca thut ton leo i ph thuc rt nhiu vo hnh dng ca mt cong ca hm gi. Nu mt cong ch c mt s t cc i a phng, th k thut leo i s tm ra rt nhanh cc i ton cc. Song c nhng vn m mt cong ca hm gi ta nh lng nhm vy, khi s dng k thut leo i i hi rt nhiu thi gian. 1.9.2 Tm kim gradient
Tm kim gradient l k thut tm kim leo i tm gi tr ln nht (hoc nh nht) ca hm kh vi lin tc f(x) trong khng gian cc vect thc n-chiu. Nh ta bit, trong ln cn nh ca im x = (x 1,...,xn), th hm f tng nhanh nht theo hng ca vect gradient: f f f f = , ,..., xn x1 x 2 Do t tng ca tm kim gradient l t mt im ta i ti im ln cn n theo hng ca vect gradient.
procedure Gradient_Search; begin
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Trong th tc trn, l hng s dng nh nht xc nh t l ca cc bc, cn l hng s dng nh xc nh tiu chun dng. Bng cch ly cc bc nh theo hng ca vect gradient chng ta s tm c im cc i a phng, l im m ti f = 0, hoc tm c im rt gn vi cc i a phng. 1.9.3 Tm kim m phng luyn kim:
Nh nhn mnh trn, tm kim leo i khng m bo cho ta tm c nghim ti u ton cc. cho nghim tm c gn vi ti u ton cc, ta p dng k thut leo i lp xut pht t cc im c la chn ngu nhin. By gi thay cho vic lun lun leo ln i xut pht t cc im khc nhau, ta thc hin mt s bc tt xung nhm thot ra khi cc im cc i a phng. chnh l t tng ca k thut tm kim m phng luyn kim. Trong tm kim leo i, khi mt trng thi u ta lun lun i ti trng thi tt nht trong ln cn n. Cn by gi, trong tm kim m phng luyn kim, ta ch n ngu nhin mt trng thi v trong ln cn u. Nu trng thi v c chn tt hn u (cost(v) > cost(u)) th ta i ti v, cn nu khng ta ch i ti v vi mt xc sut no . Xc sut ny gim theo hm m ca xu ca trng thi v. Xc sut ny cn ph thuc vo tham s nhit T. Nhit T cng cao th bc i ti trng thi xu cng c kh nng c thc hin. Trong qu trnh tm kim, tham s nhit T gim dn ti khng. Khi T gn khng, thut ton ho t ng gn ging nh leo i, hu nh n khng th c hi n bc tt xung. C th ta xc nh xc sut i ti tr ng thi xu v t u l e /T, y = cost(v) - cost(u). Sau y l th tc m phng luyn kim.
procedure Simulated_Anneaning; begin t 0; u trng thi ban u no ;
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T nhit ban u; repeat v trng thi c chn nhu nhin trong ln cn u; if cost(v) > cost(u) then u v else u v vi xc sut e T g(T, t); t t + 1; until T nh end;
/T
Trong th tc trn, hm g(T, t) tha mn iu kin g(T, t) < T vi mi t, n xc nh t c gim ca nhi t T. Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu nhit T gim chm, th thut ton s tm c nghim ti u ton cc. Thut ton m phng luyn kim c p dng thnh cng cho cc bi ton ti u c ln. 1.10 Tm kim m phng s tin ha. Thut ton di truyn Thut ton di truyn (TTDT) l thut ton bt chc s chn lc t nhin v di truyn. Trong t nhin, cc c th khe, c kh nng thch nghi tt vi mi trng s c ti sinh v nhn bn cc th h sau. Mi c th c cu trc gien c trng cho phm cht ca c th . Trong qu trnh sinh sn, cc c th con c th tha hng cc phm cht ca c cha v m, cu trc gien ca n mang mt ph n cu trc gien ca cha v m. Ngoi ra, trong qu trnh tin ha, c th xy ra hin tng t bin, cu trc gien ca c th con c th cha cc gien m c cha v m u khng c. Trong TTDT, mi c th c m ha bi mt cu trc d liu m t cu trc gien ca c th , ta s gi n l nhim sc th (chroniosome). Mi nhim sc th c to thnh t cc n v c gi l gien. Chng hn, trong cc TTDT c in, cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn, t c l mi c th c biu din bi mt chui nh phn. TTDT s lm vic trn cc qun th gm nhiu c th. Mt qun th ng vi mt giai on pht trin s c gi l mt th h. T th h ban u c to ra, TTDT bt chc chn lc t nhin v di truyn bin i cc th h. TTDT s dng cc ton t c bn sau y bin i cc th h.
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t chn lc (selection)). Cc c th tt c chn lc a vo th h sau. S la chn ny c thc hin da vo thch nghi vi mi trng ca mi c th. Ta s gi hm ng mi c th vi thch nghi ca n l hm thch nghi (fitness function). trao i cc gien to ra hai c th con.
Trong th tc trn, iu kin kt thc vng l p c th l mt s th h ln no , hoc thch nghi ca cc c th tt nht trong cc th h k tip nhau khc nhau khng ng k. Khi thut ton dng, c th t t nh t trong th h cui cng c chn lm nghim cn tm. By gi ta s xt chi tit hn ton t chn lc v cc ton t di truyn (lai ghp, t bin) trong cc TTDT c in. 1. Chn lc: Vic chn lc cc c th t mt qun th da trn thch nghi ca mi c th. Cc c th c thch nghi cao c nhiu kh nng c chn. C n nh n mnh
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rng, hm thch nghi ch cn l mt hm thc dng, n c th khng tuyn tnh, khng lin tc, khng kh vi. Qu trnh chn lc c thc hin theo k thut quay bnh xe. Gi s th h hin thi P(t) gm c n c th {x1,..,xn}. S n c gi l c ca qun th. Vi mi c th xi, ta tnh thch nghi ca n f(xi). Tnh tng cc thch nghi ca tt c cc c th trong qun th: F = f(xi) Mi ln chn lc, ta thc hin hai bc sau: Sinh F); ra mt s thc ngu nhin q trong khong (0, chol c th c chn, nu k l s nh nht sao xk
i =1 n
f ( xi) 4
Vic chn lc theo hai bc trn c th minh ha nh sau: Ta c mt bnh xe c chia thnh n phn, mi ph n ng vi thch nghi ca mt c th (hnh 3.5). Mt mi tn ch vo bnh xe. Quay bnh xe, khi bnh xe dng, mi tn ch vo phn no, c th ng vi phn c chn.
i =1
R rng l vi cch chn ny, cc c th c th c thch nghi cng cao cng c kh nng c ch n. Cc c th c thch nghi cao c th c mt hay nhiu bn sao, cc c th c thch nghi thp c th khng c mt th h sau (n b cht i). 2. Lai ghp: ton t lai ghp. pc. xc sut ny ghp (n l c ca Trn c th c chn lc, ta tn hnh u tin ta cn a ra xc sut lai ghp cho ta hy vng c p c.n c th c lai qun th).
Vi mi c th ta thc hin hai bc sau: Sinh ra s thc ngu nhin r trong on [0, 1]; Nu r < pc th c th c chn lai ghp
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T cc c th c chn lai ghp, ngi ta cp i chng mt cch ngu nhin. Trong trng hp cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn c di c nh m, ta c th thc hin lai ghp nh sau: Vi mi cp, sinh ra mt s nguyn ngu nhin p trn on [0, m -1], p l v tr im ghp. Cp gm hai nhim sc th a = (a1 , ... , ap , ap+1 , ... , am) a = (b1 , ... , bp , bp+1 , ... , bm) c thay bi hai con l: a' = (a1 , ... , ap , bp+1 , ... , bm) b' = (b1 , ... , bp , ap+1 , ... , am) 3. t bin: Ta thc hin ton t t bin trn cc c th c c sau qu trnh lai ghp. t bin l thay i trng thi mt s gien no trong nhim sc th . M i gien chu t bin vi xc sut pm. Xc sut t bin pm do ta xc nh v l xc sut thp. Sau y l ton t t bin trn cc nhim sc th chui nh phn. Vi mi v tr i trong nhim sc th: a = (a1 , ... , ai , ... , am) Ta sinh ra mt s thc nghim ngu nhin p i trong [0,1]. Qua t bin a c bin thnh a nh sau: a' = (a'1 , ... , a'i , ... , a'm) Trong : a'i = ai 1 - ai nu pi pm nu pi < pm
Sau qu trnh chn lc, lai ghp, t bin, mt th h mi c sinh ra. Cng vic cn li ca thut ton di truyn by gi ch l lp li cc bc trn. V d: Xt bi ton tm max ca hm f(x) = x2 vi x l s nguyn trn on [0,31]. s dng TTDT, ta m ho mi s nguyn x trong on [0,31] bi mt s nh phn di 5, chng hn, chui 11000 l m ca s nguyn 24. Hm thch
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nghi c xc nh l chnh hm f(x) = x 2. Qun th ban u gm 4 c th (c ca qun th l n = 4). Thc hin qu trnh chn lc, ta nhn c kt qu trong bng sau. Trong bng ny, ta thy c th 2 c thch nghi cao nh t (576) nn n c chn 2 ln, c th 3 c thch nghi th p nht (64) khng c chn ln no. Mi c th 1 v 4 c chn 1 ln. Bng kt qu chn lc S liu c th 1 Qun th ban u x thch nghi f(x) = x2 S ln c chn
0 1 1 0 13 169 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 24 576 2 0 3 0 1 0 0 8 64 0 0 4 1 0 0 1 19 361 1 1 Thc hin qa trnh lai ghp vi xc sut lai ghp p c = 1, c 4 c th sau chn lc u c lai ghp. Kt qu lai ghp c cho trong bng sau. Trong bng ny, chui th nht c lai ghp vi chui th hai vi im ghp l 4, hai chui cn li c lai ghp vi nhau vi im ghp l 2. Bng kt qu lai ghp Qun th sau chn lc 0 1 1 0 | 1 1 1 0 0 | 0 1 1 | 0 0 0 1 0 | 0 1 1 im ghp 4 4 2 2 Qun th sau lai ghp 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 x thch nghi f(x) = x2 144 625 729 256
2 5 7 6
thc hin qu trnh t bin, ta ch n xc sut t bin pm= 0,001, tc l ta hy vng c 5.4.0,001 = 0,02 bit c t bin. Thc t s khng c bit no c t bin. Nh vy th h mi l qun th sau lai ghp. Trong th h ban u, thch nghi cao nht l 576, thch nghi trung bnh 292. Trong th h sau, thch nghi cao nh t l 729, trung bnh l 438. Ch qua mt th h, cc c th tt ln rt nhiu.
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Thut ton di truyn khc vi cc thut ton ti u khc cc im sau: TTDT ch s dng hm thch hng dn s tm kim, hm thch nghi ch cn l hm thc dng. Ngoi ra, n khng i hi khng gian tm kim phi c cu trc no c. TTDT lm vic trn cc nhim sc th l m ca cc c th cn tm. TTDT tm kim t mt qun th gm nhiu c th. Cc ton t trong TTDT u mang tnh ngu nhin.
gii quyt mt vn bng TTDT, chng ta cn th c hin cc bc sau y: Trc ht ta cn m ha cc i tng cn tm b i m t cu trc d liu no . Chng hn, trong cc TTDT c in, nh trong v d trn, ta s dng m nh phn. Thit k hm thch nghi. Trong cc bi ton ti u, hm thch nghi c xc nh da vo hm mc tiu. Trn c s cu trc ca nhim sc th, thit k cc ton t di truyn (lai ghp, t bin) cho ph hp vi cc vn cn gii quyt. Xc nh c ca qun th v khi to qun th ban u. t bin. Xc ta (Goldberg, l 0,6 v xc nghim tm quyt.
Xc nh xc sut lai ghp pc v xc sut sut t bin cn l xc sut thp. Ngi 1989) khuyn rng nn chn xc sut lai ghp sut t bin l 0,03. Tuy nhin cn qua th ra cc xc sut thch hp cho vn cn gii
Ni chung thut ng TTDT l ch TTDT c in, khi m cu trc ca cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn v i cc ton t di truyn c m t trn. Song trong nhiu vn thc t, thun tin hn, ta c th biu din nhim sc th bi cc cu trc khc, chng h n vect thc, mng hai chiu, cy,... Tng ng vi cu trc ca nhi m sc th, c th c nhiu cch xc nh cc ton t di truyn. Qu trnh sinh ra th h mi P(t) t th h c P(t - 1) cng c nhiu cch chn la. Ngi ta gi chung cc thut ton ny l thut ton tin ha (evolutionary algorithms) hoc chng trnh tin ha (evolution program). Thut ton tin ha c p dng trong cc v n ti u v hc my. hiu bit su sc hn v thut ton
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tin ho, bn c c th tm c [ ], [ ] v [ ] . [ ] v [ ] c xem l cc sch hay nht vit v TTDT. [ ] cho ta ci nhn tng qut v s pht trin gn y ca TTDT.
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Chng IV Tm kim c i th
----------------------------
Nghin cu my tnh chi c xut hin rt sm. Khng lu sau khi my tnh lp trnh c ra i vo nm 1950, Claude Shannon vit chng trnh chi c u tin. cc nh nghin cu Tr Tu Nhn To nghin cu vic chi c, v rng my tnh chi c l mt bng chng r rng v kh nng my tnh c th lm c cc cng vic i hi tr thng minh ca con ngi. Trong chng ny chng ta s xt cc vn sau y: Chi c c th xem nh vn tm kim trong khng gian trng thi. Chin lc tm kim nc i Minimax.
ca tm kim Minimax.
1.11 Cy tr chi v tm kim trn cy tr chi. Trong chng ny chng ta ch quan tm nghin cu cc tr chi c hai ngi tham gia, chng hn cc loi c (c vua, c tng, c ca r...). Mt ngi chi c gi l Trng, i th ca anh ta c gi l en. Mc tiu ca chng ta l nghin cu chin lc chn nc i cho Trng (My tnh cm qun Trng). Chng ta s xt cc tr chi hai ngi vi cc c im sau. Hai ngi chi thay phin nhau a ra cc nc i tun theo cc lut i no , cc lut ny l nh nhau cho c hai ngi. in hnh l c vua, trong c vua hai ngi chi c th p dng cc lut i con tt, con xe, ... a ra nc i. Lut i con tt Trng xe Trng, ... cng nh lut i con tt en, xe en, ... Mt c im na l hai ngi chi u c bit thng tin y v cc tnh th trong tr chi (khng nh trong ch i bi, ngi chi khng th bit cc ngi chi khc cn nhng con bi g). Vn chi c c th xem nh vn tm kim n c i, ti mi ln n lt mnh, ngi chi phi tm trong s rt nhiu nc i hp l (tun theo ng lut i), mt nc i tt nht sao cho qua mt dy nc i thc hin, anh ta ginh phn thng. Tuy nhin vn tm kim y s phc tp hn vn tm kim m chng ta xt trong
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cc chng trc, bi v y c i th, ngi ch i khng bit c i th ca mnh s i nc no trong tng lai. Sau y chng ta s pht biu chnh xc hn vn tm kim ny. Vn chi c c th xem nh vn tm kim trong khng gian trng thi. Mi trng thi l mt tnh th (s b tr cc qun ca hai bn trn bn c). Trng thi ban u l s sp xp cc qun c ca hai bn lc bt u cuc chi. Cc ton t l cc nc i hp l.
Cc trng thi kt thc l cc tnh th m cuc ch i dng, thng c xc nh bi mt s iu kin dng no . Mt hm kt cuc (payoff function) ng mi trng thi kt thc vi mt gi tr no . Chng hn nh c vua, m i trng thi kt thc ch c th l thng, hoc thua (i vi Trng) hoc ha. Do , ta c th xc nh hm k t cu c l hm nhn gi tr 1 ti cc trng thi k t thc l th ng (i vi Trng), -1 ti cc trng thi kt thc l thua (i vi Trng) v 0 ti cc trng thi k t thc ha. Trong mt s tr chi khc, chng hn tr ch i tnh im, hm kt cuc c th nhn gi tr nguyn trong khong [-k, k] vi k l mt s nguyn dng no . Nh vy vn ca Trng l, tm mt dy nc i sao cho xen k vi cc nc i ca en to thnh mt ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi kt thc l th ng cho Trng. thun li cho vic nghin cu cc chin lc ch n nc i, ta biu din khng gian trng thi trn di dng cy tr chi. Cy tr chi Cy tr chi c xy dng nh sau. Gc ca cy ng vi trng thi ban u. Ta s gi nh ng vi trng thi m Trng (en) a ra nc i l nh Trng (en). N u m t nh l Trng (en) ng vi trng thi u, th cc nh con ca n l tt c cc nh biu din trng thi v, v nh n c t u do Trng (en) thc hin n c i hp l no . Do , trn cng mt mc ca cy cc nh u l Tr ng h c u l en, cc l ca cy ng vi cc trng thi kt thc.
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V d: Xt tr chi Dodgen (c to ra bi Colin Vout). C hai qun Trng v hai qun en, ban u c xp vo bn c 3*3 (Hnh v). Qun en c th i ti trng bn phi, trn hoc di. Qun Trng c th i ti trng bn tri, bn phi, trn. Qun en nu ct ngoi cng bn phi c th i ra khi bn c, qun Trng nu hng trn cng c th i ra khi bn c. Ai a hai qun ca mnh ra khi bn c trc s thng, hoc to ra tnh th bt i phng khng i c cng s thng.
1.12 Chin lc Minimax Qu trnh chi c l qu trnh Trng v en thay phin nhau a ra quyt nh, thc hin mt trong s cc n c i hp l. Trn cy tr chi, qu trnh s to ra ng i t gc ti l. Gi s ti mt thi im no , ng i dn ti nh u. Nu u l nh Trng (en) th Trng (en) cn chn i ti mt trong cc nh en (Trng) v l con c a u. Ti nh en (Trng) v m Trng (en) va ch n, en (Trng) s phi chn i ti mt trong cc nh Trng (en) w l con ca v. Qu trnh trn s dng li khi t ti mt nh l l ca cy. Gi s Trng cn tm nc i ti nh u. Nc i ti u cho Trng l nc i dn ti nh con ca v l nh tt nht (cho Trng) trong s cc nh con ca u. Ta cn gi
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thit rng, n lt i th chn nc i t v, en cng s chn nc i tt nht cho anh ta. Nh vy, chn n c i ti u cho Trng ti nh u, ta cn ph i xc nh gi tr cc nh ca cy tr chi gc u. Gi tr ca cc nh l (ng vi cc trng thi kt thc) l gi tr c a hm k t cuc. nh c gi tr cng ln cng tt cho Trng, nh c gi tr cng nh cng tt cho en. xc nh gi tr cc nh ca cy tr chi gc u, ta i t mc thp nh t ln gc u. Gi s v l nh trong ca cy v gi tr cc nh con ca n c xc nh. Khi nu v l nh Trng th gi tr ca n c xc nh l gi tr l n nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con. Cn nu v l nh en th gi tr ca n l gi tr nh nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con. V d: Xt cy tr chi trong hnh 4.3, gc a l nh Trng. Gi tr ca cc nh l s ghi cnh mi nh. nh i l Trng, nn gi tr ca n l max(3,-2) = 3, nh d l
nh en, nn gi tr ca n l min(2, 3, 4) = 2. Vic gn gi tr cho cc nh c th c hin bi cc hm qui MaxVal v MinVal. Hm MaxVal xc nh gi tr cho cc nh Trng, hm MinVal xc nh gi tr cho cc nh en.
function MaxVal(u); begin if u l nh kt thc then MaxVal(u) f(u) else MaxVal(u) max{MinVal(v) | v l nh con ca u} end;
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hm quy trn, f(u) l gi tr ca hm k t kt thc u. Sau y l th tc ch n n c i nh u. Trong th tc Minimax(u,v), v l bin thi m Trng chn i ti t u.
Minimax(u, v);
Th tc chn nc i nh trn gi l chin l c Minimax, bi v Trng ch c nc i dn t i nh con c gi tr l max ca cc gi tr cc nh con, v en p li bng nc i ti nh c gi tr l min ca cc gi tr cc nh con. Thut ton Minimax l thut ton tm kim theo su, y ta ci t thut ton Minimax bi cc hm quy. Bn c hy vit th tc khng quy thc hin thut ton ny. V mt l thuyt, chin lc Minimax cho php ta tm c nc i ti u cho Trng. Song n khng thc t , chng ta s khng c thi gian tnh c nc i ti u. Bi v thut ton Minimax i hi ta phi xem xt ton b cc nh ca cy tr chi. Trong cc tr ch i hay, cy tr chi l cc k ln. Chng hn, i vi c vua, ch tnh n su 40, th cy tr chi c khong 10120 nh! Nu cy c cao m, v ti mi nh c b nc i th phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton Minimax l O(bm). c th tm ra nhanh nc i tt (khng ph i l t i u) thay cho vic s dng hm kt cuc v xem xt t t c cc kh nng dn ti cc trng thi kt thc, chng ta s s dng hm nh gi v ch xem xt mt b ph n ca cy tr chi. Hm nh gi Hm nh gi eval ng vi mi trng thi u ca tr chi vi mt gi tr s eval(u), gi tr ny l s nh gi
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cho li vi
li th ca trng thi u. Trng thi u cng thun l i Trng th eval(u) l s dng cng ln; u cng thun cho en th eval(u) l s m cng nh; eval(u) 0 i trng thi khng li th cho ai c.
Cht lng ca chng trnh chi c ph thuc rt nhiu vo hm nh gi. Nu hm nh gi cho ta s nh gi khng chnh xc v cc trng thi, n c th hng dn ta i ti trng thi c xem l tt, nhng th c t li rt bt li cho ta. Thit k mt hm nh gi tt l mt vic kh, i hi ta phi quan tm n nhiu nhn t: cc qun cn li ca hai bn, s b tr ca cc qun , ... y c s mu thun gia chnh xc ca hm nh gi v thi gian tnh ca n. Hm nh gi chnh xc s i hi rt nhiu thi gian tnh ton, m ngi ch i li b gii hn bi thi gian phi a ra nc i. V d 1: Sau y ta a ra mt cch xy dng hm nh gi n gin cho c vua. Mi loi qun c gn mt gi tr s ph hp vi sc mnh ca n. Chng hn, mi tt Trng (en) c cho 1 (-1), m hoc tng Trng (en) c cho 3 (-3), xe Trng (en) c cho 5 (-5) v hong hu Trng (en) c cho 9 (-9). Ly tng gi tr ca t t c cc qun trong mt trng thi, ta s c gi tr nh gi ca trng thi . Hm nh gi nh th c gi l hm tuyn tnh c trng s, v n c th biu din di dng: s1w1 +s2w2+. . . +snwn. Trong , wi l gi tr mi loi qun, cn s i l s qun loi . Trong cch nh gi ny, ta khng tnh n s b tr ca cc qun, cc mi tng quan gia chng. V d 2: By gi ta a ra mt cch nh gi cc trng thi trong tr chi Dodgem. Mi qun Trng mt v tr trn bn c c cho mt gi tr tng ng trong bng bn tri hnh 4.4. Cn mi qun en mt v tr s c cho mt gi tr tng ng trong bng bn phi hnh 4.4:
Ngoi ra, nu qun Trng cn trc tip mt qun en, n c thm 40 im, nu cn gin tip n c thm 30
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im (Xem hnh 4.5). Tng t, nu qun en cn trc tip qun Trng n c thm -40 im, cn cn gin ti p n c thm -30 im.
p dng cc qui tc trn, ta tnh c gi tr ca trng thi bn tri hnh 4.6 l 75, gi tr ca trng thi bn phi hnh v l -5.
Trong cnh nh gi trn, ta xt n v tr ca cc qun v mi tng quan gia cc qun. Mt khi cn cy tr Minimax ca hm cch n gin hn ch khng gian tm kim l, xc nh nc i cho Trng ti u, ta ch xem xt chi gc u ti cao h no . p dng th tc cho cy tr chi gc u, cao h v s dng gi tr nh gi cho cc l ca cy , chng ta s tm
c nc i tt cho Trng ti u. 1.13 Phng php ct ct alpha - beta Trong chin lc tm kim Minimax, tm kim nc i tt cho Trng ti trng thi u, cho d ta hn ch khng gian tm kim trong phm vi cy tr chi gc u vi cao h, th s nh ca cy tr chi ny cng cn rt l n v i h 3. Chng hn, trong c vua, nhn t nhnh trong cy tr chi trung bnh khong 35, thi gian i hi ph i a ra nc i l 150 giy, vi thi gian ny trn my tnh thng thng chng trnh ca bn ch c th xem xt cc nh trong su 3 hoc 4. Mt ngi chi c trnh trung bnh cng c th tnh trc c 5, 6 nc hoc hn na, v do chng trnh ca bn mi t trnh ngi mi tp chi! Khi nh gi nh u ti su h, mt thut ton Minimax i hi ta phi nh gi tt c cc nh ca cy gc u ti su h. Song ta c th gim bt s nh cn phi dnh gi m vn khng nh hng g n s nh gi nh u. Phng php ct ct alpha-beta cho php ta ct b cc nhnh khng cn thit cho s nh gi nh u. T tng ca k thut ct ct alpha-beta l nh sau: Nh li rng, chin lc tm kim Minimax l chin lc tm kim theo su. Gi s trong qu trnh tm kim ta
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i xung nh a l nh Trng, nh a c ngi anh em v c nh gi. Gi s cha ca nh a l b v b c ngi anh em u d c nh gi, v gi s cha ca b l c (Xem hnh 4.7). Khi ta c gi tr nh c (nh Tr ng) t nh t l gi tr ca u, gi tr ca nh b (nh en) nhiu nh t l gi tr v. Do , nu eval(u) > eval(v), ta khng cn i xung nh gi nh a na m vn khng nh h ng g d n nh gi nh c. Hay ni cch khc ta c th ct b cy con gc a. Lp lun tng t cho trng hp a l nh en, trong trng hp ny nu eval(u) < eval(v) ta cng c th ct b cy con gc a. ci t k thut ct ct alpha-beta, i vi cc nh nm trn ng i t gc ti nh hin thi, ta s dng tham s ghi li gi tr ln nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con nh gi ca mt nh Trng, cn tham s ghi li gi tr nh nht trong cc nh con nh gi ca mt nh en. Gi tr ca v s c cp
nht trong qu trnh tm kim. v c s dng nh cc bin a phng trong cc hm MaxVal(u, , ) (hm xc nh gi tr ca nh Trng u) v Minval(u, , ) (hm xc nh gi tr ca nh en u).
function MaxVal(u, , ); begin if u l l ca cy hn ch hoc u l nh kt thc then MaxVal eval(u) else for mi nh v l con ca u do { max[, MinVal(v, , )]; // Ct b cc cy con t cc nh v cn li if then exit}; MaxVal ;
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end;
function MinVal(u, , ); begin if u l l ca cy hn ch hoc u l nh kt thc then MinVal eval(u) else for mi nh v l con ca u do { min[, MaxVal(v, , )]; // Ct b cc cy con t cc nh v cn li if then exit}; MinVal ; end;
Thut ton tm nc i cho Trng s dng k thut ct ct alpha-beta, c ci t bi th tc Alpha_beta(u,v), trong v l tham bin ghi li nh m Trng cn i t i t u.
procedure Alpha_beta(u,v); begin
- ; ;
for mi nh w l con ca u do if MinVal(w, , ) then { MinVal(w, , ); v w;} end;
V d. Xt cy tr chi gc u (nh Trng) gii h n b i cao h = 3 (hnh 4.8). S ghi cnh cc l l gi tr c a hm nh gi. p dng chin lc Minimax v k thut ct
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ct, ta xc nh c nc i tt nht cho Trng t i u, l nc i dn ti nh v c gi tr 10. C nh mi nh ta cng cho gi tr ca cp tham s ( , ). Khi gi cc hm MaxVal v MinVal xc nh gi tr ca nh . Cc nhnh b ct b c ch ra trong hnh:
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Phn II:
Trong chng ny chng ta s trnh by cc c trng ca ngn ng biu din tri thc. Chng ta s nghin cu logic mnh , mt ngn ng biu din tri thc rt n gin, c kh nng biu din hp, nh ng thun li cho ta lm quen vi nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic, c bit trong logic v t cp mt s c nghin cu trong cc chng sau.
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Con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn th c c th gii nh cc gic quan (tai, mt v cc b phn khc), s dng cc tri thc tch lu c v nh kh nng l p lun, suy din, con ngi c th a ra cc hnh ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi ang lm. Mt mc tiu ca Tr tu nhn to ng dng l thit k cc tc nhn thng minh (intelligent agent) cng c kh nng nh con ngi. Chng ta c th hiu tc nhn thng minh l bt c ci g c th nhn thc c mi trng thng qua cc b cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng li mi trng thng qua b phn hnh ng (effectors). Cc robots, cc softbot (software robot), cc h chuyn gia,... l cc v d v tc nhn thng minh. Cc tc nhn thng minh cn phi c tri thc v th gii hin thc mi c th a ra cc quyt nh ng n. Thnh phn trung tm ca cc tc nhn da trn tri thc (knowledge-based agent), cn c gi l h da trn tri thc (knowledge-based system) hoc n gin l h tri thc, l c s tri thc. C s tri thc (CSTT) l mt t p hp cc tri thc c biu din di dng no . M i khi nhn c cc thng tin a vo, tc nhn cn c kh nng suy din a ra cc cu tr li, cc hnh ng hp l, ng n. Nhim v ny c thc hin bi b suy din. B suy din l thnh phn c bn khc ca cc h tri th c. Nh vy h tri thc bo tr mt CSTT v c trang b mt th tc suy din. Mi khi tip nhn c cc s kin t mi trng, th tc suy din thc hin qu trnh lin kt cc s kin vi cc tri thc trong CSTT rt ra cc cu tr li, hoc cc hnh ng hp l m tc nhn cn thc hin. ng nhin l, khi ta thit k mt tc nhn gi i quyt mt vn no th CSTT s cha cc tri th c v min i tng c th . my tnh c th s dng c tri thc, c th x l tri thc, chng ta cn biu din tri thc di dng thun tin cho my tnh. l mc tiu ca biu din tri thc. Tri thc c m t di dng cc cu trong ngn ng biu din tri thc. Mi cu c th xem nh s m ha ca mt s hiu bit ca chng ta v th gii hin thc. Ngn ng biu din tri thc (cng nh mi ngn ng hnh th c khc) gm hai thnh phn c bn l c php v ng ngha.
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C php ca mt ngn ng bao gm cc k hiu v cc quy tc lin kt cc k hiu (cc lut c php) to thnh cc cu (cng thc) trong ngn ng. Cc cu y l biu din ngoi, cn phn bit vi biu din bn trong my tnh. Cc cu s c chuyn thnh cc cu trc d liu thch hp c ci t trong mt vng nh no ca my tnh, l biu din bn trong. Bn thn cc cu cha cha ng mt ni dung no c, cha mang mt ngha no c. Ng ngha ca ngn ng cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc cu trong mt min no ca th gii hin thc. Chng hn, trong ngn ng cc biu thc s hc, dy k hiu (x+y)*z l mt cu vit ng c php. Ng ngha ca ngn ng ny cho php ta hi u rng, nu x, y, z, ng vi cc s nguyn, k hiu + ng vi php ton cng, cn * ng vi php chia, th biu thc (x+y)*z biu din qu trnh tnh ton: ly s nguyn x cng vi s nguyn y, kt qu c nhn vi s nguyn z. Ngoi hai thnh phn c php v ng ngha, ngn ng biu din tri thc cn c cung cp c ch suy din. Mt lut suy din (rule of inference) cho php ta suy ra mt cng thc t mt tp no cc cng thc. Chng hn, trong logic mnh , lut modus ponens t hai cng thc A v A suy ra cng thc B B. Chng ta s hiu lp lun hoc suy din l mt qu trnh p dng cc lut suy din t cc tri thc trong c s tri thc v cc s kin ta nh n c cc tri thc mi. Nh vy chng ta xc nh:
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1.14 Ngn ng biu din tri thc = C php + Ng ngha + C ch suy din. 1.15 Mt ngn ng biu din tri thc tt cn phi c kh nng biu din rng, tc l c th m t c mi iu m chng ta mun ni. N cn phi hiu qu theo ngha l, i ti cc kt lun, th tc suy din i hi t thi gian tnh ton v t khng gian nh. Ngi ta cng mong mun ngn ng biu din tri thc gn vi ngn ng t nhin. 1.16 Trong sch ny, chng ta s tp trung nghin cu logic v t cp mt (first-order predicate logic hoc first-order predicate calculus) - mt ngn ng biu din tri thc, bi v logic v t cp mt c kh nng biu din tng i tt, v hn na n l c s cho nhiu ngn ng biu din tri thc khc, chng hn ton hon cnh (situation calculus) hoc logic thi gian khong cp mt (first-order interval tempral logic). Nhng trc ht chng ta s nghin cu logic mnh (propositional logic hoc propositional calculus). N l ngn ng rt n gin, c kh nng biu din hn ch, song thun tin cho ta a vo nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic.
5.2.1 C php:
C php ca logic mnh rt n gin, n cho php xy dng nn cc cng thc. C php ca logic mnh bao gm tp cc k hiu v tp cc lut xy dng cng thc. 1. Cc k hiu Hai hng logic True v False. Cc k hiu mnh (cn c gi l cc bin mnh ): P, Q,... Cc kt ni logic , . , , , Cc du m ngoc (v ng ngoc). Cc bin mnh l cng thc. Nu A v B l cng thc th:
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(A B) (A B) (A)
(A B) (c A ko theo B hoc nu A th B) (AB) (c A v B ko theo nhau) l cc cng thc. Sau ny cho ngn gn, ta s b i cc cp du ngoc khng cn thit. Chng hn, thay cho ((A B) C) ta s vit l (A B) C. Cc cng thc l cc k hiu mnh s c gi l cc cu n hoc cu phn t. Cc cng thc khng phi l cu n s c gi l cu phc hp. Nu P l k hiu mnh th P v TP c gi l literal, P l literal dng, cn TP l literal m. Cu phc hp c dng A1 m trong ... A Ai l cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn (clause).
5.2.2
Ng ngha:
Ng ngha ca logic mnh cho php ta xc nh thit lp ngha ca cc cng thc trong th gii hin th c no . iu c thc hin bng cch kt hp mnh vi s kin no trong th gii hin thc. Chng h n, k hiu mnh P c th ng vi s kin Paris l th nc Php hoc bt k mt s kin no khc. Bt k mt s k t hp cc k hiu mnh vi cc s kin trong th gii thc c gi l mt minh ha (interpretation ). Chng hn minh ha ca k hiu mnh P c th l m t s kin (mnh ) Paris l th nc Php . Mt s kin ch c th ng hoc sai. Chng hn, s kin Paris l th nc Php l ng, cn s kin S Pi l s hu t l sai. Mt cch chnh xc hn, cho ta hiu mt minh ha l mt cch gn cho mi k hiu mnh mt gi tr chn l True hoc False. Trong mt minh ha, nu k hiu mnh P c gn gi tr chn l True/False (P <-True/ P<-False) th ta ni mnh P ng/sai trong minh ha . Trong mt minh ha, ngha ca cc cu phc hp c xc nh
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bi ngha ca cc kt ni logic. Chng ta xc nh ngha ca cc kt ni logic trong cc bng chn l (xem hnh 5.1)
l
Tru e Tru e Fal se Fal se
ngha ca cc kt ni logic v v l c xc , nh nh cc t v,hoc l v ph nh trong ngn ng t nhin. Chng ta cn phi gii thch thm v ngha ca php ko theo P => Q (P ko theo Q ), P l gi thit, cn Q l kt lun. Trc quan cho php ta xem rng, khi P l ng v Q l ng th cu P ko theo Q l ng, cn khi P l ng Q l sai th cu P ko theo Q l sai. Nhng nu P sai v Q ng , hoc P sai Q sai th P ko theo Q l ng hay sai ? Nu chng ta xut pht t gi thit sai, th chng ta khng th khng nh g v k t lun. Khng c l do g ni rng, nu P sai v Q ng ho c P sai v Q sai th P ko theo Q l sai. Do trong trng hp P sai th P ko theo Q l ng d Q l ng hay Q l sai. Bng chn l cho php ta xc nh ngu nhin cc cu phc hp. Chng hn ng ngha ca cc cu P trong minh Q ha {P <- True , Q<- False } l False. Vic xc nh ng ngha ca mt cu (P v Q) lS trong mt minh ha c tin hnh nh sau: u tin ta xc nh gi tr chn l ca P v Q v l S , sau ta s dng bng chn l xc nh gi tr (PvQ) lS
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nu n ng trong mt minh ha no . Ch ng hn cng thc (PvQ) S l tho c, v n c gi tr l True trong minh ha {P <- True, Q<-False, S<True}. Mt cng thc c gi l vng chc (valid hoc tautology) nu n ng trong mi minh ha chng hn cu P vlP l vng chc
Mt cng thc c gi l khng tho c , nu n l sai trong mi minh ha. Chng hn cng th c P lP.
Chng ta s gi mt m hnh (modul) ca mt cng thc l mt minh ha sao cho cng thc l ng trong minh h a ny. Nh vy mt cng thc tho c l cng thc c mt m hnh. Chng hn, minh ha {P <- False , Q <- False , S<-True } l mt m hnh ca cng thc (P =>Q) S . Bng cch lp bng chn l (phng php bng chn l ) l ta c th xc nh c mt cng thc c tho c hay khng. Trong bng ny, mi bin mnh ng u vi mt ct, cng thc cn kim tra ng u mt ct, m i dng tng ng vi mt minh ha. Chng hn hnh 5.2 l b ng chn l cho cng thc (P=>Q) S. Trong bng chn l ny ta cn a vo cc ct ph ng vi cc cng thc con ca cc cng thc cn kim tra vic tnh gi tr c a cng th c ny c d dng. T bng chn l ta thy rng cng th c (P=>Q) l tho c nhng khng vng chc . S
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Hnh 5.2
Cn lu rng, mt cng thc cha n bin, th s cc minh ha ca n l 2 n , tc l bng chn l c 2 n dng. Nh vy vic kim tra mt cng thc c tho c hay khng bng phng php bng chn l, i hi thi gian m. Cook (1971) chng minh rng, vn kim tra mt cng th c trong logic mnh c tho c hay khng l vn NPy . Chng ta s ni rng (tho c, khng tho c) nu hi ca chng G1 ....... m l vng chc (tho c, khng G tho c). Mt m hnh ca tp cng thc G l m hnh ca tp cng thc G1 ....... m . G
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vic chun ha cc cng thc, a cc cng thc v dng thun l i cho vic lp lun, suy din. Trc ht ta s xt cc php bin i tng ng. S dng cc php bin i ny, ta c th a mt cng thc bt k v cc dng chun tc.
5.3.1
Hai cng thc A v B c xem l tng ng nu chng c cng mt gi tr chn l trong mi minh ha. ch A tng ng vi B ta vit A B bng phng php bng chn l, d dng chng minh c s tng ng ca cc cng thc sau y :
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l(lA)
1.17Lut De Morgan
l(A v B) lA lB l(A B) lA v lB
1.18Lut giao hon
A v B A B
1.19Lut kt hp
B v A B A
(A v B) v C Av( B v C) (A B) C A ( B C)
1.20Lut phn phi
A (B v C) (A B ) v (A C) A v (B C) (A v B ) (A v C)
5.3.2
Dng chun tc :
Cc cng thc tng ng c th xem nh cc biu din khc nhau ca cng mt s kin. d dng vit cc chng trnh my tnh thao tc trn cc cng th c, chng ta s chun ha cc cng thc, a chng v dng biu din chun c gi l dng chun hi. Mt cng thc dng chun hi, c dng A1 v ... .v Am trong cc Ai l literal . Chng ta c th bin i mt cng th c bt k v cng thc dng chun hi bng cch p dng cc th t c sau.
B cc du ko theo (=>) bng cch thay (A=>B) bi (lAvB). Chuyn cc du ph nh (l) vo st cc kt hiu
mnh bng cch p dng lut De Morgan v thay l(lA) bi A . p dng lut phn phi, thay cc cng thc c dng Av(B bi (A v B) ( A v B ) . C)
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(P => Q) v l(R v lS) (lP v Q) v (lR S) ((lP v Q)vlR) ( (lP v Q) v S) (l P v Q v lR) (lP v Q v S). Nh vy cng thc (P=> Q) v l(R v lS) c a v dng chun hi (lP v Q v lR) (lP v Q v S). Khi biu din tri thc bi cc cng thc trong logic mnh , c s tri thc l mt tp no cc cng th c. Bng cch chun ho cc cng thc, c s tri thc l mt tp no cc cu tuyn.
Cc cu Horn:
trn ta ch ra, mi cng thc u c th a v dng chun hi, tc l cc hi ca cc tuyn, mi cu tuyn c dng
v Q1 v.....v Qm
Dng cu ny c gi l cu Kowalski (do nh logic Kowalski a ra nm 1971). Khi n <=1, tc l cu Kowalski ch cha nhiu nh t mt literal dng ta c dng mt cu c bit quan trng c gi l cu Horn (mang tn nh logic Alfred Horn nm 1951). Nu m>0, n=1, cu Horn c dng :
P1 ..... Pm => Q Trong Pi , Q l cc literal dng. Cc Pi c gi l cc iu kin (hoc gi thit), cn Q c gi l kt lun (hoc h qu ). Cc cu Horn dng ny cn c gi l cc lut if ... then v c biu din nh sau : If P1 and ....and Pm then Q .
Khi m=0, n=1 cu Horn tr thnh cu n Q, hay s kin Q. Nu m>0, n=0 cu Horn tr thnh dng lP1 v......v lPm hay tng ng l(P1^...^ Pm ). Cn ch rng, khng phi mi cng thc u c th biu din di dng hi ca cc cu Horn. Tuy nhin trong cc ng dng, c s tri th c thng l mt tp no cc cu Horn (tc l mt tp no cc lut if-then).
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Mt cng thc H c xem l h qa logic (logical consequence) ca mt tp cng thc G ={G1,.....,Gm} nu trong bt k minh ha no m {G1,.....,Gm} ng th H cng ng, hay ni cch khc bt k mt m hnh no c a l m hnh ca H.
cng
Khi c mt c s tri thc, ta mun s dng cc tri thc trong c s ny suy ra tri th c mi m n l h qu logic ca cc cng thc trong c s tri thc. iu c thc hin bng cc thc hin cc lut suy din (rule of inference). Lut suy din ging nh mt th tc m chng ta s dng sinh ra mt cng th c mi t cc cng thc c. Mt lut suy din gm hai phn : mt tp cc iu kin v mt kt lun. Chng ta s biu din cc lut suy din di dng phn s , trong t s l danh sch cc iu kin, cn mu s l kt lun ca lut, tc l mu s l cng thc mi c suy ra t cc cng thc t s. Sau y l mt s lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh . Trong cc lut ny , i , , l cc cng thc : 1. Lut Modus Ponens
=>,
T mt ko theo v gi thit ca ko theo, ta suy ra kt lun ca n. 2. Lut Modus Tollens
=>,l
l T mt ko theo v ph nh kt lun ca n, ta suy ra ph nh gi thit ca ko theo. 3. Lut bc cu
=>,=>
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=>
T hai ko theo, m kt th nht trng vi gi thit ra ko theo mi m gi thit theo th nht, cn kt lun theo th hai. 4. Lut loi b hi lun ca n l ca ko theo ca ko theo th hai, ta suy ca n l gi thit ca ko ca n l kt lun ca ko
1 ....... i ........ m i
T mt hi ta a ra mt nhn t bt k ca hi . 5. Lut a vo hi
i 1v.......vi.v.......vm
T mt cng thc, ta suy ra mt tuyn m mt trong cc hng t ca cc tuyn l cng thc . 7. Lut gii
v ,l v v
T hai tuyn, mt tuyn cha mt hng t i lp vi mt hng t trong tuyn kia, ta suy ra tuyn ca cc hng t cn li trong c hai tuyn.
Mt lut suy din c xem l tin cy (secured) nu bt k mt m hnh no ca gi thit ca lut cng l m hnh kt lun ca lut. Chng ta ch quan tm n cc lut suy din tin cy. Bng phng php bng chn l, ta c th kim ch ng c cc lut suy din nu trn u l tin cy. Bng chn l ca lut gii c cho trong hnh 5.3. T bng ny ta
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thy rng , trong bt k mt minh ha no m c hai gi thit v , l v ng th kt lun v cng ng. Do lut gii l lut suy in tin cy.
v
Fals e Fals e True True True True True True
l v
True True False True True True False True
Hnh 5.3 Bng chn l chng minh tnh tin cy ca lut gii.
Ta c nhn xt rng, lut gii l mt lut suy din tng qut, n bao gm lut Modus Ponens, lut Modus Tollens, lut bc cu nh cc trng h p ring. (Bn c d dng chng minh c iu ).
Tin nh l chng minh. Gi s chng ta c mt tp no lut suy din cho php ta t cc cng cng thc mi bng mt dy p dng cc cng thc cho c gi l cc tin cc cng thc lut suy . Cc thc. Cc c suy ra din. Cc cng thc
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c suy ra c gi l cc nh l. Dy cc lut c p dng dn ti nh l c gi l mt chng minh ca nh l. Nu cc lut suy din l tin cy, th cc nh l l h qu logic ca cc tin . V d: Gi s ta c cc cng thc sau : Q S => P => Q (3) (4) (5) G v H (1) (2)
R => S P R
T cng thc (2) v (4), ta suy ra Q (Lut Modus Ponens) . Li p dng lut Modus Ponens, t (3) v (5) ta suy ra S . T Q, S ta suy ra Q (lut a vo hi ). T S (1) v Q ta suy ra G v H. Cng thc G v H c ch ng S minh.
Trong cc h tri thc, chng hn cc h chuyn gia, h lp trnh logic,..., s dng cc lut suy din ngi ta thit k ln cc th tc suy din (cn c gi l th tc chng minh) t cc tri thc trong c s tri thc ta suy ra cc tri thc mi p ng nhu cu ca ngi s dng. Mt h hnh thc (formal system) bao gm mt tp cc tin v mt tp cc lut suy din no (trong ngn ng biu din tri thc no ). Mt tp lut suy din c xem l y , nu mi h qu logic ca mt tp cc tin u chng minh c bng cch ch s dng cc lut ca tp . Phng php chng minh bc b
Phng php chng minh bc b (refutation proof hoc proof by contradiction) l mt phng php thng xuyn c s dng trong cc chng minh ton h c. T tng ca phng php ny l nh sau : chng minh P ng, ta gi s P sai ( thm P vo cc gi thit ) v dn ti mt mu thun. Sau y ta s trnh by c s ny. Gi s chng ta c mt tp hp cc cng thc G ={G1,.....,Gm} ta cn chng minh cng thc H l h qu
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logic ca G . iu tng ng vi chng minh cng thc G1^....^Gm -> H l vng chc. Thay cho chng minh G 1^..... ^Gm =>H l vng chc, ta chng minh G 1^....^Gm ^ H l khng tha mn c. Tc l ta chng minh tp G= ( G1,.......,Gm, H ) l khng tha c nu t Gta suy ra hai mnh i lp nhau. Vic chng minh cng th c H l h qu logic ca tp cc tiu G bng cch chng minh tnh khng tha c ca tp cc tiu c thm vo ph nh ca cng thc cn chng minh, c gi l chng minh bc b.
thun tin cho vic s dng lut gii, chng ta s c th ho lut gii trn cc dng cu c bit quan trng. *0 Lut gii trn cc cu tuyn A1 v. . ............. vAm v C
C v B1 v.. ............. v Bn
A1 v.. ......... v Am v B1 v.... v Bn trong *1 Ai, Bj v C l cc literal. Lut gii trn cc cu Horn: Khi ta c
Mt trng hp ring hay c s dng ca lut trn l : P1 ^...............^ Pm ^ S => Q, S P1 ^................^Pm => Q
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Khi ta c th p dng lut gii cho hai cu, th hai cu ny c gi l hai cu gii c v kt qu nhn c khi p dng lut gii cho hai cu c gi l gii thc ca chng. Gii thc ca hai cu A v B c k hiu l res(A,B). Chng hn, hai cu tuyn gii c nu mt cu cha mt literal i lp vi mt literal trong cu kia. Gii thc ca hai literal i lp nhau (P v P) l cu rng, chng ta s k hiu cu rng l [] , cu r ng khng tho c. Gi s G l mt tp cc cu tuyn ( Bng cch chun ho ta c th a mt tp cc cng thc v mt t p cc cu tuyn ). Ta s k hiu R(G ) l tp cu bao gm cc cu thuc G v tt c cc cu nhn c t G bng mt dy p dng lut gii. Lut gii l lut y chng minh mt tp cu l khng tha c. iu ny c suy t nh l sau :
nh l gii: Mt tp cu tuyn l khng tha c nu v ch nu cu rng [] R(G ). nh l gii c ngha rng, nu t cc cu thuc G , bng cch p dng lut gii ta dn ti cu rng th G l khng tha c, cn nu khng th sinh ra cu rng b ng lut gii th G tha c. Lu rng, vic dn ti cu rng c ngha l ta dn ti hai literal i lp nhau P v P ( tc l dn ti mu thun ). T nh l gii, ta a ra th tc sau y xc nh mt tp cu tuyn G l tha c hay khng . Th tc ny c gi l th tc gii.
Resolution tp
cc cu tuyn ;
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A v
B thuc G
gii c
[]
hoc
khng
cu
mi
xut
2. if
tho c ;
Chng ta c nhn xt rng, nu G l tp hu hn cc cu th cc literal c mt trong cc cu ca G l hu hn. Do s cc cu tuyn thnh lp c t cc literal l hu hn. V vy ch c mt s hu hn cu c sinh ra bng lut gii. Th tc gii s dng li sau mt s hu hn bc. Ch s dng lut gii ta khng th suy ra mi cng thc l h qu logic ca mt tp cng thc cho. Tuy nhin, s dng lut gii ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc bt k c l h qu ca mt tp cng th c cho hay khng bng phng php chng minh bc b. V vy lut gii c xem l lut y cho bc b. Sau y l th tc chng minh bc b bng lut gii
Procedure input :
cn chng minh H;
1. Thm H vo G ;
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v dng chun hi ;
3. T cc dng chun hi bc hai, thnh lp tp cc cu tuyn g ; 4. 5. logic else end; thng bo H khng l h qu logic ca G ; p dng th tc gii cho tp cu G ; if
d: Gi gi G
l tp hp cc cu tuyn sau P (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) cu sau: (7) v (7) ta c cu: (8)
A v B
C v D v E v C
A E D
C v D
T cu (6)
T cu (3) v (9)
Ti y xut hin mu thun, v cu (5) v (10) i lp nhau. T cu (5) v (10) ta nhn c cu rng []. Vy P l h qu logic ca cc cu (1) --(6).
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CHNG VI : LOGIC V T CP MT
Logic mnh cho php ta biu din cc s kin, m i k hiu trong logic mnh c minh ha nh l mt s kin trong th gii hin thc, s dng cc k t ni logic ta c th to ra cc cu phc hp biu din cc s kin mang ngha phc tp hn. Nh vy kh nng biu din ca logic mnh ch gii hn trong phm vi th gii cc s kin. Th gii hin thc bao gm cc i tng, mi i tng c nhng tnh cht ring phn bit n vi cc i tng khc. Cc i tng li c quan h vi nhau. Cc mi quan h rt a dng v phong ph. Chng ta c th lit k ra rt nhiu v d v i tng, tnh ch t, quan h. *2 i tng : mt ci bn, mt ci nh, mt ci cy, mt con ngi, mt con s. ... *3 Tnh cht : Ci bn c th c tnh cht : c bn chn, lm bng g, khng c ngn ko. Con s c th c tnh cht l s nguyn, s hu t, l s chnh phng. .. *4 Quan h : cha con, anh em, b bn (gia con ngi ); ln hn nh hn, bng nhau (gia cc con s ) ; bn trong, bn ngoi nm trn nm di (gia cc vt )... *5 Hm : Mt trng hp ring ca quan h l quan h hm. Chng hn, v mi ngi c mt m, do ta c quan h hm ng mi ngi vi m ca n. Logic v t cp mt l m rng ca logic mnh . N cho php ta m t th gii vi cc i tng, cc thuc tnh ca i tng v cc mi quan h gia cc i tng. N s dng cc bin ( bin i tng ) ch mt i tng trong mt min i tng no . m t cc thuc tnh
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ca i tng, cc quan h gia cc i tng, trong logic v t, ngi ta da vo cc v t ( predicate). Ngoi cc kt ni logic nh trong logic mnh , logic v t cp m t cn s dng cc lng t. Chng hn, lng t (vi mi) cho php ta to ra cc cu ni ti mi i tng trong mt min i tng no . Chng ny dnh cho nghin cu logic v t cp mt v i t cch l mt ngn ng biu din tri thc. Logic v t cp mt ng vai tr cc k quan trng trong biu din tri thc, v kh nng biu din ca n ( n cho php ta biu din tri thc v th gii vi cc i tng, cc thuc tnh ca i tng v cc quan h ca i tng), v hn na, n l c s cho nhiu ngn ng logic khc.
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6.1.1 C php.
Cc k hiu kt ni logic: ( hi), (tuyn), ( ph nh), (ko theo), (ko theo nhau). Cc k hiu lng t: ( vi mi), ( tn ti).
Cc k hiu ngn cch: du phy, du m ngoc v du ng ngoc. Cc hng thc Cc hng thc ( term) l cc biu th c m t cc i tng. Cc hng thc c xc nh quy nh sau.
Cc k hiu hng v cc k hiu bin l hng thc. Nu t1, t2, t3, ..., tn l n hng thc v f l mt k hiu hm n bin th f( t1, t2, ..., tn) l hng thc. Mt hng thc khng cha bin c gi l mt hng thc c th ( ground term).
Chng hn, An l k hiu hng, mother l k hiu hm mt bin, th mother (An) l mt hng thc c th. 1.21Cc cng thc phn t Chng ta s biu din cc tnh cht ca i tng, hoc cc quan h ca i tng bi cc cng thc phn t ( cu n).
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Cc cng thc phn t ( cu n) c xc nh quy nh sau. Cc cu Nu th k hiu v t khng bin ( cc k hiu mnh ) l n. t1, t2,...,tn l n hng thc v p l v t ca n bin p( t1,t2,...,tn) l cu n.
Chng hn, Hoa l mt k hiu h ng, Love l m t v t ca hai bin, husband l hm ca mt bin, th Love ( Hoa, husband( Hoa)) l mt cu n. 1.21.1 Cc cng thc
T cng thc phn t, s dng cc kt ni logic v cc lng t, ta xy dng nn cc cng thc (cc cu). Cc cng thc c xc nh quy nh sau: Cc cng thc phn t l cng thc. Nu G v H l cc cng thc, th cc biu th c (G H), (G H), ( G), (G H), (GH) l cng thc. Nu G l mt cng thc v x l bin th cc biu th c ( x G), ( x G) l cng thc. s c bin s thc ta cc du
Cc cng thc khng phi l cng thc phn t gi l cc cu phc hp. Cc cng thc khng cha c gi l cng thc c th. Khi vit cc cng s b i cc du ngoc khng cn thit, chng hn ngoc ngoi cng.
Lng t ph dng () cho php m t tnh cht ca c mt lp cc i tng, ch khng phi ca mt i tng, m khng cn phi lit k ra tt c cc i tng trong lp. Chng hn s dng v t Elephant(x) (i tng x l con voi ) v v t Color(x, Gray) (i tng x c mu xm) th cu tt c cc con voi u c mu xm c th biu din bi cng thc x (Elephant(x) Color(x, Gray)). Lng t tn ti ( ) cho php ta to ra cc cu ni n mt i tng no trong mt l p i tng m n c mt tnh cht hoc tho mn mt quan h no . Ch ng hn bng cch s dng cc cu n Student(x) (x l sinh vin) v Inside(x, P301), (x trong phng 301), ta c th biu din cu C mt sinh vin phng 301 bi biu thc x (Student(x) Inside(x,P301).
Mt cng thc l cng thc phn t hoc ph nh c a cng thc phn t c gi l literal. Chng hn, Play(x,
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Football), Like( Lan, Rose) l cc literal. Mt cng thc l tuyn ca cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn. Chng hn, Male(x) Like(x, Foodball) l cu tuyn. Trong cng thc ( x G), hoc x G trong G l mt cng thc no , th mi xut hin ca bin x trong cng thc G c gi l xut hin buc. Mt cng thc m tt c cc bin u l xut hin buc th c gi l cng thc ng. V d: Cng thc xP( x, f(a, x)) y Q(y) l cng thc ng, cn cng thc x P( x, f(y, x)) khng phi l cng thc ng, v s xut hin ca bin y trong cng thc ny khng chu rng buc bi mt lng t no c (S xu t hin ca y gi l s xut hin t do). Sau ny chng ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc ng.
6.1.2 Ng ngha.
Cng nh trong logic mnh , ni n ng ngha l chng ta ni n ngha ca cc cng thc trong m t th gii hin thc no m chng ta s gi l mt minh ha. xc nh mt minh ho, trc ht ta cn xc nh mt min i tng ( n bao gm tt c cc i tng trong th gii hin thc m ta quan tm). Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu hng s c gn vi cc i tng c th trong min i tng cc k hiu hm s c gn vi mt hm c th no . Khi , m i h ng thc c th s ch nh mt i tng c th trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu An l mt k hiu hng, Father l mt k hiu hm, nu trong minh ho An ng vi mt ngi c th no , cn Father(x) gn vi hm; ng vi mi x l cha ca n, th hng thc Father(An) s ch ngi cha c a An . Ng ngha ca cc cu n . Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu v t s c gn v i mt thuc tnh, hoc mt quan h c th no . Khi mi cng thc phn t (khng cha bin) s ch nh mt s kin c th. ng nhin s kin ny c th l ng (True) hoc sai (False). Chng hn, nu trong minh ho , k hiu hng Lan ng vi mt c gi c th no , cn Student(x)
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ng vi thuc tnh x l sinh vin th cu Student (Lan) c gi tr chn l l True hoc False tu thuc trong th c t Lan c phi l sinh vin hay khng. Ng ngha ca cc cu phc hp. Khi xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu n, ta c th thc hin c ng ngha ca cc cu phc hp (c to thnh t cc cu n bng cch lin kt cc cu n bi cc kt ni logic) nh trong logic mnh . V d: Cu Student(Lan) Student(An) nhn gi tr True nu c hai cu Student(Lan) v Student(An) u c gi tr True, tc l c Lan v An u l sinh vin. Cu Like(Lan, Rose) Like(An, Tulip) l ng nu cu Like(Lan, Rose) l ng hoc cu Like(An, Tulip) l ng. Ng ngha ca cc cu cha cc lng t. Ng ngha ca cc cu x G, trong G l mt cng thc no , c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca cng th c l hi ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong min i t ng. Chng hn, nu min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An, Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Student(x) c xc nh l ng ngha ca cu Student(Lan) Student(An) Student(Hoa). Cu ny ng khi v ch khi c ba cu thnh ph n u ng, tc l c Lan, An, Hoa u l sinh vin. Nh vy, cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mi cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong min i tng u ng, tc l G ng cho tt c cc i tng x trong min i tng. Ng ngha ca cng thc x G c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca cng thc l tuyn ca tt c cc cng th c nh n c t G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu ng ngha ca cu Younger(x,20) l x tr hn 30 tui v min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An, Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Yourger(x,20) l ng ngha ca cu Yourger(Lan,20) Yourger(An,20) Yourger(Hoa,20). Cu ny nhn gi tr True nu v ch nu t nht mt trong ba ngi Lan, An, Hoa tr hn 20.
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Nh vy cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mt trong cc cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x bng mt i tng trong min i tng l ng. Bng cc phng php trnh by trn, ta c th xc nh c gi tr chn l ( True, False ) ca mt cng thc bt k trong mt minh ho. (Lu rng, ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc ng ). Sau khi xc nh khi nim minh ho v gi tr chn l ca mt cng thc trong mt minh ho, c th a ra cc khi nim cng thc vng chc ( tho c, khng tho c ), m hnh ca cng thc ging nh trong logic mnh . Cc cng thc tng ng Cng nh trong logic mnh , ta ni hai cng thc G v H tng ng ( vit l G H ) nu chng cng ng hoc cng sai trong mt minh ho. Ngoi cc tng ng bit trong logic mnh , trong logic v t cp mt cn c cc tng ng khc lin quan ti cc lng t. Gi s G l mt cng thc, cch vit G(x) ni rng cng thc G c cha cc xut hin ca bin x. Khi cng thc G(y) l cng thc nhn c t G(x) bng cch thay tt c cc xut hin ca x bi y. Ta ni G(y) l cng thc nh n c t G(x) bngcch t tn li ( bin x c i tn li l y ). Chng ta c cc tng ng sau y:
2. (x G(x)) x (
G(x))
( x G(x)) x ( G(x))
x G(x) x H(x)
Husband(x))
Love(x,
Love(y,
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