BuildingLEGORobots For FIRSTLEGOLeague

Version:1.0 Sept.23,2002

By DeanHystad

www.hightechkids.org

AbouttheAuthorandThisDocument
DeanHystadisafirstclassLEGOfanatic.DeanisanengineerforMTSSystemslocated inEdenPrairie,Minnesota.MTSSystemsCorporationisoneoftheworldsleading suppliersofmechanicaltestingandsimulationequipment,makingeverythingfrom earthquakesimulatorstoamusementparkrides.AtMTS,Deanwritescontrolsoftware forarangeoflargeroboticsystems.Asyoucanseeinthisbook,Deanbringsthat expertisetohispassionforLEGO.DeanhasjudgedatFLLeventsforseveralyearsand iscurrentlyworkingasacontributingauthoronasoon-to-bepublishedbookonLEGO Mindstorms.Deancanbereachedatdean.hystad@mts.com. Thisbookisasignificantpieceofwork,andfranklyisaweinspiringtome.Itisan excellentmixoftheoryandpractice.Someofthetextmaybebeyondmiddleschool youth,buttheaccompanyinglabsandpresentationmaterialshouldhelpcoaches understandtheconceptsandpresentkeyideastotheirteams.Thebookcanalsoprovidea usefultextforthoseofyouwantingtoincorporateFLLintohighschoolclasses.Ihope youfindituseful. ThisbookfitswellwithINSciTE'smissiontoadvanceinnovativeprogramsthatprovide anenvironmentwherekids,educators,andthetechnicalcommunitycometogetherto cultivatelifelonglearninginscience,mathandtechnology. FredRose Fredrose@hightechkids.org INSciTEPresident September20,2002

CopyrightandTrademarkNotice
2002INSciTEinagreementwith,andpermissionfromFIRSTandtheLEGOGroup.Thisdocumentis developedbyINSciTEandisnotanofficialFLLdocumentfromFIRSTandtheLEGOGroup.This documentmaybefreelycopiedanddistributed,electronicallyorotherwise,initsentiretyonly,andonlyif usedinconjunctionwithFIRSTLEGOLeague.Anyuse,reproduction,orduplicationofthismanual forpurposesotherthandirectlyrelatedto FIRSTLEGOLeagueisstrictlyprohibitedwithoutspecificwrittenpermissionfromINSciTE. LEGO,ROBOLAB,andMINDSTORMSaretrademarksoftheLEGOGroupusedherewith specialpermission.FIRSTLEGOLeagueisatrademarkownedbyFIRST(For InspirationandRecognitionofScienceandTechnology)andtheLEGOGroup usedherewithspecialpermission.INSciTEisatrademarkofInnovationsinScienceandTechnology Education. INSciTE POBox41221 Plymouth,MN55441 www.hightechkids.org

TableofContents
1 Structures ................................................................................................................1-1 1.1 Bricks,Plates,andBeams ...............................................................................1-1 1.1.1 Bricks ......................................................................................................1-1 1.1.2 Plates.......................................................................................................1-2 1.1.3 Beams .....................................................................................................1-3 1.1.4 AxlesandPins.........................................................................................1-3 1.1.5 LEGOVocabulary ..................................................................................1-4 1.2 BuildingaFrame ............................................................................................1-5 1.2.1 LEGOGeometry.....................................................................................1-7 1.3 SNOT..............................................................................................................1-9 2 Gears.....................................................................................................................2-12 2.1 SpurGears ....................................................................................................2-12 2.1.1 GearSpacing.........................................................................................2-12 2.1.2 GearRatio .............................................................................................2-16 2.1.3 Torque...................................................................................................2-18 2.1.4 Speed.....................................................................................................2-20 2.1.5 GearTrains............................................................................................2-21 2.1.6 ClutchGear ...........................................................................................2-23 2.2 CrownGear...................................................................................................2-24 2.3 BevelGear ....................................................................................................2-24 2.4 WormGear ...................................................................................................2-25 2.4.1 DirectionalTransmission ......................................................................2-27 2.5 Differential....................................................................................................2-27 2.5.1 RatchetSplitter......................................................................................2-29 2.6 GearRack .....................................................................................................2-30 2.7 Pulleys...........................................................................................................2-31 2.7.1 Torque...................................................................................................2-32 2.8 Reinforcinggeartrains..................................................................................2-33 2.9 Backlash........................................................................................................2-34 3 Wheels ..................................................................................................................3-37 3.1 Sizes..............................................................................................................3-37 3.1.1 Speed.....................................................................................................3-37 3.1.2 Force .....................................................................................................3-39 3.2 Treads ...........................................................................................................3-41 3.3 Balance .........................................................................................................3-42 3.3.1 FindingtheCenterOfGravity...............................................................3-42 3.3.2 Inertia ....................................................................................................3-43 3.4 WheelLoadingandFriction..........................................................................3-46 4 LegoElectronics ...................................................................................................4-48 4.1 RCXBrick ....................................................................................................4-48 4.1.1 Firmware...............................................................................................4-48 4.1.2 Programming ........................................................................................4-49 4.2 Motors...........................................................................................................4-51

4.2.1 Modes....................................................................................................4-52 4.2.2 Attaching...............................................................................................4-53 4.3 TouchSensor ................................................................................................4-54 4.3.1 Bumpers................................................................................................4-55 4.3.2 LimitandPositionSwitches..................................................................4-57 4.3.3 Rotationsensor......................................................................................4-57 4.4 LightSensor..................................................................................................4-58 4.4.1 Experiment#1,Color ............................................................................4-59 4.4.2 Experiment#2,AmbientLight..............................................................4-64 4.5 RotationSensor.............................................................................................4-66 4.5.1 Resolution .............................................................................................4-66 4.5.2 Internals ................................................................................................4-67 4.5.3 CountingErrors.....................................................................................4-68 4.6 SensorStacking.............................................................................................4-69 5 RobotDrives .........................................................................................................5-70 5.1 DifferentialDrive..........................................................................................5-70 5.1.1 Casters...................................................................................................5-71 5.1.2 WheelConfiguration.............................................................................5-73 5.1.3 Steering .................................................................................................5-74 5.1.4 SteeringMadeEasier ............................................................................5-76 5.1.5 StraightLineTravel ..............................................................................5-76 5.1.6 DifferentialSkid....................................................................................5-78 5.2 Steeringdrive................................................................................................5-79 5.2.1 Turning..................................................................................................5-80 5.2.2 TricycleDrive .......................................................................................5-82

Figures
Figure1-1.BasicLEGOBrick ......................................................................................1-1 Figure1-2.BrickDimensions........................................................................................1-1 Figure1-3.ThreePlates=OneBrickhigh ....................................................................1-2 Figure1-4.SimpleGearboxUsingTechnicPlates ........................................................1-2 Figure1-5.TechnicBeams ............................................................................................1-3 Figure1-6.PinsandAxles.............................................................................................1-3 Figure1-7.StudsontheSideofaBeam? ......................................................................1-4 Figure1-8.ATypicalDrivenWheelAssembly.............................................................1-4 Figure1-9.A16LTechnicPin ......................................................................................1-4 Figure1-10.CommonTechnicPieces ...........................................................................1-5 Figure1-11.SimpleFrame ............................................................................................1-5 Figure1-12.ImprovedFrame ........................................................................................1-6 Figure1-13.CrossBracedFrame ..................................................................................1-6 Figure1-14.SnapOnConnectionsareWeakinTension ..............................................1-7 Figure1-15.CrossBracing ............................................................................................1-7 Figure1-16.TwoCrossBracingChoices ......................................................................1-8 Figure1-17.ATallFrame .............................................................................................1-8 Figure1-18.DiagonalCrossBracing.............................................................................1-9 Figure1-19.OneofJenniferClark'sIncredibleCreations.YesitsLEGO. ...............1-10 Figure1-20.Turning90degrees.StudsOut ...............................................................1-10 Figure1-21.Turning90degrees.StudsIn..................................................................1-11 Figure1-22.UpsideDown...........................................................................................1-11 Figure1-23.ExtendingBeamsUsingPinsandPlates .................................................1-11 Figure2-1LegoSpurGears.........................................................................................2-12 Figure2-2.StudGearSpacing.....................................................................................2-13 Figure2-3.HalfStudSpacingUsing2Holed1x2Beam ..........................................2-14 Figure2-4.VerticalGearSpacing ...............................................................................2-14 Figure2-5.CircumventingVerticalGearSpacingRestrictions...................................2-15 Figure2-6.DiagonalGearSpacing..............................................................................2-15 Figure2-7.CircumventingDiagonalGearSpacingRestrictions ..................................2-16 Figure2-8.3:1GearRatio ...........................................................................................2-17 Figure2-9.Torque=ForcexDistance ........................................................................2-18 Figure2-10.TheRatiooftheTorquesisEqualtotheRatiooftheRadii ....................2-19 Figure2-11.RatioofAngularVelocitiesisEqualtoInverseRatiooftheRadii .........2-20 Figure2-12.Multi-stageGearTrain ............................................................................2-21 Figure2-13.IdlerGear ................................................................................................2-23 Figure2-14.UsingClutchGeartoLimitForces..........................................................2-23 Figure2-15.CrownGear .............................................................................................2-24 Figure2-16.BevelGear...............................................................................................2-24 Figure2-17.ASmallWheelBuiltfromTwo12tBevelGears ....................................2-25 Figure2-18.WormGear..............................................................................................2-25 Figure2-19.UsingtheWormGear'sSelfLockingFeature.........................................2-26 Figure2-20.LEGOLeadScrew ..................................................................................2-26 Figure2-21.DirectionalTransmission.........................................................................2-27 Figure2-22.LEGODifferential...................................................................................2-27

Figure2-23.DuringTurnstheWheelsCoverDifferentDistances ..............................2-28 Figure2-24.UsingDifferentialtoCalculateAverageRotation...................................2-29 Figure2-25.UsingaDifferentialtoCalculateDifferenceinRotation ........................2-29 Figure2-26.RatchetSplitter.........................................................................................2-30 Figure2-27.LEGOGearRackandPinion ..................................................................2-30 Figure2-28.PulleysandBelts .....................................................................................2-31 Figure2-29.LegoPulleys............................................................................................2-31 Figure2-30.TwowaystoIncreaseTorqueCapacity...................................................2-32 Figure2-31.UsingPulleystoLimitTorque ................................................................2-33 Figure2-32.Forcesongears........................................................................................2-33 Figure2-33.GearboxesDontHavetobeBigtobeStrong ........................................2-34 Figure2-34.Backlashiscausedbypoorgearmeshing ...............................................2-34 Figure2-35.Preloadingageartrainwitharubberband..............................................2-35 Figure2-36.SplitgearmadefromLEGO....................................................................2-36 Figure3-1.LegoWheelsandTires..............................................................................3-37 Figure3-2.AVeryFastTractor...................................................................................3-39 Figure3-3.Force=Torque/Radius............................................................................3-40 Figure3-4.TrackedRobot...........................................................................................3-41 Figure3-5.MarioFerrari'sJohnny5............................................................................3-41 Figure3-6.Wheelbase .................................................................................................3-42 Figure3-7.FindingCGUsingBalanceMethod ..........................................................3-43 Figure3-8.ModifiedBalanceMethod.........................................................................3-43 Figure3-9.AnInclineMovestheEffectiveCG ..........................................................3-44 Figure3-10.TurningGeneratesForcesandMoments.................................................3-45 Figure3-11.FIRSTTeam254'sRobot"CheesyPoofs"DoesaVictoryWheelie .......3-45 Figure3-12.CantileveredandFullySupportedWheels ..............................................3-46 Figure3-13.WheelLoading ........................................................................................3-46 Figure4-1.TheRCXProgrammableBrick .................................................................4-48 Figure4-2.RCXCodeScreenshot...............................................................................4-50 Figure4-3.ROBOLABScreenshot ..............................................................................4-50 Figure4-4.9VoltGearedMotor .................................................................................4-51 Figure4-5.PWMDutyCycles ....................................................................................4-52 Figure4-6.UsingaPulleytoIncreaseDrag ................................................................4-53 Figure4-7.UsingColorCodingtoDocumentProperConnectorOrientation .............4-53 Figure4-8.StrengtheningMotorMountswithCrossBracing .....................................4-53 Figure4-9.MotorMountUsingRails..........................................................................4-54 Figure4-10.WiringtheTouchSensor.........................................................................4-55 Figure4-11.ASimpleBumper....................................................................................4-55 Figure4-12.ABumperthatUsestheRotationSensor ................................................4-55 Figure4-13.ANormallyClosedBumperDesign........................................................4-56 Figure4-14.ImprovedNormallyOpenBumper..........................................................4-56 Figure4-15.PositionandLimitSwitches ....................................................................4-57 Figure4-16.ATouchRotationSensor ........................................................................4-58 Figure4-17.TheLightSensor .....................................................................................4-58 Figure4-18.LightSensorColorExperiment...............................................................4-60 Figure4-19.VisibleLightSpectrum ...........................................................................4-61

Figure4-20.TheLightSensorSeesDifferentlythanOurEyes....................................4-61 Figure4-21.LightColors ............................................................................................4-62 Figure4-22.ColorExperimentSensorReadings.........................................................4-63 Figure4-23.AmbientLightExperiment......................................................................4-64 Figure4-24.LightSensorReadingsforGrayLEGOBrick.........................................4-65 Figure4-25.RotationSensor .......................................................................................4-66 Figure4-26.UsingGearReductiontoIncreaseResolution.........................................4-67 Figure4-27.RotationSensorInternals.DON'TDOTHIS!!! .....................................4-67 Figure4-28.HomemadeRotationSensorMadeFromLEGOParts .............................4-68 Figure4-29.AHomingSwitchtoResettheRotationSensor......................................4-68 Figure5-1.ADifferentialDriveRobot........................................................................5-71 Figure5-2.SwivelCasters ...........................................................................................5-71 Figure5-3.SwivelCastersareSelfAligning...............................................................5-72 Figure5-4.CastersGenerateSteeringForcesWhileAligning ....................................5-72 Figure5-5.DiamondShapedWheelLayout................................................................5-73 Figure5-6.TriangleShapedWheelLayout .................................................................5-74 Figure5-7.TurningRadiusisDeterminedWheelbaseandRelativeSpeed.................5-74 Figure5-8.PivotingAboutaWheel ............................................................................5-76 Figure5-9.SimpleLEGOSlipLimiter........................................................................5-77 Figure5-10.ALockingDifferential ............................................................................5-78 Figure5-11.APairofDifferentialSkidRobots ..........................................................5-79 Figure5-12.Twosteeredwheelrobots........................................................................5-80 Figure5-13.PathPlanningisHarderforNon-HolonomicRobots ..............................5-80 Figure5-14.AckermanSteeringMinimizesGeometryInducedWheelSkid ..............5-81 Figure5-15.TurningRadiusisDeterminedbyWheelBaseandSteeringAngle ........5-81 Figure5-16.TricycleDrive(Left)andSteeringDrive(Right)RobotsLookSimilar ..5-82 Figure5-17.AnySteerAngleisPossiblewithaTricycleDrive .................................5-83

Tables
Table1-1.CalculatingDiagonalLengths ......................................................................1-9 Table2-1.SpurGearSizes ..........................................................................................2-13 Table2-2.DiagonalGearSpacing ...............................................................................2-16 Table2-3.GearRatiosforLEGOSpurGears .............................................................2-18 Table2-4.Measuredpulleydiameters .........................................................................2-31 Table2-5.PulleyRatios................................................................................................2-32 Table4-1.LightSensorReadingsforPeanutM&Ms ..................................................4-59 Table4-2.LightSensorReadingsforColorExperiment.............................................4-60 Table4-3.SensorReadingsforAmbientLightExperiment ........................................4-65 Table4-4.SensorReadingsforTwoStackedSensors.................................................4-69

1 Structures
1.1 Bricks,Plates,andBeams
Bricks,plates,andbeamsarenotasglamorousastheRCXbrick,motors,andsensors. Buttheyarethefundamentalcomponentsthatareusedtobuildtheframethatsupports theRCX,counteractsthemotorsforces,andholdsthesensorspreciselyinplace.Master someLEGObuildingfundamentalsfirst,andyourteamwillhavesuccess.Ignorethem, andyoullspendmoretimerepairingyourrobotthanyoudidbuildingit.

1.1.1 Bricks
ThisisaLEGObuildingbrick.Littlehaschangedsinceitsintroductionin1949. AccordingtoLEGO,theyhaveproduced320billionbricks1sincethattime.Thats approximately52bricksperpersonlivingtoday.

Figure1-1.BasicLEGOBrick

LEGObricksaremadeoutofABSplastic.Theyareinjectionmoldedtoveryexacting tolerances(0.002mm)2.Thetopofthebrickiscoveredwithcylindricalplasticbumps calledstuds.Thebottomofthebrickhascylindricalholesortubes.Whenyousnaptwo brickstogether,thetubesdeformslightlyaroundthestuds,lockingthetwofirmly together.

1.1.1.1Dimensions
Thecommonpracticeistorefertobricksusingtheirdimensions:width,length,and height(thoughheightisoftenleftoffwhenreferringtostandardsizedbricks).When doingthis,thewidthandlengthdimensionsaregiveninstuds.Thepiecebelowisa2x4 brick.
1

4
Figure1-2.BrickDimensions

LEGObricksarebasedonthemetricsystem.The2x4brickaboveis16mmwide,32 mmlong,and9.6mmhigh(ignoringthestudsontop).Thatworksoutto1stud=8mm.
1 2

Fromwww.lego.com/eng/info/history From JinSatosLegoMindstormsTheMastersTechnique

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Italsomeansthatbricksare1.2studshigh.Thisasymmetrycanleadtodesignand buildingdifficultiesaswillbediscussedlater.

Question: What is the smallest sized cube that can be made out of
LEGO bricks?

1.1.2 Plates
Platesareessentiallyshortbricks.Theyare1/3theheightofstandardbricks--3.2mmor 0.4studs.Platesusethesamenamingconventionasbricks.

Figure1-3.ThreePlates=OneBrickhigh

Someplateshavethroughholesalignedwiththebacksidetubes.Theyarereferredtoas Technicplates,orlessobscurely,plateswithholes.Theholesacceptaxlesandconnector pinsandmaketheTechnicplatesmuchmoreuseful.

Figure1-4.SimpleGearboxUsingTechnicPlates

Construction Note: Use normal plates when you dont need the through holes. Save the Technic plates for where they are needed.

Question: What is the smallest sized cube that can be made out of
bricks and plates?

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1.1.3 Beams
In1977,LEGOintroducedTechnic3,aseriesofcomplexmodelsforolderchildrento build.CentraltoTechnicarethenewbeamswhichare1xbrickswithholesintheir sides.Theholesarespacedatone-studintervalsandcenteredbetweenthestudsonthe topofthebeam.Thebeamscanbestackedontopofeachotherjustlikebricks.In addition,connectorpinscanbeplacedinthesideholesallowingthebeamstobe assembledsidebyside.Thenumberofassemblytechniquesavailableusingthenew partsisstaggering.

Figure1-5.TechnicBeams

1.1.4 AxlesandPins
TheRISkitcomessuppliedwithawidevarietyofpinsandaxlesforconnectingTechnic beamstogether.ThemostcommonlyusedoftheseistheblackTechnicpinwithfriction, orfrictionpin.Thefrictionpinhassmall,raisedridgesthatmakeitlocktightlyinthe holesofaTechnicbeamprovidingaverystrongconnection.Alongversionofthe frictionpincanbeusedtopinthreebeamstogether.Thedoublepinworkswellwiththe goofytransparentblueconnectorblockthatcomesinthenewerRISsetsandhasanaxle holethatcansometimesbeuseful. A B C
A. B. C. D. E. F.

D E F
PinwithFriction 3LDoublePin LongPinwithFriction TechnicPin HalfPin Pin

G H I
G. H. I. J. K. L.

J K L
AxlePin 6LAxle 3LPinwithStud FullBushing HalfBushing LongPinwithStopBushing

Figure1-6.PinsandAxles

SlightlylesscommonisthegrayTechnicpin.Similarinappearancetothefrictionpin,it lackstheridgesandhasaslightlyloosefit.TheTechnicpinisagoodchoiceforpivots orhinges.TheshortpostoftheTechnicpinfitsnicelyinthehalfdeepholesinthe sideoftheRCX,anditisoftenusedtoattachbeamstothesideoftheprogrammable

3

Fromwww.lego.com/eng/info/history

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brick.TheshortpostoftheTechnicpinisactuallythesamesizeasaLEGOstudand canbeusedtomimicstudscomingoutofthesideofabeam.

Figure1-7.StudsontheSideofaBeam?

Axlesarelongrodsthathavea + shapedcrosssection.Theyslideeasilythroughthe holesinTechnicbeams,buttheyfittightlyinthecross-holesfoundinwheels,gears, bushings,andotherTechnicelements.Axlesareavailableinevenstudlengthsstartingat 2andgoingupto12.Therearealso3and5studlongaxles.Itiscommontouse shorthandwhenreferringtoaxles,describingtheaxleusingitslengthfollowedby L . Thusafourstudlongaxleisa4Laxle.

Figure1-8.ATypicalDrivenWheelAssembly

Thereareafewoddballpartsthatdontreallyfitintheaxleorpincategory.Thefirstis theaptlynamedaxlepinwhichishalfTechnicpinandhalfaxle.Itismostcommonly usedtoattachgearstothesidesofbeams.Anotheristhe3Laxlewithstud,whichisa threestudlongTechnicaxlewithastudononeend.Trystickingthestudintheholeofa Technicbeam.Theconnectionissurprisinglystrong.ThelongTechnicpinwithstop bushingismyfavoritepart.IuseitwheneverIneedaremovablepinconnectionbecause thebushingontheendiseasytograsp.Thecross-holeinthestopbushingacceptsan axleandcanbeusedtomakesomeinterestingparts.

Figure1-9.A16LTechnicPin

1.1.5 LEGOVocabulary
TheRISkitisfilledwithallkindsofinterestingplasticpartsthatdontlookmuchlike anythingwithwhichyouareusedtobuilding.Lookhardandyoullnotfindonescrew,

1-4

nut,bolt,ornail.Instead,youhavetheblueholey-thingandthelittlegray whatchamabobwiththeaxleinit. Toaidincommunicationandfacilitatetheexchangeofideas,theLEGOcommunityhas comeupwithnamesforeachthingamajiganddoohickey.Mostofthenameswere providedbyLEGO--extractedfrommarketingorpackagingliterature.Butmanypart monikersoriginatedintheusercommunity.Figure1-10liststhenamesofsomeofthe TechnicpartsincludedintheRISkit. A B

A. B. C. D. E.

C D

E F
F. G. H. I.

G H

AxleJointerPerpendicular AngleConnector#1 ConnectorwithAxlehole PoleReverserHandle ConnectorBlock3x2x2

Beam1x2withAxlehole AxleJoiner Liftarm1x3 Liftarm1x6

Figure1-10.CommonTechnicPieces

Links: Jim Hughes maintains Technica, a beautiful website that has a

complete Technic parts registry with pictures and an interesting history of LEGO. His URL is w3.one.net/~hughesj/technica/technica.html.

1.2 BuildingaFrame
Arobotneedssomesortofframe.Theframegivestherobotitsshape.Itprovides mountingpointsforsensorsandreactstheforcesgeneratedbymotorsandgears.Itis likeourskeleton,whichgivesusourshape,supportsourorgans,andreactstheforces generatedbyourmuscles.Agoodframeisstrong,lightweight,andholdstogethereven aftermuchuse.

Figure1-11.SimpleFrame

Figure1-11showsasimpleframemadeoutofbeamsand1x8plates.Itsstrong, lightweight,andthedimensionsareappropriateforthebaseofarobotplatform.Butitis

1-5

notveryrigid.Agentlepushonopposingcornerscausestheframetotwistoutofshape. Eventuallythecornerconnectionsworkloose,andtheframefallsapart. Theproblemisthattheplatesdonotlockthecornersatrightangles.Thereisasmall amountofclearancebetweentheendsofthe1x6beamsandthesidesofthe1x12 beams.Thisallowsthestudstoactashinges.Replacingoneormoreofthe1x8plates with2x8platesmakestheframemuchmorerigid.

Figure1-12.ImprovedFrame

Theimprovedframeismuchstiffer.Pushingonthecornerscausesittoflexhardlyatall. The2x8platefirmlylockstheshortandlongbeamstogetheratrightangles.Thisframe isadequateformanyapplications,butitcanbemadeevenstronger.

Figure1-13.CrossBracedFrame

TheframeinFigure1-13usescrossbracingtoholdittogether.The1x3liftarms preventtheframefrombeingpulledapart.Crossbracingisausefultechniquefor buildingverystrongLEGOstructures.TheconnectionsbetweenLEGObricksarevery strongincompression(aforcepushingthebrickstogether),andinshear(asideways forcetryingtoslidethebricksacrosseachother),buttheyarerelativelyweakintension (aforcepullingthebricksapart).Whencrossbracing,wereinforceaconnectionwhich isweakintensionbyaddingcomponentsthatwillbeinshear.Inthiscase,the1x3lift armsandaxlepinsareinshearwhentryingtopullthebeamsapart.

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Compression

Shear

Tension

Figure1-14.SnapOnConnectionsareWeakinTension

1.2.1 LEGOGeometry
A1x6Technicbeamis1studwide,6studslong,and1.2studshigh.Bricksandbeams notbeinganintegernumberofstudshighcausesproblemswhentryingtodocross bracing.ThiscanbeseenintheleftassemblyinFigure1-15.Thesecondholeinthe verticalbeamdoesnotlineupwiththeholeinthehorizontalbeam.

Figure1-15.CrossBracing

Intheassemblyontheright,thethirdholeintheverticalbeamalignsperfectlywiththe holeinthehorizontalbeam.Thisisbecausethebeamandthetwoplatesaddupto exactlytwostudstall(1.2+2*0.4=2).Youwillfindthatcrossbracingonlyworksout whentheverticalholespacingisdivisiblebytwo.

Question: What is the shortest stack of beams (no plates allowed)

that will align with holes in a vertical beam? Construction Note: The two assemblies below are the same height, but the one on the right allows for locking the beam at an intermediate point and has better spacing for vertical meshing of LEGO gears.

1-7

Figure1-16.TwoCrossBracingChoices

Thissametechniquecanbeusedtobuildtallframesthatarelightweightandstrong. Figure1-17showsatallframethatusesfrictionpinsatthecornerstoattachthevertical andhorizontalmembers.Noticethatthe1-2-1(1Beam-2Plates-1Beam)techniqueis usedtogettheproperspacing.

Figure1-17.ATallFrame

1.2.1.1DiagonalBracing
Itsveryeasytogetlockedintothemindsetthathorizontalandverticalaretheonlyways tobuild.Thegrid-likenatureoftheLEGOpiecesreinforcesthisthinking.Butdiagonal connectionsarepossibleaswell. Diagonalbracingistrickiertoimplementthanperpendicularcrossbracing.Cross bracingcanbeusedonanyassemblywherethedimensionisevenlydivisiblebytwo studs,butitcantbeusedanywhereelse.Withdiagonalbracingtherearemoresolutions, buttheirderivationsarenotasobvious.

1-8

4.8

1.5
Figure1-18.DiagonalCrossBracing

Youcanfinddiagonalbracingsolutionsthroughexperimentation.Laythediagonal braceonthepart,andmoveitaboutuntilyoufindaplacewheretheholeslineup.Itcan alsobedoneanalyticallyusingthePythagoreanTheoremforrighttriangles. Thesumof thesquaresofthelegsofarighttriangleequalsthesquareofthehypotenuse. Thisis oftenwrittenas C = A 2 + B 2 . Thetwolegsarethebase(widthacrossthebottom) andtheheight.Thehypotenuseisthediagonalbeam.Diagonalbracingispossibleifthe hypotenuseisclosetoanintegernumber(lessthan0.05studsdifference).
Table1-1.CalculatingDiagonalLengths

Base(A) 4 3 1.5 6

Height(B) 4 4 4.8 8

Hypotenuse 5.65 5 5.03 10

Comments Doesntfit Perfectfit Fits,butalittletight Perfectfit

1.3 SNOT
SNOTisalltherageintheLEGObuildingcommunitytoday.SNOT,standingforStuds NotOnTop,isawayofbuildingwithLEGOthatdoesnotalwaysutilizethetraditional click-fitassemblytechniques.Thiscanbeverytrickyandrequiresgreatimagination,but theresultingmodelsareverybeautifulandquiterealistic.

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Figure1-19.OneofJenniferClark'sIncredibleCreations.YesitsLEGO.

Luckily,TechnicismoreflexibletobuildwiththanotherLEGO.Butitisstilldifficult sometimestofigureoutawaytoattachthemotorwhereyouwantitortopositionthe sensorinjusttherightplace.TryingtodiscovernewwaystoputLEGOtogetherisa challengingactivitythatcanbealotoffun.Herearesomeideastogetthecreativejuices flowing.

Figure1-20.Turning90degrees.StudsOut

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Figure1-21.Turning90degrees.StudsIn

Figure1-22.UpsideDown

Figure1-23.ExtendingBeamsUsingPinsandPlates

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2 Gears
Eventuallyyouwillwanttomakeyourrobotmove.Afterall,thisisnottheFLL SculptureCompetition!The9voltmotorsprovidethemotivepower,buttheymaynot runattherightspeedorbepowerfulenough.Itmayalsobetoodifficulttopositionthe motorswheretheycanbedirectlyattachedtothewheels.Alltheseproblemscanbe solvedusinggears. Gearsaregenerallyusedforoneofthefollowingreasons: 1. Totransmittorquefromoneaxletoanother 2. Toincreaseordecreasethespeedofrotation 3. Toreversethedirectionofrotation 4. Tomoverotationalmotiontoadifferentaxis 5. Tochangerotarymotiontolinearmotion 6. Tokeeptherotationoftwoaxlessynchronized

2.1 SpurGears
Aspurgearisusedwhenshaftsmustrotateinthesameplane.Inaspurgeartheteethare straightandparalleltotheshaft.Theyarebyfarthemostcommontypeofgears,and theyarewhatmostpeoplepicturewhenyoumentiongears.LEGOincludesfour differentsizedspurgearsintheRoboticsInventionSystem.

16

24

40
Figure2-1LegoSpurGears

Gearsarenormallyreferredtobytheirtypeandthenumberofteeth.Take,forexample, an8toothspurgear.Sometimesakindofshorthandnotationisusedwhere tooth is replacedwith t andthetypeisnotspecifiedforspurgears(becausetheyareso common).Forexample,a40toothspurgearwouldbereferredtoasa40tgear.

2.1.1 GearSpacing
SizesofLEGOspurgearsareshowninTable2-1.Itisinterestingtonotethattheratio oftheradiiisequaltotheratioofthetoothcount(8/24=0.5/1.5=1/3).Thisisbecause allthedifferentsizedspurgearshavethesamesizedteeth--eventhelittle8tgearwithits involuteprofilegearteeth.Havingthesamesizedteethallowsthegearstomesh properly.

2-12

Table2-1.SpurGearSizes

Teeth Radius(studs)

8 0.5

16 1

24 1.5

40 2.5

Knowingtheradiusofagearandthenumberofteeth,wecancalculatethesizeofeach tooth.Thisinformationcanbeusefultoknowwhenusingaspurgearwithagearrack. Circumference Circumference SizexCount Size 16tooth =2xPixRadius =ToothSizexToothCount =2xPixRadius =2xPixRadius/Count =2xPix1/16 =Pi/8studs =0.392studsor3.14mm

Checkitoutforyourself.Theteethforeachspurgearreallydoevaluatetothesame size!

2.1.1.1HorizontalGearSpacing
UsingtheinformationfromFigure2-2,wecancalculatethegearspacingrequiredfor propermeshing.Thedistancebetweenthetwoaxlesisequaltothesumofthetworadii.

8t 16t 24t 40t

8t 1.0studs 1.5studs 2.0studs 3.0studs

16t 1.5studs 2.0studs 2.5studs 3.5studs

24t 2.0studs 2.5studs 3.0studs 4.0studs

40t 3.0studs 3.5studs 4.0studs 5.0studs

Figure2-2.StudGearSpacing

Combinationsusingeight,twenty-four,andfortytoothgearsarestraightforwardtoset up.Sixteentoothgearsareeasytousewithothersixteentoothgears,butrequirehalf studspacingtomeshwith8t,24t,or40tgears.Atwoholed1x2Technicbrickcanbe usedtogethalfstudspacing.

2-13

Figure2-3.HalfStudSpacingUsing2Holed1x2Beam

Construction Notes: Gear spacing of two or three studs provides the maximum number of gear combinations. Two stud spacing also works well in vertical layouts.

2.1.1.2VerticalSpacing
Itisdifficulttomeshgearslaidoutonaverticalaxis.Thegearspacingtableshowsthat propergearmeshingisachievedathalfstudintervalsstartingat1studandgoingupto5 studs.Forgoodverticalgearmeshing,weneedtobuildastructureusing1.2studhigh beamsand0.4studhighplatesthatprovidesthecorrectspacing.Itworksoutthat2and 4studsspacingaretheonlysolutions.

8t 8t 16t 24t 40t 2.0studs

16t 2.0studs

24t 2.0studs 4.0studs

40t 4.0studs

Figure2-4.VerticalGearSpacing

Thespacingdoesnthavetobeperfectforthegearstomesh.Anythingwithin0.08studs worksfairlywell.The8toothand16toothgearsalmostfitat1.6studspacing(idealis 1.5studs),buttheydontmeshsecurely,anditispossibleforthegearstoslip.

2-14

Figure2-5.CircumventingVerticalGearSpacingRestrictions

Figure2-5showsonewaytogetaroundverticalgearspacingrestrictions.Themiddle gearisheldinplacebyanaxlepinintheverticalbeam.Thetopandbottomgearsare spacedsixstudsapartallowingthemtofitnicelyonaxlespassingthroughthehorizontal beams.

2.1.1.3Diagonalgearspacing
Diagonalgearspacingistrickiertocalculatethanperpendicularorverticalgearspacing. Aswasdonetocalculatediagonalcrossbracingsolutions,Pythagorasstheoremforright trianglesisusedtocomputethediagonal(hypotenuse).Thisvalueisthencomparedto theidealgearspacinginformationfromthetableinFigure2-2.

2.8 2

3.44

Figure2-6.DiagonalGearSpacing

Table2-2showsthepossiblelayoutsfor8,16,24,and40toothspurgears.Vertical dimensionsaredisplayedinthelefthandcolumn,horizontaldimensionsinthetoprow. Attheintersectionofeachrowandcolumnisthecalculateddiagonalgearspacing.The entryisleftblankifthisdistancedoesnotmatchthespacingofanyoftheavailablegear combinations.Acceptablegearmeshesmustbewithin0.08studsoftheidealvalue. Excessivebindingofthegearsoccursifthespacingistoosmall.Ifthespacingistoo great,thegeartrainwillhavelargeamountsofbacklash,andslippagemayoccur.

2-15

Table2-2.DiagonalGearSpacing

HorizontalSpacing
0 0 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4 4.4 4.8 0.5 1 1 1.56 1.5 1.5 1.92 2.5 3.47 2.97 3.53 4 4.03 5.06 5.03 3.44 4.06 5.02 5.00 2 2 2.56 2 2.06 2.45 2.5 2.5 2.97 4.03 4.92 3 3 3.5 3.5 4 4 4.5 5 5

VerticalSpacing

Figure2-7.CircumventingDiagonalGearSpacingRestrictions

Figure2-7showsonewaytogetarounddiagonalgearspacingrestrictions.Three perpendicularaxlejoinersareusedtoholdthegearsinplace.Themiddle24toothgearis attachedusinganaxlepin.Thetwo8toothgearsarespaced4.1studsaparttofiton axlespassingthroughthehorizontalbeams.Theextra0.1studsspaceisdividedevenly betweenthetwogearmeshes.

2.1.2 GearRatio
Gearratioishowmuchtheoutputshaftofagearboxturnsforagivenrotationofthe inputshaft.InFigure2-8,wehaveagearboxconsistingoftwogears:an8tgearonthe inputshaftanda24tgearontheoutputshaft.Ifthe8tgearrotatesonefullrevolution theneightofitsteethwouldpassthroughthestartingline.Becausethetwogearsare meshed,eightofthe24tgearsteethwouldalsopassthestartingline.Sincetheteethare evenlydistributedaroundthecircumferenceofthegear,the24tgearturns8/24thsor1/3 ofarevolution.

2-16

1rev 8teeth 1/3rev 8teeth

Figure2-8.3:1GearRatio

Usingtherotationinformationwecancalculatethegearratio.Followingpopular convention,itisexpressedasaratioofwholenumbers. GearRatio =1:1/3 =3:1 The3:1gearratiotellsusthattheinputshaft(attachedtothe8tgear)hastocomplete threefullrevolutionsfortheoutputshaft(attachedtothe24tgear)torotatealltheway aroundjustonce.Usinggearstoslowdownrateofrotationordecreasetheamountof rotationiscalledgearingdown.Ifweweretoswitchthe8tand24tgearsaround,the outputshaftwouldspinthreerevolutionsforeachrevolutionoftheinputshaft.Thisis gearingup,andthegearratiowouldbe1:3. Youmayhavenoticedthatthegearratioistheinverseoftheratioofthenumberofgear teeth.Thereasonforthisiseasiertoseeifwerecalculatethegearratiousinganinput shaftrotationofonly1tooth.Inthecaseofthe8tgeardrivingthe24tgear,theinput shaftwouldturn1/8ofarevolutionandtheoutputshaft1/24ofarevolution. GearRatio =1/8:1/24 =24:8 =3:1 Usinggeartoothcountstodirectlycalculategearratiosiseasierandfasterthan calculatingtherotationsfirstandthenusingthesevaluestoderivethegearratio.

2-17

16:8 or 2:1

24:8 or 3:1

40:8 or 5:1

Table2-3.GearRatiosforLEGOSpurGears

OutputShaftorDrivenGear InputShaftor DrivingGear 8t 16t 24t 40t 8t 1:1 1:2 1:3 1:5 16t 2:1 1:1 2:3 2:5 24t 3:1 3:2 1:1 3:5 40t 5:1 5:2 5:3 1:1

Links: Ted Cochran has a nice treatment of gear ratios with Minnesota FLL
examples at www.hightechkids.org/fll/coaching/Gears/gears.htm.

2.1.3 Torque
Torqueisaforcethattendstorotateorturnthings.Yougenerateatorqueanytimeyou applyaforcetothehandleofawrench.Thisforcecreatesatorqueonthenut,which tendstoturnthenut.Ifthenutistootight,youeitherpullharder(moreforce),orgeta longerhandledwrench(moredistance).

orce F

Torque Distance

Figure2-9.Torque=ForcexDistance

Fromthewrenchexample,weseethattorqueisaproductofforceanddistance.The unitsusedwhenmeasuringtorquereflectthis.IntheU.S.wemeasuretorqueinfootpounds(ft-lbs).Newton-meters(Nm)istheunitoftorqueinthemetricsystem.

2-18

Gearsoperatebytransmittingforcesattheteethofthegear.InFigure2-10,the24tgear isgeneratingaforceagainsttheteethofthe40tgear.Theforce(f)isequaltothetorque (t1)appliedtothe24tgeardividedbytheradius(r1).Theforcetransmittedbyagearis inverselyproportionaltothegearsradius.Thelargertheradiusofthegear,thelessforce itwillgenerateforagiventorque. Theforceagainsttheteethofthe40tgearcreatesatorque(t2)equaltotheforce(f)times theradius(r2).Thetorquecreatedbyapplyingaforcetoagearisproportionaltothe gearsradius.Applyingaforcetoalargegearwillcreatemoretorquethanapplyingthe sameforcetoasmallgear. r1 f =t1/r1 t1 f t2 r2
Figure2-10.TheRatiooftheTorquesisEqualtotheRatiooftheRadii

t2 =fxr2 t2 =(t1/r1)xr2 t2/t1=r2/r1

Thetorqueavailableattheaxleofdrivengear(40t)canbeexpressedasafunctionofthe torqueturningthedrivinggear(24t)andthetworadii;t2=t1xr2/r1.Asmallgear drivingalargergearwillamplifytorque.Therewillbemoretorqueavailableattheshaft ofthelargergearthanissuppliedtotheshaftofthesmallergear. Fromthediscussionearlier,weknowthatthegearratioistheinverseoftheratioofthe gearsradii.Thisallowsustousethegearratiotocalculatethetorqueamplificationofa gearsystem.Usingthegearratiofortheexampleabove: GearRatio =r2:r1 =r2/r1 =5/3 t2 =t1xr2/r1 =t1xGearRatio =t1x5/3 TheTechnicgearmotorsuppliedwiththeRISkitcangenerateatorqueofabout9Ncm withfreshbatteries.Intheexampleabove,howmuchtorquewouldbeavailableatthe shaftofthe40tgearifweattachedthemotordirectlytotheshaftofthe24tgear? t2 =t1x5/3 =9Ncmx5/3 =15Ncm

2-19

2.1.4 Speed
Whenusingsimplemachineslikegears(oranykindofmachineforthatmatter)you nevergetsomethingfornothing.Inourpriorexample,weusedgearstoincreasetorque. Whatwetradedtogetthetorqueincreasewasspeed.Theoutputshaftmayturnstronger, butitalsoturnsslower. Ifwemeasuretheanglesinradians(1radian=180degrees/Pi=1revolution/(2xPi)), thetoothvelocityofagear(v)isequaltotheangularvelocity()timestheradius(r). Thereisaproportionalrelationshipbetweentheradiusandthetoothvelocity.Atagiven angularvelocity,theteethofalargergearwilltravelfasterthantheteethofasmaller gear. r1 v =1xr1 2 =v/r2 2 =(1xr1)/r2 =1xr1/r2 2/1=r1/r2

1 2

r2
Figure2-11.RatioofAngularVelocitiesisEqualtoInverseRatiooftheRadii

Whentwogearsaremeshed,thetoothvelocityforeachgearisthesame.Intheexample above,whatistheangularvelocityofthe40tgearifthe24tgearisspinningat180rpm? r1 =1.5studs=12mm r2 =2.5studs=20mm 1 =180rpm =180revolutions/minutex1minute/60seconds =3revolutions/second =3revolutions/secondx2Piradians/revolution =6Piradians/second =18.85radians/second v =1xr1 =18.85radians/secondx12mm/radian =226.19mm/second 2 =v/r2 =(226.19mm/second)/(20mm/radian) =11.31radians/second =1.8revolutions/second =108rpm Thelargergearspinsmoreslowlythanthesmallergear.Theratiooftheangular velocitiesisequaltotheinverseoftheratiooftheradii.Knowingthiswecancalculate theangularvelocityusingtheradiusratiodirectly.

2-20

2 =1xr1/r2 =180rpmx1.5studs/2.5studs =108rpm Justaswithtorque,thegearratiocanbeusedinplaceoftheratiooftheradii. GearRatio=r2:r1 =r2/r1 =5/3 2 =1xr1/r2 =1x(1/GearRatio) =1/GearRatio =180rpm/(5/3) =180rpmx3/5 =108rpm

Links: How Stuff Works, one of the best sites on the web, has a wonderful
article about gears, gear ratios, torque, and speed. Check it out at www.howstuffworks.lycozone.com.

2.1.5 GearTrains
Ifanumberofgearsarecascadedsothatseveralmeshesrelateaninputtoanoutput,a geartrainisformed.Usingfour40tandfour8tgears,itispossibletocreateagearratio of625:1.

CB

E D

Figure2-12.Multi-stageGearTrain

Thegeartrainaboveconsistsoffourstages,eachhavinga5:1gearratio.Tocalculatethe overallgearreduction,westartwiththegearratiobetweenAandB,multiplythattimes theratiobetweenBandC,andsoonuntilwegettoE.

2-21

AB BC CD DE AE

=5:1 =5:1 =5:1 =5:1 =ABxBCxCDxDE =5:1x5:1x5:1x5:1 =5x5x5x5:1x1x1x1 =625:1

The9vgearedmotorcangenerateabout0.06ft-lbsoftorquewithfreshbatteries.Ifwe hookedoneuptoshaftAandturnediton,thetorqueamplificationsshouldproduce37.5 ft-lbsoftorqueatshaftE.Thatsenoughtorquetotightenthelugnutsonmycars wheels.Duetofrictioninthegeartrain,theactualavailabletorquewillbemuchlessthan 37.5ft-lbs,butitwillbestrongenoughtosnapaxlesandbreakgearteeth.Becareful whenusinglotsofgearreduction. Asmentionedbefore,anyincreaseintorqueisaccompaniedbyacorrespondingdecrease inrotationspeed.Ifwetookourmotor,hookedituptoshaftAandgotitspinningat200 revolutionsperminute(rpm),shaftEwouldspinat0.32rpmorabout1revolutionevery 3minutes.Ifinstead,weattachedthemotortoshaftE,thenshaftAshouldspinat 125,000rpm.Thatwouldhavetheteethofthelast40tgeartravelingat585mph! Fortunately,thelargeamountoffrictioninthegeartrainpreventstheweak9vmotor fromgeneratingsuchdangerousspeeds.Whengearinguptoincreasespeed,torque amplificationmagnifiesthefrictionforcesofthelaterstages.Withagearratioof1:625, itisunlikelythatthemotorispowerfulenoughtospinthegearsatall.

Question: For the example above, what would the gear ratio be if the
8 tooth gears were replaced with 24 tooth gears?

2.1.5.1IdlerGear
The24toothgearinFigure2-13isanidlergear.Anidlergeardoesnotaffectthegear ratioofageartrain.ThegearratioforACisthesameasitwouldbeifthe24tooth gearwereleftout.Idlergearsarequitecommoninmachineswheretheyareusedto connectdistantaxles.Theyarealsousedtochangethedirectionofrotationoftheoutput shaft. AB =3:1 BC =1:3 AC =ABxBC =3:1x1:3 =3x1:1x3 =1:1

2-22

C
Figure2-13.IdlerGear

2.1.6 ClutchGear
Thefunnylookingwhite24toothspurgearwiththewritingonitsfaceistheclutchgear. Theclutchgearisspecialinthatthegearteethareabletorotateabouttheshaft.Ithasan internalclutchmechanismthatstartstoslipwhenitsmaximumratedtorqueisexceeded. Theclutchgearisusedtolimitthetorqueofagearedsystem,savingmotorsand preventingyourrobotfromtearingitselfapart. Theclutchgearhas 2.5.5Ncm stampedonitsface.Thisisthetorqueratingofthe clutch.NcmstandsforNewtonCentimeter,aunitoftorque(torqueisaproductofforce anddistance,centimeterisaunitofdistance,andNewtonisaunitofforce).Theclutch gearcantransmitamaximumtorqueoffrom2.5to5Ncm(0.018to0.037ftlbsor0.22 to0.44inlbs).

24mm

B
Figure2-14.UsingClutchGeartoLimitForces

InFigure2-14,theclutchgearisusedtolimittheforceoftheliftarmpressingagainst theconnectorpegstops.Withouttheclutchgear,wewouldruntheriskofstallinga motorordamagingtheassembly.Usingtheinformationwehaveabouttheclutchgear, gearratios,anddistance,itspossibletocalculatethemaximumforcetheliftarmcan generatetopushagainsttheconnectorpeg. Amaxtorque GearratioA:B Bmaxtorque =5Ncm =5:3 =AtorquexGearRatio =5Ncmx5/3 =8.33Ncm

2-23

DistanceBtoPin =3studs =24mmor2.4cm MaxforceatPin =Btorque/Distance =8.33Ncm/2.4cm =3.47Nor0.78lbs

2.2 CrownGear
Thecrowngearhasteeththatareraisedononesideandroundedoffontheother.This givesitacrown-likeappearance.Thecrowngearisusedwhentheshaftstobeturned meetatanangle--usuallyarightangle.Thecrowngearcanbemeshedtospurgearsand wormgears,butitdoesntmeshwellwithothercrowngears.Thecrowngearcanalsobe usedinplaceofa24toothspurgear.

Figure2-15.CrownGear

Treatthecrowngearjustlikethe24tspurgearwhencomputinggearreduction.Forthe gearboxabove,ifthe8tgearisattachedtotheinputshaft,andthe24tspurgeartothe outputshaft,thegearratiois: GearRatio =24:8x24:24 =3:1x1:1 =3:1

2.3 BevelGear
Thebevelgearhasteeththatslopealongonesurfaceofthedisc.Itisusedwhenthe shaftstobeturnedmeetatanangle--usuallyarightangle.Ithaslessfrictionthanthe crowngear,butitcanonlymeshwithanotherbevelgear.LEGOproduces12tooth,14 tooth,and20toothbevelgears.Unfortunately,onlythe12toothbevelgearisincluded intheRISkit.

Figure2-16.BevelGear

2-24

Theold14toothbevelgearshaveaproblemwiththeirthinfacetedteethbreaking.The 12toothbevelgearhasacircularbackingplatethatstrengthensthegearteethtoprevent thisfromhappening.Thebackingplategivesthegearasmoothcircularoutlineand allowsittobeusedasaverysmallwheel.

Figure2-17.ASmallWheelBuiltfromTwo12tBevelGears

Question: A wheel made out of bevel gears would not have much
traction. For what applications could this be a benefit?

2.4 WormGear
Awormgearisascrewthatusuallyturnsalongaspurgear.Motionistransmitted betweenshaftsthatareatrightangles.Ifyouwanttocreateahighgearratio,nothing beatsawormgear.Eachtimetheshaftspinsonerevolution,thespurgearmovesone toothforward.Ifthespurgearhas24teeth,youhavea24:1gearratioinaverysmall package.

Figure2-18.WormGear

Theefficiencyofawormgearsystemismuchlowerthanthatofnormalmeshesbecause thewormworksprimarilybysliding,thusincreasingfrictionallosses.Thishasan unusualsideeffectinthatthewormgearisasymmetricandself-locking.Youcanturn theinputshafttodrivetheoutputshaft,butyoucannotturntheoutputshafttodrivethe inputshaft.

2-25

Figure2-19.UsingtheWormGear'sSelfLockingFeature

ThemechanisminFigure2-19makesuseofthewormgearsself-lockingfeaturetohold thebucketinplace.Theaxlethroughthewormgearcanbeturnedtoraiseorlowerthe bucket.Onceinplace,notorqueisrequiredtomaintaintheposition. Thewormgearcanalsobeusedtoimplementaleadscrew.Leadscrewsconvertrotary motiontolinearmotion.Aleadscrewconsistsofathreadedrodandacapturednut. Spinningtherodcausesthenuttomovealongthelengthoftherod.Leadscrewsare usedinmanydevices.OneofthemostvisibleexamplesistheGeniegaragedooropener.

Figure2-20.LEGOLeadScrew

Figure2-20isaLEGOimplementationofaleadscrew.Thethreadedrodisconstructed ofmultiplewormgearsonthecenteraxle.Thehalfbushingsontheouteraxlesmakeup thecapturednut.Spinningthecenteraxlecausestheouteraxlestomoveinorout. Construction Note: Be careful when constructing a threaded rod out of worm gears. You can put two worm gears on an axle in four different ways, but only one results in a continuous thread. Bad

Good

2-26

2.4.1 DirectionalTransmission
OneofthecleverestusesIhaveseenforawormgearisthedirectionaltransmission.A directionaltransmissionletsyouuseoneoutputporttoperformtwofunctions.Ithasone inputshaftandtwooutputshafts.Awormgearslidesalongtheinputshaftandengages spurgearsontheoutputshafts.Whichgearisengagedisdependentupontherotation directionoftheinputshaft.

Figure2-21.DirectionalTransmission

Thedirectionaltransmissionworksbecauseoffriction.Whenyouspintheinputshaft, thewormgearexertsaforceagainstoneofthespurgears.Thespurgearresiststurning becauseoffrictionandpushesbackagainstthewormgear.Iffreetodoso,theworm gearslidesalongtheinputshaft,engagingtheotherspurgearandeventuallyrunninginto thesupportbeam.Nowtheforcerequiredtoslidethewormgearexceedstheforce requiredtoturnthespurgear,andthespurgearbeginsturning.Reversingrotationofthe inputshaftcausesthewholesequencetooccuragainbutintheoppositedirection.

2.5 Differential
Adifferentialisadevicethattakesatorqueappliedtoitshousingandevenlydistributes ittotwooutputshafts,allowingeachoutputtospinatadifferentspeed.Differentialsare foundonallmoderncarsandtrucks.All-wheeldrivecarsliketheAudiQuattrocanhave threedifferentials;onebetweenthefronttires,onebetweenthereartires,andone betweenthefrontandreardifferentials.LEGOprovidesadifferentialwiththeRISkit.

Figure2-22.LEGODifferential

Carwheelsspinatdifferentspeedswhenturning.Eachwheeltravelsadifferentdistance throughtheturnwiththeinsidewheelstravelingashorterdistancethantheoutside wheels.Sincespeed=distance/time,thewheelsthattravelashorterdistancetravelata lowerspeed. Thisisnotaproblemforwheelsthatcanspinindependently.Butinmostvehicles,the drivenwheelsarelinkedtogethersothattheycanbepoweredbyasinglemotor.Without

2-27

adifferential,thewheelswouldbelockedtogether,forcedtospinatthesamespeed.This wouldmaketurningdifficult.Forthecartobeabletoturn,onewheelwouldhavetoslip, whichcanrequiregreatforce.

Figure2-23.DuringTurnstheWheelsCoverDifferentDistances

Thedifferentialisamechanicalcalculator.Itcomputestheaveragerotationspeedofthe twoinputaxlesandspinsthedifferentialhousingatthisrate.Thisisaninteresting propertythatcanbeusedinmanyways.InFigure2-24,thedifferentialisusedto calculatetheaveragerotationspeedofthetwowheels.Attachingarotationsensortothe differentialhousingwouldprovideanaccuratemeasureoftraveldistance.

Wheel1 100rpm 70rpm

Wheel2 100rpm 50rpm

Housing (100+100)/2=100rpm (70+50)/2=60rpm

2-28

80rpm

-80rpm

(8080)/2=0rpm

Figure2-24.UsingDifferentialtoCalculateAverageRotation

Theplatformbelowusesthedifferentialtomeasurethedifferenceinrotationspeed betweenthetwoaxles.Noticetheextragearbetweenthedifferentialandthewheelon therightside.Itreversesthedirectionofrotationfortherightdifferentialshaft.A rotationsensorcouldbeusedheretomeasureturning.

Wheel1 100rpm 70rpm 80rpm

Wheel2 100rpm 50rpm -80rpm

Housing (100-100)/2=0rpm (70-50)/2=10rpm (80+80)/2=80rpm

Figure2-25.UsingaDifferentialtoCalculateDifferenceinRotation

2.5.1 RatchetSplitter
Anintriguinguseforthedifferentialisaspartofaratchetsplitter.Aratchetsplitterlets youperformtwodifferentfunctionswithasinglemotor,justlikethedirectional transmission.Butinsteadofusingfrictiontoswitchgears,theratchetsplitterusesa ratchetingmechanismtopreventanaxlefromspinninginbothdirections.

2-29

Figure2-26.RatchetSplitter

TheassemblyinFigure2-26ispartofadifferentialdrivecarIbuiltthatusedasingle motortoprovidebothlocomotionandsteering.Theperpendicularaxlejoinerand24t gearisaratchetingmechanismthatpreventstherightaxlefromrotatingcounter clockwise.Whenthemotorturnsclockwise,theleftandrightaxlesturninthesame directionandpropelthevehicleforward.Whenthemotorturnscounterclockwise,the ratchetlockstherightwheel,andthevehicleturnstotherightasitbacksup.

prevent the left axle from turning clockwise?

Question: What would happen if a second ratchet was added to 2.6 GearRack

Thegearracklookslikeaspurgearlaidoutflat.Itisusuallyusedinconjunctionwitha spurgear(whichisreferredtoasthepinion).Rackandpiniongearsareusedtoconvert rotationintolinearmotion.Anexampleofthisisthesteeringsystemonmanycars.The steeringwheelrotatesagearthatengagestherack.Asthegearturns,itslidestherack eithertotherightorleftdependingonwhichwayyouturnthesteeringwheel.The motionistransmittedvialinkagestothefrontwheelscausingthemtopivot.

Figure2-27.LEGOGearRackandPinion

Oneofthetrickierproblemsencounteredwhenusingthegearrackishowtoprovidea smoothsurfaceuponwhichtherackcanslide.MostLEGOcarmodelssolvethis problemwithtiles,whichareplateswithoutstudsontop.Figure2-27usestwo1x5lift armstoprovideasmoothsurface.AnupsidedownTechnicbeamisanothercommonly usedsolution. 2-30

2.7 Pulleys
Apulleyisawheelwithagrooveaboutitsdiameter.Thegroove,calledtherace,accepts abeltwhichattachesthepulleytootherpulleys.Asthepulleyrotates,frictionforcespull onthebeltputtingitintension.Thebelttransmitstheforcetotheotherpulleycausingit torotate.

Figure2-28.PulleysandBelts

LEGOincludesfoursizesofpulleysintheRIS--thehalfbushing,thesmallpulley,the pulleywheel,andthelargepulley.Pulleysareconnectedusingbeltsthatrestinthe pulleysraces.LEGObeltsarecolorcoded:small(white),medium(blue),andlarge (yellow).Theblackrubberbandscanbeusedasbelts,buttheyaremoreelasticthanthe LEGObelts,andtheirrectangularcrosssectiondoesntfitwellinapulleysrace.

Figure2-29.LegoPulleys

Withfourdifferentsizedpulleys,itispossibleto gear upand gear down.The reductionratiowithpulleysisdeterminedbytheratiobetweentheirdiameters.Thetrick isdeterminingexactlywheretomeasurethediameter.Table2-4showspulleydiameters measuredatthebottomoftherace.Theresultingreductionratiosareclosetothevalues determinedexperimentallyinTable2-5.

Table2-4.Measuredpulleydiameters

Diameter Millimeters Studs

Half Bushing 5.7 0.71

Small Pulley 8.7 1.09 2-31

Medium Pulley 22 2.75

Large Pulley 34.5 4.3

Table2-5.PulleyRatios

HalfBushing SmallPulley MediumPulley LargePulley

Half Bushing 1:1 2:3 2:7 1:6

Small Pulley 3:2 1:1 3:7 1:4

Medium Pulley 7:2 7:3 1:1 3:5

Large Pulley 6:1 4:1 5:3 1:1

2.7.1 Torque
Pulleysmaybeusedinplaceofgearsinmanyapplications.Sincetherearenoteethto mesh,placementismuchmoreforgiving.Butbecauseithasnoteeth,apulleycannotbe usedtotransmithightorques.Thebeltwillslipfirst.Determiningwhenandhowmuch thebeltwillslipisdifficult.Itdependsonmanyfactorssuchasthesizeofthepulleys, thetensionofthebelt,andthefrictionbetweenthepulleyandthebelt. Youcanincreasethetorquecapacityofapulleysystembyincreasingthereductionratio orbyincreasingthefrictionbetweenthepulleysandthebelt.Increasingthereduction ratiomaynotbedesirablebecauseithasanassociateddecreaseinspeed.Frictioncanbe increasedeitherbyusingatighterbeltorbyincreasingthecontactareabetweenthe pulleysandthebelt.

Figure2-30.TwowaystoIncreaseTorqueCapacity

and the belt?

Question: How else can we increase the friction between the pulleys

Someenterprisingrobotdesignersusebeltslippageasatorquelimitingdevice,similarto theclutchgear.Becauseslippageisdifficulttopredict,itisbesttouseexperimentation tofindthebeltandpulleycombinationthatwillslipatthedesiredtorque.

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Figure2-31.UsingPulleystoLimitTorque

Construction Notes: The tank tread and sprocket can be used like a pulley and belt system. The treads teeth prevent slipping even if a large torque is applied to the sprocket.

2.8 Reinforcinggeartrains
Thecomponentsofthegeartrainarelikelytoexperiencethelargestforcesofanythingin yourrobot.Themotorwillstallandwheelswillslipbeforeforcesgettoooutofhand. Butwithenoughgearreduction,itiseasytogenerateforcesthatwilltearagearboxapart.

Figure2-32.Forcesongears

Differenttypesofgearsrequiredifferentkindsofsupport.Inspurgears,forcesare appliedperpendiculartotheaxles.Unlesstheaxlesareproperlysupported,theywillbe pushedapartwhenhightorquesareapplied.Supportingtheaxlesisnotaproblemin horizontallayouts,butverticalanddiagonallayoutsmayrequireadditionalbracing. Crownandbevelgearshaveforcesdirectedperpendicularandparalleltotheiraxles.As withspurgears,thesupportingstructurewillprobablyrequirebracingtoholdtheaxlesin place.Thiscanbedifficultattimesbecausethesupportsareperpendiculartoeachother. Crownandbevelgearsalsorequireasolidbackingtopreventthemfromslidingontheir axles. Themostdifficultproblemwiththewormgearislockingthewormscrewinplaceonits axle.Thisisexacerbatedbythegearsoddlength(its15.5mmlonginsteadofthe16mm

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requiredforaperfectfit).Whenthewormgearisusedwithaspurgear,thespurgears axlemustbewellsupported.

Figure2-33.GearboxesDontHavetobeBigtobeStrong

2.9 Backlash
Thebacklashofageartrainistheamounttheinputshaftcanrotatewithoutmovingthe outputshaft.Backlashiscausedbythegearsnotmeshingperfectly(seeFigure2-34).In thisexample,whengearAreversesrotation,thetoothongearBgoesfrombeingloaded ontheleftsidetobeingloadedontherightside.Becauseofthegapbetweentheteeth,A willbeabletorotateasmallamountbeforeBnoticesthechangeindirection.

Figure2-34.Backlashiscausedbypoorgearmeshing

Backlashintroducesdiscontinuity,uncertainty,andimpactinmechanicalsystems.This makesaccuratecontroldifficult.Positioningaccuracyisalsocompromiseddueto backlash.Alargeamountofbacklashmakesarobotfeelsloppyandgivesanoverall impressionofpoorengineering(youwanttoimpressthosejudges). Inindustry,backlashisreducedbyusingspeciallymatedgearsthataredesignedtomesh perfectly.LEGOgearsaredesignedtoworkwithawidevarietyofgearsofdifferent sizesanddesigns.Thislimitshowperfectlytheycanfittogether.Luckily,thereare otherwaystominimizebacklashanditseffects.

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ReducingBacklash: 1. Placerotationsensorsneartheoutputshaft.Thisminimizestheeffectbacklash hasonthesensorreadings.Unfortunately,italsolimitsyourabilitytoincrease sensorresolutionbygearingup. 2. Uselargegears.Backlashislessnoticeableinlargergears. 3. Minimizethenumberofgearsinageartrain.Thelargerthenumberofmeshes, thegreaterthebacklash. 4. Backlashincreaseswhenyougearupanddecreaseswhenyougeardown. 5. Whenlayingoutgearsdiagonally,keepgearspacingneartheidealvalues. Backlashincreasesifthegearsaretoofarapart. 6. Becarefulwhenusingthewormgear.Thewormgearsoddsize(1.94studs long)makesitdifficulttosupport.Multiplehalfbushingscanbeusedtoholdthe wormgearinplaceforlightlyloadedapplications. Aninterestingalternativeistopreventbacklashfromoccurring.Youcantaketheplay outofageartrainbyapplyingatorquetotheoutputshaft,tradingsomeinputtorquefor moreprecision.Ifthetorqueisgreatenough,itpreventsbacklashfromhappeningwhen changingdirection.InFigure2-35,therubberbandissupplyingtheforceusedto preloadthegeartrain.

Figure2-35.Preloadingageartrainwitharubberband

Somehighprecisionmachinesuseasplitgeartominimizebacklash.Asplitgearlooks likeaspurgearthathasbeencutthroughthemiddleaboutitscircumference.Springsare placedinchannelsbetweentwogears.Thespringspushthegearsapartradially.When meshedtoanothergear,thespringiscompressedprovidingapreloadforce.

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Figure2-36.SplitgearmadefromLEGO

Figure2-36showsasplitgearmadeoutofLEGOparts.Itusestheaxlesinsteadof springstoprovidethepreloadforce.Whenassembling,the40tgearsaretwistedone toothrelativetoeachotherbeforemeshingthemtothe8tgears.

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3 Wheels
FLLchallengesinvolvedmovingaroundandpickingupthings,movingaroundand droppingthings,movingaroundandtriggeringthings.Allthismovingaroundrequires somesortofmobileplatform,andmostofthemobileplatformsusewheels. Wheelssupporttheweightoftherobotandtransmitthepowerofthemotorstothe ground.Whatwheelsyouusewillaffectyourrobotsspeed,power,accuracy,andability tohandlevariationsinterrain.Wheelchoiceswillhaveaprofoundeffectonyourrobots successorfailure.

3.1 Sizes
LEGOhassuppliedawidevarietyofwheelsandtiresintheRISkit.Therearethree sizesofsolidrubbertireswhichallfitonthesameplasticwheelandthreesizesof balloontiresthatfitondifferentlysizedhubs.Dimensionsinmillimetersarestampedon thesidewalloftheballoontires.Dimensionsforthesolidtiresarenotavailable, therefore,approximatedimensionsaresuppliedinthefigurebelow.

SmallSolid 24mmx7mm

MediumSolid 30mmx10.7mm

LargeSolid 43mmx10.7mm

LargeBalloon 81.6mmx15mm SmallBalloon 30.4mmx14 MediumBalloon 49.6mmx28mm PulleyWheel 30mmx4mm

Figure3-1.LegoWheelsandTires

Thediameterofthewheelschosenwill,inalargepart,determinehowfastandpowerful yourrobotis.Largewheelswillmakearobotrunfasterbutdecreaseitstowingcapacity. Smallwheelswillgiveyoumorepowerbutwithacorrespondingdecreaseinspeed.

3.1.1 Speed
Asyoudrivedownthehighwaythespeedyourcartravelsisdependentuponthe rotationalspeedoftheengine,thegearratioofthetransmission,andthediameterofthe tires.Theenginespeedandgearratiodefinehowfastthedrivewheelsarespinning

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(theirangularvelocity).Theangularvelocitycanthenbeconvertedtolinearvelocity usingtheequationforthecircumferenceofacircle(distancearoundthecircle).

Diameter

1Revolution

Circumference

Circumference=PixDiameter
IamdrivingdownthehighwayinmytrustyCamrywiththebrokenspeedometercable whenIseeapolicecarwithitslightson.Aquicklookattheinstrumentsshowsthe engineisat800rpmandthatIaminthirdgear.AmIgoingtogetaticket?

v=xPi x d

Iknow(becauseIdiligentlyreadtheownersmanual)thatthegearratioformyautomatic transmissionis1:1inthirdgear.Ialsoknowthatthetiresare24.6 indiameter.Sowhat isthespeed?

=EngineRPMxGearRatio =800rpmx1:1 =800rpm v =xPixd =800rpmx3.14x24.6inches =61826inchesperminute =58.5mph!I think Im OK

Thesameequationscanbeusedtocalculatetheexpectedtravelspeedofyourrobot.For example,letsusetherobotshowninFigure3-2.Ithasone9vmotorthatisgearedupby afactorof3:1(a24toothcrowngeardrivingan8toothspurgear).Itusesthebig81.6x 15balloontirestomakeitgoreallyfast.Themotorshouldbeabletoreach300rpmfor alightlyloadedstructurelikethis.Whatistheexpectedspeed?

=MotorRPMxGearRatio =300rpmx3:1 =900rpm v =xPixd

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=900rpmx3.14x81.6mm =230,601mmperminuteor8.7mph!Wow!!!

Figure3-2.AVeryFastTractor

Question: For the example above, what would the travel speed be if
we changed the gear ratio by putting the 8 tooth gear on the motor and the 24 tooth crown gear on the axle?

3.1.2 Force
Inourdiscussionofgears,wesawthatthereisarelationshipbetweenforce,torque,and radius--thesamerelationshipsholdtrueforwheels.Whenyouusebigwheelstoincrease speed,youhavetogiveupsomething,andthatsomethingisforce.Arobotwithbig wheelscannotpullasmuchasarobotwithsmallwheels.

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Torque Torque Radius Force Radius

Force
Figure3-3.Force=Torque/Radius

Therelationshipbetweenforce,distance,andtorqueworksagainstuswhenitcomesto wheels.Largewheelshaveabiggerradius(leverlength)andwillgeneratelessforcefor agiventorquethansmallwheelswould.Lessforcemeanslessacceleration.Thecarwill gofaster,butitwilltakelongertoreachthatspeed.Using9Ncmasanestimateforthe availablemotortorque,letsdeterminethewheelforcesforthevehicleinFigure3-2. Torque =MotorTorquexGearRatio =9Ncmx1:3 =3Ncm Radius =Diameter/2 =81.6mm/2 =40.8mmor4.08cm Force =WheelTorque/Radius =3Ncm/4.08cm =0.735N =0.1653lbsor2.64oz!Weak!!! Forcomparison,ifweusedthesmallsolidwheels(24mm),thetractorwouldtravelat 2.5mphwiththewheelssupplyingupto9ozofforce.Switchingthegearratiofrom3:1 to1:3wouldhavethetractorgoingonly mph,butitwouldbecapableofdeliveringa whopping5lbsofforce.Itsunlikelythatthetireswouldhaveenoughtractionto transmitthismuchforcetotheground,consequently,someslippingwouldresult.

Question: If big wheels are less efficient for towing, why do tractors
have big wheels?

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3.2 Treads
TrackedrobotshavebeenverypopularinFLLcompetitions.Theyareeasytobuild,and thekidsthinktheylookcool.TheRISkitcomeswithtwotanktreadsandfoursprocket wheels.Thesprocketwheelshavearoundaxleholeallowingthemtospinfreely. Drivingthetreadrequiressomeadditionalmechanismtolockthesprocketwheelstotheir axle.Thisisusuallydonewitha16toothspurgear.

Figure3-4.TrackedRobot

Treadshavegoodtractioninroughterrainand,ifwellsupported,cancrosssmallravines thatwouldstopawheeledvehicle.Trackedrobotstendtobewideandlowtothe ground,givingthemexcellentstability.Theyarealsoveryagile.Atrackedrobotcan turninplacebyspinningitstreadsinoppositedirections. Unfortunately,treadshaveanumberofdisadvantages.Theyhavefairlypoortractionon smoothsurfaces.Theslippingtreadsmakeitdifficulttousedeadreckoningnavigation. Alsothereisalotofpowerlossduetothecontinuousbendingandstraighteningofthe treadsastheyrollaroundthesprocketwheels.

Figure3-5.MarioFerrari'sJohnny54

Fromwww.marioferrari.org/lego.html

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OnlyonesizetrackisincludedintheRISkit.Forthetracknottoslip,thespacing betweenthesprocketsmustbelargeenoughtomaintainalighttension(about12studs). Thewheelbasecanbeshortenedifadditionalsprocketsareusedtochangetheshapeof thetrack.Intheexampleabove,twopulleywheelsmakeuptheadditionalsprocketthat givesJohnny5hisdistinctivedrivetrain.

3.3 Balance
Properbalanceisveryimportantinrobotdesign.Foryourrobottomoveinapredictable andrepeatablemanner,allwheelsmustbeincontactwiththegroundatalltimes,andthe weightcarriedbyeachwheelmustbeconsistent.Improperbalancewillresultinarobot thattipsovereasilyorliftsitswheelswhenacceleratingorturning. Balanceisdependentupontwofactors:wheelbaseandcenterofgravity.Centerof gravity(CG)isthepointwithinyourrobotwherethereareequalamountsofmassabove andbelow,equalamountstotheleftandright,andequalamountsforeandaft.For stabilitycalculations,wepretendthatallthemassofyourrobotisconcentratedinthis tinyspot.Thewheelbaseistheregionoutlinedwhenyouplayconnectthedotswiththe pointswhereyourrobotswheelstouchtheground.

Figure3-6.Wheelbase

Tomaintainbalance,theCGmustremainwellinsidethewheelbase.Ifitisoutsidethe wheelbase,therobotwilltipover.TheclosertheCGistothecenterofthewheelbase, themorestabletherobotbecomes.

3.3.1 FindingtheCenterOfGravity
DeterminingyourrobotsCGisaninformativeandeducationalactivity.Therearemany waysthiscanbedone,rangingfromthedryandboring(summingthemomentofinertia foreachcomponentanddividingbythetotalmass)totheslightlyfrightening(hanging therobotfromastring).AfairlysafeandeasywaytolocatetheCGisthebalance method. TodeterminetheCGusingthebalancemethodyouneedtolocatethebalancepointon thelateral,longitudinal,andverticalaxes.Eachbalancepointdefinesaplaneupon whichtheCGresides.TheCGislocatedattheintersectionofthethreeplanes.

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LateralBalance Plane

LongitudinalBalance Plane

CGisonthisline

Figure3-7.FindingCGUsingBalanceMethod

Tofindthebalancepoints,youneedafulcrumthatwillsupporttheweightoftherobot whilestillallowingittotipeasily.A2x4curvedtopbrickisthefulcrumintheexample above.Placetherobotonthefulcrumsuchthatthefulcrumisparalleltothebalance planeyouaretryingtolocate.Slowlyadjustthepositionofthefulcrumuntiltherobot balances.Thisisthebalancepoint.RepeatfortheothertwoaxestofindtheCG. FindingtheverticalcomponentoftheCGcanbedonethesameway,butsometimesyour robotsdesignwillallowthis.IfIcantbalancethefront,rear,orsidesoftherobotona fulcrum,Imodifythebalancemethodtouseapartoftherobotasthefulcrum.Carefully tilttherobotupuntilitfeelslikeitisbalanced.Nowuseacarpenterssquare(abookor tissueboxwillworkaswell)toprojectaplaneupverticallyfromthefulcrum.TheCGis thepointwherethisplaneintersectsthelateralandlongitudinalbalanceplanes. VerticalLine Centerof Gravity

Lateraland Longitudinal BalancePlanes Intersection

Figure3-8.ModifiedBalanceMethod

3.3.2 Inertia
Determiningtheverticalcomponentofthecenterofgravityismoredifficultthanfinding theleft/rightcenterorthefore/aftcenter.Sowhybotherdoingit?Afterall,ifyouknow

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thattheCGisnearthecenterofthewheelbase,thentherobotisguaranteedtobestable, right?Well,notalways.Figure3-9showshowclimbinganinclinemovestheeffective CG.TherobotwiththelowerCGisstillstable,butclimbingtheinclinemovestheCG behindtherearwheelsontherobotwiththehigherCG,causingittotipoverbackwards.

CG CG

BalancedOK

OhOh!TipsOver
Figure3-9.AnInclineMovestheEffectiveCG

AmoreimportantreasonforknowingtheverticalCGistobeabletopredicttheeffects thataccelerationwillhaveonyourrobot.Thewidelypublicized(andoverhyped) problemswiththeSuzukiSidekickandothersmallSUVshavemadethepublicaware thatsmallwheelbasevehicleswithhighcentersofgravityaremoresusceptibletorolloversthanvehicleswithlargewheelbasesandlowcentersofgravity.Figure3-9shows howthismayoccuronanincline,buthowdoesithappenonaflatsurfacewhenturning? InhisPrincipia,SirIsaacNewtonwasamongthefirsttodocumentobservationsofa propertycommontoallmatterwhichwenowcallInertia.Hestatedthatbodiesatrest liketostayatrest,andbodiesinmotionliketostayinmotiongoingthesamerateina straightline.Tomovearestingbodyoralterabodysmotionrequirestheapplicationof anexternalforce.ThisissummedupnicelyintheequationForce=massxacceleration, orF=ma. Whenyouaredrivingdowntheroadandturnthesteeringwheel,thedirectionyourcaris travelingchanges.Theroadpushesagainstthetiresofyourcarcausingittoaccelerate sideways.Inertiadictatesthatyourcarandeverythinginsideitresistthisacceleration withaforceequaltotheirmasstimestheacceleration.Theinertialforceislocatedatthe carsCGandispointinginthedirectionoppositetheacceleration.BecauseCGisnot downontheroadwherethewheelforceisapplied,thisinertialforcecreatesatorque(or moment)whichtriestotipthecarover. Luckily,theweightofthecarisgeneratinganopposingmomentthatworkstopreventit fromtippingover.Alliswellaslongasthemomentduetogravityisgreaterthanthe momentduetotheinertialforce.Widewheelbasecarswithlowercentersofgravityare saferbecausetheinertialforcesrequiredtorollthecaroveraremuchgreater.Thetires areincapableofgeneratingsuchlargeforces,therefore,thecarskidsinsteadofrolling over.

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CG

F2=mxa=F

M1=WeightxD1 M2=ForcexD2 Rolloveroccurswhen M2>M1 F

Weight D1

D2

Figure3-10.TurningGeneratesForcesandMoments

Inertialforcesarealsothecauseofthe wheelies towhichsomanyFLLrobotsare prone.Whenyourrobotisstoppedandyouturnonthemotors,theyinitiallygenerate theirmaximumtorque.Iftheresultingaccelerationislargeenough,theinertiagenerated momentwilltiptherobotbackwards,pullingthefrontwheelsofftheground.Luckilythe torqueoutputfromthemotordropsoffsignificantlyoncethewheelsstartturning, stoppingthewheeliealmostasquicklyasitstarted.

Figure3-11.FIRSTTeam254'sRobot"CheesyPoofs"DoesaVictoryWheelie

Wheeliesshouldbeavoidedbecauseitisdifficulttocontrolarobotpredictablywithout allofitswheelsontheground.Fromtheturningdiscussion,wesawthatthelikelihood oftippingisreducedbyhavingalowercenterofgravityorawiderwheelbase.Thisis alsotrueforwheelies,whicharelesslikelytohappenifthecenterofgravityislowand wellaheadofthedrivenwheels.YoucanmovetheCGforwardbyrepositioning componentsorbyaddingextraweighttothefrontoftherobot.Asimilareffectis achievedbymovingthedrivenwheelstowardstheback.

Question: What else can be done to prevent wheelies besides moving

the CG or the wheels?

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3.4 WheelLoadingandFriction
TheweightoftheRCXbrick,batteries,threemotors,alightsensor,andarotationsensor iscloseto1pound.Addtothisaframe,motorsupports,gears,andsomesortof manipulator,andatypicalFLLrobot(ifthereissuchathing)issupporting1.5to2 poundsonitswheels.Dependingontherelativeplacementofthewheelsandsupporting framecomponents,theforceontheaxlesmaybemanytimesgreater.Thesehighforces cancausemuchofthemotorpowertobewastedtryingtoovercometheresulting friction.Whatisgeneratingtheseforces,andhowcantheybeminimized?

Figure3-12.CantileveredandFullySupportedWheels

Mostwheeledvehiclesusesomesortofcantileveredassemblytoattachthewheelstothe vehicle.Supportedononlyoneside,theaxleactslikealever,generatingamomentthat hastobereactedtobytheframe.Amomentistheproductofaforce(theweightbeing carriedbythewheel)anditsperpendiculardistancefromitsaxis(theplacewherethe axleissupportedbytheframe).Thefartherthewheelisfromtheframe,thelargerthe moment. Thewaythattheframereactsthemomenthasagreateffectontheamountoffriction. Wheretheaxlepassesthroughtheframeitdoesnotrestagainstthetopofthechannel, butinsteaditistilted,contactingtheframeatonlytwopoints.Thefartherapartthetwo contactpointsare,thelowertheforcesexertedagainsteach.
B B B

a A

b A W

b A W

Figure3-13.WheelLoading

Distancea 1stud 1stud 4studs

Distanceb 2.5studs 1.5studs 1.5studs

ForceA 2.5W 1.5W 0.375W

ForceB -3.5W -2.5W -1.375W

FrictionForces 6W 4W 1.75W

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Figure3-13andthecorrespondingtabledemonstratetherelationshipbetweenwheel placementandloading. W istheweightofthemodelsupportedbythewheel. A and B areforcesexertedagainsttheaxlebytheframe. a isthedistancebetweenthetwo contactpointsontheframe. b isthedistancefromtheframetothewheel. TocalculatethevaluesofforcesAandBweneedtousewhatwehavelearnedabout forcesandmoments.FromNewtonsequation,F=ma,weknowthatabodywill accelerateifacteduponbyaforce.Sinceourwheelisnotacceleratingupordown,we candeducethattheforcesA,B,andWmustallcancelout;theirsumisequaltozero. Forourpurposeshere,wewillsayforcespushinguparepositiveandforcespushing downarenegative. A-B+W=0 B=A+W Amomentisjusttheproductofaforceactingatadistance,anditfollowsthesamerules asregularforces.Abodyactedonbyamomentwillexperienceanangularacceleration. Iftheangularaccelerationofabodyiszero,thesumofthemomentsaboutanypointon thatbodymustalsobezero.Tomaketheequationseasiertoworkwith,Iamgoingto pickthepointwhereforceBisapplied.Here,wewillusetheconventionthatamoment thatwantstocauseaclockwiserotationispositive,andacounterclockwiserotationis negative. Axa+Bx0Wxb=0 Axa=Wxb A=b/axW Nowwecanstuffinsomenumbers.Thevaluesbelowarefromtheleftmostexamplein Figure3-13. a =1stud b =2.5studs A =b/axW =2.5xW B =A+W =2.5xW+W =3.5xW Theimportantthingtotakeawayfromthisdiscussionisthatyoucanreducefrictionby: 1. Placingthewheelsclosetotheframe 2. Spreadingouttheaxlesupportstoreducetheforcesrequiredtoreactthemoment fromthewheel.

Question: What would the table entry look like for the fully
supported wheel assembly shown in Figure 3-12?

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4 LegoElectronics
4.1 RCXBrick
TheRCXisyourrobotsbrain,atinycomputershapedlikeaLEGObrick.Atthecoreof theRCXisaHitachiH88bitmicrocontrollerrunningat5to20MHzwith32KofRAM. Thismayseemanemicwhencomparedtomoderndesktopcomputerswith2GHz32bit processorsand512Mbytesofmemory,butitsaspowerfulastheAppleIIcomputerI learnedtoprogramonandsignificantlymorepowerfulthanthecomputersthatsentmen tothemoon. Themicrocontrollerisusedtocontrolthreevoltageoutputs,threesensorinputs,andan infraredserialcommunicationsport.Snap-onwireleadsareusedtoconnecttheRCXto motors,lamps,touchsensors,lightsensors,rotationsensors,etc Theserial communicationportisusedtodownloadprogramsfromaPCandcanbeusedto communicatebetweentwoRCXs. TheRCXispoweredby6AAbatteries.OlderversionsoftheRCXalsohada9VDC inputplugforusewithanoptionalACadapter.IfyouhavethismodelofRCX,the transformerwillpayforitselfinsavedbatterycosts.Havingtwoorthreesetsofgood qualityrechargeablebatteriesisalsoagoodidea.Therechargeablealkalinebatteries seemtoworkbestwiththeRCX. Construction Note: When building your robot, remember that you will have to occasionally remove the RCX to replace the batteries. Design accordingly.

Figure4-1.TheRCXProgrammableBrick

4.1.1 Firmware
TheRCXcontains32Kofbattery-backedRAM.Mostofthisisusedupbythefirmware thatyouhavetoinstallpriortoloadingyourownrobotprograms.Anadditional6Kis reservedtostoreuptofiveuserprograms.Thismaynotseemlikemuchspace,butmost

4-48

RCXprogramsareonlyafewhundredbyteslong.Theremainingmemoryisusedfor runningprograms. WhenaprogramiswrittenfortheRCX,itdoesnotcontainnativecodefortheCPU. Instead,itismadeupofspecialbytecodeswhichareinterpretedbythefirmware.Thisis similartothewayJavaprogramsonthewebareinterpretedbytheJavaVirtualMachine runninginyourbrowser.UsingabytecodeinterpreterallowstheRCXtomaintaina reliableenvironmentforexecutinguserprograms.Yourprogrammaynotdowhatyou want,butitwontcrashtheRCX. BecausethefirmwareisstoredinRAM,itiserasedifyourRCXremainswithoutpower formorethanafewseconds.AcapacitorintheRCXpowersthememorylongenough foryoutochangethebatteries(15-30seconds).IfafterchangingbatteriesyourRCXno longerfunctionsproperly,youmayhavelostyourfirmware.Youcantellifthefirmware isloadedbylookingattheLCDdisplay.Ifallyoucanseeistheprogramnumberand theminifigicon(eitherstandingorwalkingasinFigure4-1),thenthefirmwareisnot loaded.ThiswillbetheconditionofyourRCXbrickwhenyoureceiveyourkit. Construction Note: Whenever it is turned on, the RCX is receptive to messages coming in on its infrared serial port. With all the activity and congestion at competitions, it is quite possible that another team could unintentionally overwrite the programs stored in your RCX. Care should be taken to block the IR port when not in use.

4.1.2 Programming
TheRCXisprogrammedusingspecialsoftwarethatresidesonyourPC.Theprogramis translatedintobytecodesandtransferredtotheRCXviaaninfraredseriallink(usingthe IRtower).Thismethodofprogramming--writingcodeononetypeofcomputertoberun onanothertypeofcomputer--iscalledcrossdevelopment.Acomputerwithouta keyboardandmonitor,liketheRCX,iscalledanembeddedsystem.Thatmeansall FLLersareembeddedsystemsdevelopers,familiarwithcrossdevelopmenttools.This isimpressivestufftoputonyourresume. UserprogramscanbewritteneitherinRCXCodeorROBOLAB.RCXCodeisthe graphicalprogrammingtoolthatLEGOsuppliestoprogramtheRCX.Itistargetedto peoplewithnoprogrammingexperience.Programsarewrittenbypickinginstruction blocksandsnappingthemtogether,muchlikeusingactualLEGObricks.Theoriginal versionsofRCXCodewereverylimited(V1.0andV1.5).Manyinstructionssupported bythebytecodeinterpreterwerenotavailable,andsupportforvariableswasminimal.If youplantouseRCXCode,makesureyouhavetheversion2.0software.RCXCodeis currentlyonlyavailableforWindowsPCs.

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Figure4-2.RCXCodeScreenshot

ROBOLABisaproductofLEGODACTA,theeducationbranchofLEGO.Itisbased onLabVIEW,agraphicalprogrammingenvironmentthatisreallyusedbyengineersand scientistsformeasurementandcontrol.Infact,NASAscientistsusedLabVIEWto monitortheSojournerRoveronMars!LikeRCXCode,ROBOLABusesagraphical metaphorforwritingprograms.Commandiconsareselectedfromapaletteandplacedin theprogrammingworkspace.Thenthecommandiconsarewiredtogethertospecifythe programflow.

Figure4-3.ROBOLABScreenshot

ROBOLABisamorepowerfultoolthanRCXCode,butnotallthispowerisdirected towardsprogrammingrobots.LargeportionsofROBOLABaredevotedtousingthe RCXlikealabinstrument.YoucancreateprogramsthatrunonthePCbutcollect sensordatafromtheRCX.OtherROBOLABtoolsareavailabletoprocessandanalyze thedata.Thereareeventoolsforpublishingtheresultsorconvertingthemtoaweb 4-50

page.LearningallthereistoROBOLABcouldtakealongtime.Luckily,everythingyou needforFLLisisolatedinonesectioncalledInventor.ROBOLABalsohasextensive userdocumentationbuiltintothetool,plusthereisaverythoroughusermanualavailable onlineathttp://www.ceeo.tufts.edu/robolabatceeo/documentation.htm. ProgrammingusingRCXCodeorROBOLABisprettymuchthesame.Theprogrammer usesthemousetoselectfromalistoficonsthatrepresentprograminstructions.The selectedinstructioniconsareplacedintoaworkspace.Somesortofgraphicalconnection metaphorisusedtodefinetheflowoftheprogram(snappingtogetherforRCXCode, wiresforROBOLAB).Whentheprogrammerfinisheslayingouttheinstructions,he/she usesamenuortoolbarbuttontocompiletheprogramanddownloadittotheRCX. IfyouareprogrammingonaMac,thenyouhavetouseROBOLAB.Otherwise,the choiceismostlyamatteroftaste.CarefulanalysisofMinnesotaFLLcompetitionresults overthelastthreeseasonsshowsnocorrelationbetweenateamssuccessandthe programminglanguageitused.

4.2 Motors
Themotorthatcomeswiththechallengekitiscalledthe9voltgearedmotor.Ithasan internalgeartrainthatdeliversa12:1gearreduction.Thisconvertsaninternalrotation speedof4200rpmtoamoreuseable350rpm5attheoutputshaft.Theinternalgearing alsoincreasesthestalltorqueto8.9Ncmor0.06ft-lbs6.

4Studs

3.6Studs or 3Bricks 4Studs

2.8Studs or 2.33Bricks

Figure4-4.9VoltGearedMotor

Themotornormallydrawsabout10milliamps(mA)ofcurrentundernoload.Thiscan easilyincreaseto200mAormorewhenitisworkinghard.Addpoweredsensors(light androtation),theLCDdisplay,theprocessor,andatypicalFLLrobotcanbedrawing 600700milliamps.SincegoodqualityAAbatteriesareratedaround2500milliamp hours(mAh)youcanexpecttochangebatteriesafterthreetofourhoursofoperation.

5 6

Typicalspeedunderloadiscloserto200rpm FromtheRandomHallLegoRoboticsSeminar(web.min.edu/sp.742/www/motor.html)

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4.2.1 Modes
TheRCXhasthreemodesofcontrollingthemotor--Off,On,andFloat.InFloatmode, themotorisnotdrivenandcanspinfreely.Itbehavesjustasitwouldiftheconnecting leadswereremoved. InOffmode,theRCXinternallyshortsthecontactsoftheoutputconnector.Thishasa brakingeffectontheattachedmotorcausingittoquicklystopspinning. InOnmode,theRCXsendsthemotoreither+9Vor-9Vtomakethemotorspin clockwiseorcounterclockwise.Pulsewidthmodulation(PWM)isusedtoprovideeight powerlevelsettings.
PowerSetting1 25%DutyCycle PowerSetting3 50%DutyCycle PowerSetting5 75%DutyCycle

Figure4-5.PWMDutyCycles

Pulsewidthmodulationisaninexpensivewaytocontrolpoweroutput.Insteadofsetting theoutputvoltage(voltageregulatorsareexpensive),theRXCquicklyswitchesthe poweronandoff.Differentpowerlevelsareachievedbyvaryingthepercentageoftime thatthepowerison(thisiscalledthedutycycle).OntheRCX,theminimumpower settingiszero,whichcorrespondstoadutycycleof12.5%(thepowerison12.5%ofthe time).Atlevel7,powerissuppliedcontinuously(100%dutycycle). Thegearedmotorhasalittleinternalflywheelthatevensoutthemotorspeedasthe powerisswitchedonandoffforPWM.Youseeitinoperationwhenyouspintheshaft ofanunattachedmotor.Theshaftcompletesseveralrevolutionswhiletherotationspeed slowsdowntozero.Ifyoucontinuetogivetheshaftatwistonceasecondorso,itis prettyeasytogetitturningatafairlyconsistentspeed.Thisiskindofamechanical versionofpulsewidthmodulation Onceyougetthemotorspinning,itdoesnttakemuchenergytokeepitgoing.Thiscan beabitofaproblemifyouareusinglowpowersettingstorunyourmotorslower. Withoutmuchload,agearedmotorspinsuptoaboutthesamespeedregardlessofthe powersetting.Eachpower-onpulsesuppliesmoreenergythanfrictioncandissipate duringtherestofthecycle.Theextrapowergetsstoredintheflywheelasinertia.With everycycle,alittlebitmoreenergyisstoredintheflywheel,increasingtherotation speeduntilequilibriumisreachedatthepointwherethemotortorquestartstofalloff.

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Figure4-6.UsingaPulleytoIncreaseDrag

Motorspeedcontrolisreestablishedbyaddingsomefriction.Afterallthecareful thoughtandattentiontodetailyouputintoyourrobotdesigntominimizefriction,now itstimetohavesomefun.Takeoutyourlistofgoodbuildingpracticesandbreakallthe rules.Squeezethebushingsuptightagainstthesidesofthebeams.Usethreeorfour gearsinsteadoftwo.Becreative,butmakesurethejudgesknowthereasonandthinking behindyourmodifications.Youdontwanttobepenalizedforpoormechanicaldesign.

4.2.2 Attaching
Amotorisattachedtooneofthethreeoutputconnectorsbyusingasnap-onwirelead. Youcanreversetherotationdirectionofthemotorbychangingtheorientationofthe connection.Ifyouneedtowireupamotorduringcompetitionforaconfiguration change,makesurethatyoualwaysattachtheleadsthesameway.Markingthe connectorleadsandmotorportswithcolorcoded1x2platesworkswellasareminder.

Figure4-7.UsingColorCodingtoDocumentProperConnectorOrientation

Motorsgeneratesignificantforceandwillworkthemselveslooseifonlyheldinplace usingsnap-onmountings.Additionalsupportisrequired.Thiscanbeprovidedusingthe samecrossbracingtechniquesusedtobuildstrongstructures.

Figure4-8.StrengtheningMotorMountswithCrossBracing

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TheRISkitincludes1x2plateswithrailsthatcanbeusedasbracketsforthemotors. Theyprovideacompactandsturdywaytoattachamotortoabeam.Therailscanalso beusedtocreateaquickreleasemotormount.ThemotorinFigure4-9iseasilyremoved afterunsnappingthebottom2x6platethatholdsitinplace.Thiscouldbeusefulifyour robotsdesignrequiresyoutomoveamotorduringhead-to-headcompetition.

Figure4-9.MotorMountUsingRails

4.3 TouchSensor
ThetouchsensoristhesimplesttouseofalltheLEGOsensors.Itconsistsofa2x3 brickwithaspringloadedbutton.Thebuttonvariestheresistanceofthesensorwhenit ispressed.TheRCXsoftwareconvertsthesensorfeedbacktoabinarysignal:onefor whenthebuttonispressed,andzeroforwhenitisreleased. 3studs

2studs

1brickor 1.2studs 2.5studs Thetouchsensorisunusualinthatitdoesnthaveanattachedwireleadliketherotation andlightsensors.Instead,itusesasnap-onleadlikethemotors.Thefourstudsclosest tothebuttonhaveelectricalcontactstoreceivetheleadwireconnector.Orientationis notimportantiftheleadwireisattachedtoallfourcontactstuds.Youcanalsomakethe connectionbyusingonlytwoofthecontacts,butwhendoingso,theleadwiremustbe orientedasshownbelow.

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Good
Figure4-10.WiringtheTouchSensor

Bad

4.3.1 Bumpers
Abumperisadevicethatnotifiesyourrobotthatyouranintoanobstacle.Whenstruck, thebumpermovesandpressesorreleasesatouchsensor,notifyingyourrobotofthe impact.BumpersarethemostcommonuseforatouchsensorinFLL.Thismaybedue totheConstructopediausingtouchsensorsprimarilyinthisrole,oritcouldbebecause bumpersaresuchusefuldevices.

Figure4-11.ASimpleBumper

Abumperassemblyusuallyconsistsoffourparts:thebumper,asensor,areturn mechanism,andasupportingframework.Thebumpercomponentisthepartthat receivestheimpactandconvertsittomotionthatcanbedetectedbythesensor.The motionisusuallysliding(Figure4-11)orpivoting(Figure4-12),thoughIhaveseen someinterestingbumpersbuiltofflexiblepartsthatusebending.Thesensorcomponent isusuallyatouchsensor,butbumperscanbebuiltusingrotationsensorsorlightsensors.

Figure4-12.ABumperthatUsestheRotationSensor

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Thereturnmechanismforcesthebumpertoitsnormal(non-impacted)statewhenthe obstacleisremoved.Themostcommonreturnmechanismisarubberbandthatpullsthe bumperagainstamechanicalstop.Thedesignofsomebumpersallowsgravitytobe usedasthereturnmechanism.ThesimplebumperinFigure4-11originallyusedthe springinsidethetouchsensorasthereturnmechanism.Thatdesignprovedtobe unreliable,occasionallysignalingacollisionwhennonehadoccurred.Addingtherubber bandfixedtheproblem.

Figure4-13.ANormallyClosedBumperDesign

Mostbumperdesignscanbedividedintotwocategoriesbasedonthewaytheymonitor theirsensorforimpacts.ThebumperinFigure4-11isa NormallyOpen design.When acollisionoccurs,thebumperpressesagainstthetouchsensor,closingthecontacts.Ina NormallyClosed styleofbumper,thereturnmechanismpullsthebumperagainstthe touchsensor.Acollisioncausesthebumpertopullawayfromthetouchsensor,opening thecontacts. WhenthenormallyopenbumperinFigure4-11collideswithanobstacle,theimpactof thecollisionistransmittedthroughthebumpertothetouchsensor.Thiswillloosenthe sensormounting,andafterafewcollisionsthesensormayfalloff.Additionalbracing couldbeusedtostrengthenthesensormounting,butthisjusttransmitstheimpacttothe robotframe. InanormallyclosedbumperlikethatinFigure4-13,theforceofacollisionisabsorbed bytherubberbands.Thisbumperalsohasalong throw, thedistancebetweenwherea collisionisdetectedandthebumper bottomsout againstahardstop.Thelongthrow allowsthebumpertosenseanobstacleandstoptherobotbeforeahardcollisionoccurs.

Figure4-14.ImprovedNormallyOpenBumper

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Normallyclosedbumpersaregoodatdetectingobstaclesandprotectingyourrobotfrom forcefulcollisions.Butthenormallyclosedtouchsensorcausesproblemsforsensor stacking(attachingmultiplesensorstooneinputport).Aclosedtouchsensorwillforce theinputtobe1(ifconfiguredasatouchsensorport)or100(ifconfiguredasalight sensorport).Theimprovedbumperaboveretainsallthebenefitsofanormallyclosed designwiththeadvantageofhavingthetouchsensorbenormallyopen.

4.3.2 LimitandPositionSwitches
Touchsensorshavemanyusesotherthanbumpers.Limitandpositionswitchestellyou whenacomponentofyourrobotisinacertainlocation.Theyarediscretesensors(as opposedtocontinuoussensors)inthattheyprovidepositioninformationonlyatcertain locations.Youonlyknowwhereyouarewhilethetouchsensorispressed.Whenitis open,youonlyknowwhereyouarenot.

Figure4-15.PositionandLimitSwitches

Limitandpositionswitchesreallydifferonlyintheiruse.Limitswitchesareguardsthat watchforsomethingbeingwhereitisnotsupposedtobe.Theyareprotective mechanismsusedwhendamagecouldresultfromadevicemovingoutsideitsworking envelope.Apositionswitchisjusttheopposite;itisamessengerthatnotifiesyouwhen adeviceiswhereyouwantittobe. ThelightscannerinFigure4-15hastwolimitswitchesandapositionswitch,andalluse onlyonetouchsensor!Thebottomtwocamsarepartofthelimitswitches.Theyprevent thescannerpostfromtwistingmorethan+/-90degrees.Thetopcamisapositionswitch thattellstheRCXwhenthesensorispointedstraightforward.Tobeabletointerpretthe touchsensorfeedback,theprogramhastokeepcarefultrackofwherethescannerpostis andwhichwayitisspinning.

4.3.3 Rotationsensor
PerhapsthemostrepeatedgripeIveheardfromFLLteamsisaboutthelackofasecond rotationsensor.Havingtwojustseemstomakesense:oneforleftandoneforright,or onefordistanceandoneforsteering.Otherteamsseethelackofasecondrotation sensorasachallenge,andsomeoftheirsolutionshavebeenverycreative.

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Figure4-16.ATouchRotationSensor

Justasarotationsensorcanbeusedinplaceofatouchsensoraspartofabumper,a touchsensorcanbeusedtomeasurerotation.Intherotationsensor,opto-interruptersuse lighttomonitorthepositionofafan-shapedrotor.InFigure4-17,thetouchsensoris usedtomonitorthepositionoftheaxlejoiner.

Question: What is the resolution of the rotation sensor in Figure

4-16?

4.4 LightSensor
Thelightsensorisa2x4LEGObrickthatcontainsaredlightemittingdiode(LED)and aphototransistor.TheredLEDilluminatestheareainfrontofthebrick,andthephoto transistormeasurestheintensityofthereflectedlight.Thelightsensorreturnsavaluein therangeof0to100%.ThelowestreadingIhaveeverseenis20%,whichItookat midnightinthemiddleofmybasementwiththelightsoff.Youcangetto100%by aimingthesensoratthesunonacleardayorbyholdingitwithinafewinchesofa100W lightbulb.Innormaloperation,thesensorvaluestendtobebetween30and60%. 2studs

1.33bricks or 1.6studs 4studs

Figure4-17.TheLightSensor

OneofmyearliestexperienceswiththelightsensorwaswhenIuseditaspartofacandy sorter.IwantedtosortbagsofpeanutM&Msbasedonthecoloroftheircandyshells (brownismyfavorite).Theconceptwassimple.Iwouldusethelighttodeterminethe color,thenmovetherobottopositionitoverthecorrectbin.

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Imadeapivoting LazySusan typerobotthatIcouldsurroundwithcupstoreceivethe candy.Therubbertrackmadeaniceconveyorbelt,andIfoundadesignforsomething calleda marblepump thatdidagreatjobofgettingthecandy,oneatatime,outofthe hopper.Withallthemechanicsworkingcorrectly,allthatwasleftwastopopthelight sensorvaluesforeachcolorintotheprogram.VisionsofwatchingBattlebotswhile munchingonbrownM&Msdancedthroughmyhead.
Table4-1.LightSensorReadingsforPeanutM&Ms

Distance From Sensor

stud 1stud

Red 48 45

Orange 48 46

Yellow 51 48

Green 38 37

Blue 40 35

Brown 40 35

Inevergotthatsortertoworkverywellbecausethesensorvaluesfordifferentcolored M&Msweretoosimilar.Afterplayingaroundabitandtryingafewthings,Igotitto sortM&Msintothreecolorgroups:Yellowinonecup,OrangeandRedinanother,and Blue,Green,andBrowninathird.Eventually,Igottiredofworkingontherobotand disassembleditforparts.IthinkthissamesortofthinghappenstomanyFLLteamsthat trytousethelightsensorontheirrobot.Theycomeupwithareallyneatideaandbuild robottotryitout.Duringtesting,therobotdoesntworkquiterightordoesntwork reliably.Theteamtinkersaroundwithitabit,failstomakerealprogress,andtossesthe sensorbackintothepartsbin. TheproblemsIhadwiththecandysorterwerenotthefaultofthelightsensor.The projectwasdoomedfromtheverystartwhenIchosetousethesensorinanapplication forwhichitwasillsuited.Ineededtohaveabetterunderstandingofthelightsensor beforeusingitinanotherproject,therefore,toincreasemyunderstanding,Iperformeda seriesofexperiments.

4.4.1 Experiment#1,Color
Frommycandysorterexperience,Iknewthelightsensorreadingisaffectedbythecolor oftheobjectatwhichitisaimed.Butthereadingalsoappearstobeaffectedbythe distancebetweenthesensorandtheobject,variationsintheobjectssizeandshape,and ambientlightingconditions.IfIwasgoingtolearnanythingaboutthelightsensor,Ihad tolimitthenumberofvariables.Formyfirstexperiment,Idecidedtostudythe relationshipbetweenlightsensorvalue,color,anddistance.

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Figure4-18.LightSensorColorExperiment

Forthisexperiment,IbuiltaboxoutofLEGOpartswithalightsensorcenteredatone end.Theboxhadsolidsidesandatopandbottomtopreventambientlightfrom distortingtheresults.Next,Imadeseveraldifferentcolored targets thatIcouldplace intheboxatvariousdistancesfromthesensor.Iused1x4brickstomakethetargets becauseIhavetheminmanydifferentcolors,andtheywillallowotherstoeasily reproducemywork.Foreachdifferentcolor,Itooksensorreadingsat1,2,3,4,and5 studsspacing.Theresultsareshowninthetablebelow.

Table4-2.LightSensorReadingsforColorExperiment Distance(studs)

Black White Gray DkGray Yellow Red Blue Green

1 43 54 49 45 53 50 44 42

2 38 48 43 40 48 45 38 37

3 35 43 39 35 43 41 34 32

4 33 40 35 31 39 37 32 29

5 27 37 32 29 36 35 31 28

4.4.1.1Color
AsIwasperformingmylightsensorexperiments,itbecameapparentthatthelightsensor doesntseelightthesamewayIdo.Tomyeyes,thegreenbricksappearbrighterthan theredbricks,yetthegreenbricksensorreadingswereconsistentlylower.Infact,the lightsensorreadingsforthegreen,blue,darkgray,andblackbrickswereessentiallythe same. Lightismadeupofelectromagneticwaves--vibrationsofelectricandmagneticfieldsthat travelthroughspace.Therearemanytypesofelectromagneticwaves:somewecanfeel (heat),somewecansee(light),andsomewehaveharnessedforourownuses(television andradio).Oureyescandetectelectromagneticwaveswithwavelengthsintherangeof 400nm(violet)to700nm(red)inlength.Wecallthistinyportionoftheelectromagnetic spectrumvisiblelight.Oureyesperceivedifferentwavelengthsofvisiblelightashaving 4-60

differentcolors.Lightwithawavelengthof700nmisred;bluelighthasawavelength around460nm.

Figure4-19.VisibleLightSpectrum

TheLEGOlightsensorusesasiliconephototransistorasitssensingelement.According toMichaelGasperi7,thephototransistorismostsensitivetolightintheredtoinfrared range,havingpeaksensitivityaround800nm.CheapredLEDsofthetypeusedinthe lightsensor,outputafairlybroadspectra,butthemostintenselightissomewhere between650and750nm.Thismakesitadecentmatchforthephototransistor.Oureyes aremostsensitiveintheblue-greentoyellowrange(500nm600nm).Thisexplained whythegreenbrickslookedsobrighttome,andtheredbrickslookedbrighttothelight sensor.Butitdidntadequatelyexplainwhythelightsensorreadingsfortheyellow bricksweresohigh,andthereadingsforthegreenbricksweresolow.

100 RelativeResponse(%) 80 60 40 20 0 300 Phototransistor HumanEye

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

Wave le ngth(nm )

Figure4-20.TheLightSensorSeesDifferentlythanOurEyes

Therearetwowaysinwhichweseecolors.Onewayisforanobjecttoemitlightwaves inthewavelengthoftheobservedcolor.ThelightsensorsredLEDemitslightwitha wavelengtharound660nm,whichiswhyitappearsred.Yourcomputermonitorand televisioncanemitred,green,andbluecoloredlight.Othercolorsarecreatedbymixing theseprimarycolors.Theotherwaytoseecolorisforanobjecttoreflectlightwavesin thefrequencyoftheobservedcolorandabsorballotherwavelengths.TheredLEGO brickreflectsredlight,butabsorbsblueandgreenlight.

7

ExtremeMindstormsAnAdvancedGuidetoLegoMindstorms ,DaveBaum,MichaelGasperi,Ralph HempelandLouisVilla

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Blue

White Red Green

Figure4-21.LightColors

ThelightsensorreadingsinTable4-2starttomakesensewhenyouthinkofcolorin termsofemission,reflection,andabsorption.Withthecoverplacedonmytestbox,the onlylightstrikingthecoloredbricktargetwastheredlightemittedfromtheredLED. TheredLEGObricksareverygoodatreflectingredlight,thatswhytheyappearredto usandbrighttothesensor.Thegreenandbluebricksdontreflectredlightwellatall andhavesensorreadingsthatwouldmakeyouthinktheywereblack.Theyellowand whitebricksgivethehighestsensorreadingsbecausetheyreflectredlightandother wavelengthstheLEDemitsaswell.

Question: In a dark room, what color do you see when shining the
light sensors red LED light on a yellow LEGO brick?

4.4.1.2Distance
TheInverseSquareLawisaneatmathematicalformulathatshowsupallovertheplace inphysics.Itdefinestherelationshipbetweenthemeasuredstrengthofathing,likethe pullofgravityortheloudnessofsound,andthedistanceyouarefromthesourceofthe thing.TheInverseSquareLawforlightintensitystatesthattheintensityoflight observedfromasourceofconstantbrightnessfallsoffasasquareofthedistancefrom theobject.Itisgenerallyexpressedastheratiooflightintensitiesl1andl2atdistancesd1 andd2.
100 RelativeIntensity(%) 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 Re lative Dis tance 4 5

l1 d 22 = l2 d12

Thismeansthatifwedoublethedistancetoalightsource,theobservedintensityis decreasedto(1/2)2or ofitsoriginalvalue.At3,4,and5timesthedistance,the

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intensitywouldbedecreasedto1/9,1/16,and1/25oftheoriginalvalue.Initially,intensity fallsoffveryquicklyasyoumoveawayfromalightsource.Butasyougetfartherand fartheraway,thechangebecomeslessandlessnoticeable. Giventhat,itwasnosurprisethatplotsofthesensorreadingsshowtheintensity decreasingrapidlyasthedistancebetweenthelightsensorandthetargetincreases.Im notsurewhythesensorreadingsdidntfalloffasquicklyaspredictedbytheInverse SquareLaw,butIthinkitmightbeduetothephototransistorandLEDbeingsoclose together(muchofthelightmeasuredbythephototransistorneverleavesthelightsensor housing).Lookingattheplotsandthetable,InowseewhyInevergotmycandysorter toworkverywell.Achangeindistanceassmallashalfastudisenoughforthelight sensortoconfuseredwithyelloworbluewithgreen,andifaredbrickisplacedtwo studsfartherawaythanagreenbrick,thelightsensorcanttellthedifferencebetween them.
55 50 SensorReading(%) 45 40 35 30 25 1 2 3 Dis tance(s tuds) 4 5 Y ellow Red Blue Green

Figure4-22.ColorExperimentSensorReadings

4.4.1.3Conclusions
Fromthisexperiment,IdrewafewconclusionsabouttheLEGOlightsensor.Themost importantisthatyoucanusethesensortomeasuredistanceifyouknowthecolorofthe reflectingsurface,oryoucantellcolorifyouknowthedistancefromthereflecting surface,butyoucantdoboth.Forbestresults,thelightsensorshouldbeusedin carefullycontrolledconditions.Caremustbetakentolimitthenumberofvariables. Thelightsensordoesnotseelightthesameashumansdo.Thesensitivityofthesensor isnotwellmatchedtohumanvision.Whatappearsbrighttooureyesmaybedarktothe lightsensor,andlightthatisoutsideourrangeofvisioncaneasilydrivethesensor readingto100%.Itisalwaysagoodpracticetocollectandanalyzesomesensordata priortodevelopingastrategyforusingthelightsensor.

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Ialsolearnedthatthelightsensorisextremelysensitivetothedistancebetweenthe sensorandthereflectingsurface.Whenusingthesensortomeasurecontrastitmustbe heldafixeddistancefromthereflectingsurface.Evensmallvariationsindistancecan makethesensorreadingsunusable.Rememberthiswhendesigningthelightsensor mountforyourrobot.

4.4.2 Experiment#2,AmbientLight
Inmyfirstexperiment,Istudiedtherelationshipbetweencolorandthelightsensor reading.Fromthedata,Ideducedthatthesensorreadingisnotonlydependantuponthe coloroftheobjectbeingviewedbutalsouponthewavelengthofthelightilluminating theobject.Innormalusage,thelightsensorandtargetwillnotbeinasealedcontainer. Lightfromexternalsources,ambientlight,willhavesomeeffectonthesensorreading. Tobetterunderstandhowambientlightaffectsthesensorreadings,Iperformedasecond experiment. Forthisexperiment,Ibuiltawallofdifferentcoloredbrickstouseasatargetandan adjustablestandtoholdthesensoraknowndistanceawayfromthebricks.Thestand was spiderlike tominimizetheshadowitcast.Ithenrecordedthelightsensor readingsforeachcoloredbrickatdifferentdistancesunderavarietyoflighting conditions.First,asabaseline,Itookmeasurementsinacompletelydarkroominmy basement(lightsensorreading22%).Irepeatedtheexperimentin normalbasement lightingconditions(sensorreading46%)andthenin brightcompetition lighting conditions(sensorreading65%).ThereadingsappearinTable4-3.

Figure4-23.AmbientLightExperiment

ThefirstthingInoticedfromthedatawashowthegreenandbluesensorreadingswere themostaffectedbythepresenceofambientlight.Theincandescentlampsusedto producethemoderateandbrightlightingconditionsemitafullspectrumofvisiblelight wavelengths.Thisgivestheblueandgreenbrickssomethingtoreflect,sotheyappear muchbrightertothesensorthaninthepreviousexperiment.

Question: In the 01 FLL challenge Volcano Panic, a blue tape line

was used to mark the edge of the ocean. The intersection of the blue

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line with one of the many black lines on the table was a useful navigation landmark. Many teams had a hard time finding the blue line. What was the likely source of their problem, and how could they have improved their chances?
Table4-3.SensorReadingsforAmbientLightExperiment 1 stud 39 40 43 50 36 39 47 49 NoLight 2 3 std std 27 27 34 30 38 34 44 40 32 28 36 33 43 39 44 39 4 std 26 28 33 37 27 29 36 37 1 stud 39 40 45 52 40 45 51 52 LowLight 2 3 std std 36 35 38 38 45 43 50 50 42 42 44 45 49 48 50 49 4 std 35 38 43 50 42 45 49 50 1 stud 39 43 49 58 49 51 56 58 BrightLight 2 3 std std 46 52 47 53 53 57 60 62 55 58 58 60 60 62 61 63 4 std 52 53 57 63 58 60 62 62

Black DkGray Gray White Green Blue Red Yellow

However,thereallyinterestingandimportantthingtonoticeishowambientlight changestherelationshipbetweensensorvalueanddistance.Figure4-24isaplotofthe Graybricksensorreadingsunderthethreelightingconditions.In nolight conditions, thesensorreadingsaresimilartothosetakeninthesealedchamberinexperiment#1. Thesensorreadingsarealmostflatin lowlight conditions.ThelightfromtheredLED iscompletelyoverwhelmedbythelightfrommultiple100Wincandescentlampsusedto lighttheroom.Andin brightlight conditions,thesensorreadingsactuallyincreaseas thesensorismovedawayfromthetarget.Atshorterdistances,thelightsensorbodyand testfixtureblockedsomeoftheambientlightfromstrikingthetarget.Lesslightwas blockedasthesensorwasmovedfartheraway.
60 55 SensorReading(%) 50 45 40 35 30 25 1 2 3 4 Dis tance (s tuds) NoLight Low Light BrightLight

Figure4-24.LightSensorReadingsforGrayLEGOBrick

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4.4.2.1Conclusions
Itappearsthatthelightsensorisverysensitivetoambientlight,whichisdisconcerting becauseyouseldomhavecontroloverthelighting.Thispointwasreallydrivenhome whenIdemonstratedafewofmyrobotsatanoutdoorexposition.Eventhoughthe demonstrationtablewasunderacanopytent,Ihadaverydifficulttimegettingtherobots withlightsensorstoworkcorrectly.AndIthoughtIhadthesensorsprettywell protected.Ishouldhavetestedmyrobotsundertheexpectedlightingconditions. Rememberthiswhentestingyourrobotinadimlylitbasement.Itmaybehavevery differentlyonceitisunderthebrightlightsofthecompetitionarena.

4.5 RotationSensor
Therotationsensorisusedtomeasurehowfararotatingaxlehasturned.Ithasafree spinningbushingtoreceivetheaxle.Asthebushingturns,acounterintheRXCis incrementedordecremented.Eachfullrotationregistersas16countsgivingthesensora resolutionof22.5degrees. 4studs

1.33bricks or 1.6studs 3.5studs 2studs

Figure4-25.RotationSensor

2bricks or 2.4studs

Therotationsensorscantrackupto32,767countsineitherdirection.Ifyouexceedthis, thesensorwill wraparound goingfromlargestpositivevaluetolargestnegativevalue (orviceversa).Inpractice,thecountlimitationisseldomaseriousproblem.Arobot withtherotationsensordirectlyattachedtothelarge81mmballoontireswilltravel1/3 ofamilebeforewraparoundoccurs.

4.5.1 Resolution
Theresolutionoftherotationsensorisusuallyadequatefordistancemeasurement. UsingthelargestLEGOwheel(the81.6mmballoontire),22.5degreesworksouttoonly 0.6 oflineartravel.Forthesmallballoontire,itis .Butthismuchmeasurement uncertaintymaybeunacceptableforaccurateturning.Foradifferentialdriverobotwith awheelbase10studswide, ofwheeltravelworksoutto8degreesofturnangle.

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Figure4-26.UsingGearReductiontoIncreaseResolution

Effectivesensorresolutioncanbeincreasedusinggearreduction.Fortheexamplein Figure4-26,theinputshaft(onewiththewormgear)turns24timesforeachrevolution oftheoutputshaft(onewiththespurgear).Therotationsensorwillgenerate384counts foreachrevolutionofthe24toothgear.Thatslessthat1degreepercount. Unfortunately,thisassemblyhasabout2degreesofbacklash,causingalotofthat resolutiontobewasted.

4.5.2 Internals
Therotationsensorisaninterestinglittledevice.IfyouhadSupermansX-rayvision, youcouldseethatitisbuiltusingtwotinyopto-interrupters.Theseareforkshaped devicesthathaveanLEDononetineandaphotoresistorontheother.Thephoto resistorsenseswhenanobstructionpassesbetweenitandtheLED.

Figure4-27.RotationSensorInternals.DON'TDOTHIS!!!

Therotatingbushinghasfourlittlefanbladesthatpassbetweentheopto-interruptersas thebushingspins.Theopto-interrupteroutputchangesasabladeentersandagainasit leaves.Thisgives8transitionsperrotationforeachsensor.Usingtwosensorsprovides 16countsperrevolutionplusallowsthesensortocalculatethedirectionofrotation..

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Figure4-28.HomemadeRotationSensorMadeFromLEGOParts

Youcanusealightsensor,lamp,andmediumpulleywheeltobuildyourownrotation sensor.Thelightsensorandlampareusedtoimplementtheopto-interrupter.Asthe axleturns,thepulleywheelwillalternatelyblockortransmitlightfromthelamp.With onlyonesensor,youcannotdeterminerotationdirection,butdirectioncanusuallybe ascertainedbylookingatthemotorcommands.

Question: What is the resolution of the homemade rotation sensor in

Figure 4-28?

4.5.3 CountingErrors
TherehavebeendozensofpostsonLUGNET(LEGOUsersGroupNetwork)discussing amysteriousproblemwiththeLEGOrotationsensor.Thereisawideheldbeliefthat countingerrorsoccuriftherotationspeedistoofastortooslow.Exactspeedsare uncertain,buttheyhavebeenreportedtobebelow10-20rpmorabove1200-1400rpm. Thelargebodyofexperimentaldataavailableonthewebseemstoagreethattherotation sensorisquitereliableifspeedsarekeptinthe601000rpmrange.

Figure4-29.AHomingSwitchtoResettheRotationSensor

Therotationsensorcanbetrickytouse,sodontimmediatelyblamecountingproblems ifyouhavedifficultiesusingitinyourrobot.Repeatabilityproblemsaremorelikelydue toprogrammingerrors(forgettingtoclearthesensorbeforeuseorinterpretingthesensor 4-68

readingsincorrectly),designerrors(inadequatesensorresolutionorexcessivebacklash), controlproblems(acceleratingandturningtoofast),orvariationsininitialconditions (notputtingeverythingintherightplacebeforepushingthestartbutton).Butifyoustill haveproblems,aftercheckingthateverythingelseworksfine,youmightneedahoming switch. Ahomingswitchisasecondarysensorthatcanbeusedtocheckorresetthevalueofthe primarysensor.ThelightscannerinFigure4-29usesatouchsensorforahoming switch.Thecamattachedtotherotatinglightsensorpressestheswitchwhenthelight sensorisfacingforward.PressingtheswitchnotifiestheRCXtocheckthevalueofthe rotationsensorandresetthecountsiftheyareincorrect(thecountshouldbezeroatthe straightaheadposition).

4.6 SensorStacking
TheRCXhasthreemotoroutputportsandthreesensorinputports,yetthechallengekit includestwotouchsensors,twolightsensors,andonerotationsensor.Whatdoyoudo withallthoseextrasensors?ManyFLLteamsresolvethisdilemmabyleavingthe sensorsoutoftheirdesign.Oneteamcameupwiththecreativeideaofusingitstouch sensorsasdecorativeeyes.Theeyeslookedcoolbutwerentveryhelpful.Themost usefulsolutionistostackthesensors. Stackingistheattachingofmultiplesensorstoasingleinputport.Whendonecorrectly, theRCXisabletoreadtheinputportvalueanddeterminewhichsensorthevaluecame from.Touchsensorsarethebestcandidatesforstacking.Theycanbestackedwithlight sensorsorothertouchsensors.Theoretically,twolightsensorscouldbestacked,butI wouldntknowhowtointerpretthesensorreading.Rotationsensorscannotbestacked duetothenatureoftheirfeedbacksignals.
Table4-4.SensorReadingsforTwoStackedSensors

TouchOpen TouchClosed LightSensor

TouchOpen 0 1 lightlevel

TouchClosed 1 1 100

LightSensor lightlevel 100 ???

FromTable4-4,wecanseetheimportanceofplanningforsensorstackingintheearly stagesofrobotdesign.Whenatouchsensorispressed,noothersensorsattachedtothat inputcanberead.Anybumpersorpositionorlimitswitchesthatuseatouchsensormust havethesensorbenormallyopen(zero).

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5 RobotDrives
Avastmajorityofrobots,especiallythoseusedinindustry,areofthestationarytype. Theymayhavehandstopickthingsupandarmstomovethingsfromheretothere,but theyhavenolegs.Instead,theydependonotherspecializedmachinestobringthemthe materialstheyneedfortheirworkandcartoffthefruitsoftheirlabor.Therobots designedforFLLarequitetheopposite;theyneedtomove.Theyhaveplacestogoand scientiststosave,andallwithoutanyoutsideinterventionorcontrol.Thiskindofrobot iscommonlyreferredtoasanAutonomousRoboticVehicleorARV,anditisamongthe mostdifficultkindsofrobotstobuildandprogram. ThepartofanARVthatisresponsibleformovingaroundiscalledthemotionbaseor motionplatform.Earlymotionbaseswereexclusivelywheeledplatformsthatonlyhad tomovetheirrobotsaroundonasmoothlaboratoryfloor.Asrobotsmovedoutofthe lab,automotiveandtanktyperobotsbecameincreasinglypopular.Nowadays,ARVs arezoomingdownthehighwayat60mph,divingtothedeepestdepthsoftheocean, walkingdownintothecauldronsofactivevolcanoes,flyingsurveillanceoverenemy armies,androllingoverthesurfaceofMars. ThemotionbasesforFLLrobotshaventbeenquitesoexotic.Theiroperating environmentisclosertothesmoothlaboratoryfloorthanthecauldronofanactive volcano.Wheeledplatformsarethemostcommon,buttracksarepopulartoo.Some haveall-wheel-drivetohelpthemclimbinclinesortraverseruggedterrain.Afewteams havetriedautomotivetypeplatformswithsteeredfrontwheels,butmostrobotsusesome sortofdifferentialsteeringarrangementwhereturningisperformedbychangingthe relativespeedsofthetwodrivemotors. Muchofyourrobotssuccesswillbedeterminedonhowwellthestrengthsofitsmotion basematchtheneedsofyouroverallstrategy.Whatsmoreimportant,speedor accuracy?Istravelinginaperfectlystraightlinereallyrequired?Doyourplansrequire lotsofturnsandmaneuveringintightquarters?Ispullingcapacityorloadcarrying capacityimportant?Whataboutobstacles,uneventerrain,surfacevariations?Many questionsmustbeansweredbeforebuildingcanbegin.

5.1 DifferentialDrive
Differentialdrivemotionplatformswereverypopularinearlymobilerobots.Two wheelsmountedonasingleaxisareindependentlypoweredandcontrolled,providing bothdriveandsteering.Steeringisperformedbychangingtherelativevelocitiesofthe twodrivewheels.Spinningtheleftwheelfastercausestherobottoturnright.Spinning therightwheelfastercausestherobottoturnleft.Byspinningthewheelsinopposite directions,itispossibletoturninplace,somethingthatisimpossibletodoinan automobile.Perhapsthemostcommonexampleofadifferentialdriveplatformin everydaylifeisthewheelchair.

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Figure5-1.ADifferentialDriveRobot

DifferentialdriverobotsareverypopularinFLL.Imsurethisisinlargepartdueto theirinclusionintheConstructopedia.However,theyreallyareagoodplatformfor robotcompetitions.Differentialdrivesareeasytodesignandbuild,makingthemagood choiceforteamswithyoungchildren.Theyareveryagileandcanbequitecompact, allowingthemtomaneuverintightspaces.Havingtwomotorsattachedtothedriven wheelsmakesdifferentialdriverobotsverypowerfulandcapableofclimbinginclines thatwouldstopotherrobots.

5.1.1 Casters
Becauseitishardtomakeastabletwowheeledvehicle,mostdifferentialdriverobots haveoneormorenon-drivenwheelstoprovidebalance.Commonlycalledcasters, idlers,orbogeys,thejobofthesewheelsistopreventtherobotfromtippingoverwhile atthesametimehavinglittleornoimpactonlocomotionorsteering.Unlikethedriven wheelsthathaveonlyoneaxisofmotion,thesebalancewheelsmustbeabletoturnin anydirection.Upside-downballrollersareperfectlysuitedforthistask.Usingskidscan alsobeagoodsolutionifthefloorissmoothandslippery.

Figure5-2.SwivelCasters

ButLEGOdoesnotmakeballbearings,andskidsarenotalwaysappropriate.Therefore, FLLdifferentialdriverobotsusuallyuseaswivelcaster.Aswivelcasterhasoneormore wheelswhichareattachedtoapivotinghorn.Thehornisbenttooffsetthewheelaxle

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andpivotaxle.Thisoffsetmakesthecasterwheelselfaligning.Whenyourrobot changesdirectionthecasterautomaticallyturnstothenewheading. Aligning Torque Steer Angle Travel Direction Caster Offset
O =CasterOffset A =SteerAngle D =Oxsin(A) F =DragForce T =AligningTorque =FxD =FxOxsin(A)

D Drag

Figure5-3.SwivelCastersareSelfAligning

Asadifferentialdriverobotmovesforward,thegroundslidesbackwardsbeneaththe casterwheels.Frictionbetweenthewheelandgroundgeneratesaforcepulling backwardsonthewheel.Ifthecasterispointedinthedirectionoftravel,thedragforce justcausesthecasterswheeltoturn.However,ifthecasterisnotpointinginthe directionoftravel,itgeneratesanaligningtorquewhichtendstopivotthecaster.The amountofaligningtorqueisproportionaltothecasteroffset.Casterswithalargeoffset willhavehigheraligningtorquesforagivensteerangle.Theyaremorestableand followbetterthancasterswithsmalloffsets.

Figure5-4.CastersGenerateSteeringForcesWhileAligning

Increasingtheoffsetwillmakeacasterlesstwitchy,butitcanalsoamplifycastersteer, whichissomethingthatisnotverydesirableinrobotapplications.Castersteeris somethingweareallfamiliarwithfromourexperiencewithshoppingcarts.Itisthe tendencyofthecasterstosteerthefrontendofthecartwhiletheyalignthemselvesafter completingaturn.Thisisparticularlynoticeableifthecartisheavilyloadedand straighteningafterasharpcornerorreversingdirection.Whileonlymildlyannoyingina shoppingcart,itcanbearealprobleminarobot.Excessivecastersteermakesyour robotdifficulttocontrolandintroduceserrorsindistanceandsteeringmeasurements. Whenthecasterwheelisnotalignedwiththedirectionoftravelitgeneratesasideways forceasitrolls,justasthefrontwheelsofanautomobilegenerateasidewaysforce duringsteering.Ifthefrictionbetweenthewheelandthegroundistoogreattoallowthe castertoskid,theforceisexertedagainstthecart,causingthefrontendtomove sideways.Asthecasterstraightensout,thesidewaysmotionbecomeslessandless noticeable.

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Question: Drawing on your shopping cart experience, how can you

minimize the caster steer effect?

5.1.2 WheelConfiguration
Earlydifferentialdriverobotsoftenhadadiamondshapedwheelconfigurationlikethat showninFigure5-5.Theserobotsusedencoders(rotationsensors)onthetwodrive wheelstomeasuredistancetraveledandtocontrolsteering.Therefore,itwasvery importantthatthedrivewheelsbeinfirmcontactwiththeground.Byhavingcasters bothforeandaft,itwaspossibletoputtherobotscenterofgravitydirectlyoverthe drivewheels,whichsupportedalmostalloftherobotsweight.Thismaximizedthe tractionofthedrivewheelsandminimizedtheforcesgeneratedbythecastersaligning.

CG

Figure5-5.DiamondShapedWheelLayout

Thediamondlayoutworkedgreatinthelab,glidingalongoverthesmoothflatfloors,but itencounteredsomeseriousproblemsoutintherealworld.Toachievestaticstability (notfalloverwhenstandingstill),avehiclemusthaveatleastthreewheels,notallona commonaxis,touchingtheground.Ifthevehiclehasmorethanthreewheelsthereisno guaranteethatallthewheelswillbetouchingthegroundatanygivenmoment.A problemwiththediamondwheellayoutisthatwhenoneofthecastersdrivesovera bumpitcausesoneofthedrivewheelstoliftupintotheair.Whenthishappens,the robotturnsuncontrollablytowardstheraisedwheel.Bythetimethecastergetsoverthe bump,therobotisnolongercertainofitsheadinganddistancetraveled. Athreewheeledtriangleconfigurationfixesthisproblem,butitlosessomeofthe advantagesofthediamondlayout.Withonlythreewheels,youareguaranteedtohave allthreewheelsincontactwiththeground.Unfortunately,usingthreewheelsalsomeans thatthecenterofgravitycannotbecenteredoverthedrivewheelaxis,andsomeofthe robotsweightwillbesupportedbythecaster.Tocompensate,robotdesignersposition theCGasclosetothedrivewheelaxisandasfarawayfromthecasteraspossible. Movingthecasterfartherawayfromthedrivewheelsalsohelps.

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CG

Figure5-6.TriangleShapedWheelLayout

Thecastercanbeplacedeitherinfrontoforbehindthedrivewheels.Adifferentialdrive robotpivotsaboutapointcenteredbetweenthetwodrivewheels.Placingthecasterin frontofthedrivewheelsmakesthefrontendoftherobottwitchy,verysensitiveto steeringchanges.Placingthecasterbehindthedrivewheelsmakesthefrontendmore stable.

5.1.3 Steering
Adifferentialdriverobotsteersbyturningthedrivewheelsatdifferentspeeds.Spinning theleftwheelfastersteerstherobottotheright,andspinningtherightwheelfastersteers therobottotheleft.InhisarticlefortheSeattleRoboticsSociety,G.W.Lucas8shows thatthedrivewheelsofadifferentialdriverobotfollowconcentriccircularpathswhile turning.Thisisshowninthefigurebelow.
R B A L1 L2 =TurningRadius =WheelbaseWidth =AngleofTurn =InnerWheelArcLength =OuterWheelArcLength

L2 L1 B W2 W1

Figure5-7.TurningRadiusisDeterminedWheelbaseandRelativeSpeed

Iftheturnangle(A)ismeasuredinradiansthenthelengthsofarcsL1andL2canbe expressedas: L1=AxR L2=Ax(R+B)

UsingaPID-basedTechniqueForCompetitiveOdometryandDead-Reckoning byG.W.Lucas www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/200108/using_a_pid.html
8

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Withalittlealgebraicmanipulationwecandefinetheturningradius(R)asafunctionof thewheelbasewidth(B)andthetwoarclengths(L1andL2). A= L2/(R+B)=L1/R RxL2=(R+B)xL1 Rx(L2L1)=BxL1 R=BxL1/(L2L1) Ifwehaveadifferentialdriverobotwitha4 widewheelbase,whatistheturningradius iftheinnerwheelistravelingat18inchesperminute(ipm)andtheouterwheelat 24ipm?Whatwouldbetheheadingchangeiftherobotmaintainedthisspeedfor10 seconds? Thereareseveralwaystosolvethisproblem,butperhapstheeasiestistocalculatethe distanceeachwheelwouldtravelduringthe10seconds,andusethesevaluestocalculate theturningradius. L1=V1xTime =18ipmx10seconds =18ipmx10/60minutes =3 L2 =24ipmx10/60minutes =4 R =BxL1/(L2L1) =4 x3 /4 =3 Nowthatweknowtheturningradius,itiseasytocalculatetheturningangle.The turninganglejusthappenstobethesameastheangularchangeintherobotheading.
NewHeading OldHeading

HeadingChange =TurningAngle =L1/R =3 /(3 /radian) =1radian =57.3degrees

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Knowinghowfareachwheelmoved,wecancalculatethenewheadingfortherobot. SimilarequationscancalculatehowfartherobotmovedintheNorth/Southand East/Westdirections.Ifwewrotetherobotcontrolprogramtocontinuouslycalculate headingandpositionbasedonthewheelmotion,wewouldbedoingodometry. Odometryisanavigationtechniquewheredatafromwheelpositionsensorsisusedto calculatethepositionandorientationoftherobot.Almostallland-based,mobilerobots useodometryaspartoftheirnavigationsystem.

5.1.4 SteeringMadeEasier
Theodometryequationdiscussedintheprevioussectionrequirespositioninformation fromeachdrivewheel.ThismakesusingodometryforyourFLLrobotabitdifficult. Therotationsensoristhebestdeviceformeasuringwheelposition,andthechallengeset hasonlyonerotationsensor.Onesolutionwouldbetoconstructarotationsensoroutof alightsensorortouchsensor.Someteamshavedonethisandgottenittoworkpretty well(andscoredsomemajorcreativityandmechanicaldesignpoints).Anothersolution istorethinktheodometryequation,andmakeitworkwithonlyonewheelposition sensor.
B L2 A =WheelbaseWidth =OuterWheelArcLength =Angleofturn=L2/B

L2

A B W2 W1

Figure5-8.PivotingAboutaWheel

Figure5-8showsthewheelmotionforazeroradiusturn.Theinnerwheelislockedin position,andtheouterwheelpivotsaboutit.Becausethereisnorotationoftheinner wheel,itdoesntrequirearotationsensor.Theturningangleiscalculatedusingtheouter wheelmotionandthewheelbase.

5.1.5 StraightLineTravel
Aproblemthatmanyteamshavewiththeirdifferentialdriverobotsisgettingthemto travelinastraightline.Differentialdriverobotsareextremelysensitivetotherelative velocityofthetwodrivewheels.Evenaverysmalldifferenceinspeedwillresultinthe robottravelinginanarc.Thetendencytoturncanbeminimizedthroughgoodbuilding practices,evenweightdistributionandchoosingwellmatchedmotors.Buttotravelina perfectlystraightlinerequiressomesortofcorrectionmechanism,eithermechanicalor software. First,youneedtodecideiftravelinginastraightlineisimportantornot.Ifyour competitionstrategyisbasedonmakingperfectturnsandtravelingalonglaserstraight paths,yourteammaybeinforsomedisappointment.Themostsuccessfulteamsbuilda robotthat goesstraightenough andrelyonotherstrategiestocompensateforany 5-76

navigationerrors.Theseselfcorrectingrobotsarebetterabletohandletheinevitable variationsinstartingpositionorunexpectedbumpsandslipsthatoccurduringtheheadto headcompetition.

5.1.5.1.1 SoftwareSolution
Mostdifferentialdriverobotsuseencoders(rotationsensors)tomeasurethepositionof eachdrivewheel.Totravelinastraightline,therobotscontrolsoftwarecontinuously monitorstheencoderfeedbackandadjuststhepowertotheleftandrightmotorstokeep thevalueseven.Thismethodisdifficulttoimplementwithonlyonerotationsensor availableintheFLLchallengekit.Itrequiresthatasecondencoderbeconstructedusing thelightsensororatouchsensor.

5.1.5.1.2 MechanicalSolutions
Inautomotiveapplicationsitisoftendesirabletolimittheslipbetweentheleftandright drivewheels.Aclassicexampleofthisisbeingstuckinthesnow.ManytimesIhave seencarsstuckinthesnowwithonetirespinningwildlyonanicypatchandtheother tiresittingstationaryondrypavement.Thedifferentialsuppliesthesametorquetoeach wheel,butbecauseonewheelisspinningfreelyontheice,themaximumtorquetothe otherwheelisverysmall. Manycarsinnorthernclimatesareequippedwithalimitedslipdifferentialtosolvethis problem.Withalimitedslipdifferential,ifonewheelisspinningfasterthantheother, thedifferentialremovestorquefromthefasterwheelandsuppliesittotheslower.This isoftendonewithsomesortofclutchthatconvertsaslidingmotionintoatorque.

Figure5-9.SimpleLEGOSlipLimiter

ThedifferentialdriveplatforminFigure5-9usesalengthofribbedhoseasaclutchto limitslipbetweenthetwodrivewheels.Whenonewheelspinsfasterthantheother,the axlesslipinsidetheribbedhose.Frictionbetweentheaxlesandthehosetransmitstorque fromthefasterwheeltotheslowerwheel.Thelongerthelengthofaxleinsidethehose themoretorqueistransmitted.Therobotwontgoperfectlystraight,buttheamountof turningcanbegreatlyreduced.

Question: What other LEGO parts could be used to design a slip

limiting clutch? 5-77

Sometimesalimitedslipdifferentialisntenough.Toeliminateslipbetweentheleftand rightdrivewheels,someoffroadvehiclesareequippedwithalockingdifferential.A lockingdifferentialhasaswitchthatallowsittoworklikeanormaldifferential,orforces ittobehavelikeasolidaxle.

Figure5-10.ALockingDifferential

WaybackintheGearschapter,wetalkedabouthowadifferentialcanbeusedto measurethespeeddifferencebetweentwotiresbyreversingtherotationofoneofthe inputshafts.ThisformsthebasisforaLEGOlockingdifferential.Preventingthe differentialinFigure5-10fromrotatingmakesthedrivetrainbehaveasthoughtheleft andrightwheelswereattachedtoasingleaxle.Unlockingthedifferentialallowsthe wheelstospinindependently.

compartment for locking and unlocking the differential. Can you think of a scheme where the RCX could lock and unlock our LEGO implementation?

Question: Some vehicles have a button or lever in the passenger

5.1.6 DifferentialSkid
Differentialskid,sometimesreferredtoasskid-steer,isavariationofthedifferential drive.Itsnormallyusedwithtrackedvehicles(liketanks),butsometimeswith4or6 wheelplatforms(liketheBobcatskidloaderorGatorATV)aswell.Castersarenotused inadifferentialskiddrive;allthewheelsaredriven.Wheelsontheleftsidearedriven byonemotor,wheelsontherightbyanother. Skidsteerconfigurationsrelyontrackorwheelslippageforsteering.Asaconsequence, thewheelpositioninformationcannotbeusedforreliableodometry.Forthisreason, skidsteeringisusuallyreservedfortele-operated(remotecontrolled)robotic applications.Non-drivenmeasurementwheelscanbeaddedtoobtainodometry informationforautonomousoperation.

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Figure5-11.APairofDifferentialSkidRobots

ManydifferentialskidrobotshavecompetedinMinnesotaFLLcompetitionsoverthe pastfewyears,andseveralhavedonequitewell.Thesuccessfulteamsdeveloped strategiesthatmaximizedtheirrobotsstrengthsandminimizedtheirrobotsweaknesses. Skidsteerrobotsaregoodclimbersandcanhandlerougherterrainthanmostotherrobot designs.Theyareasmaneuverableasadifferentialdriverobot,butlessproneto unwanteddifferentialsteer.Andpoorodometrydataisntaproblemifyourrobotuses linefollowingorsomeotherlandmark-basedstrategyfornavigation.

5.2 Steeringdrive
Asteeringdriveisthefamiliarconfigurationusedinautomobiles.Inasteeringdrive, onemotorisusedforlocomotionandasecondmotorforsteering.Decouplingsteering fromforwardmotionmakesasteeringdriveeasiertocontrolthanadifferentialdrive wherethevelocityofeachdrivewheelmustalwaysbecarefullymeasuredand controlled.Frontwheeledsteeringprovidesaccurateodometrywhilesupportingthe tractionandgroundclearanceneedsofall-terrainoperation.Thismakesitapopular choiceforoutdoorautonomousvehicles. Ingeneral,asteeringdriverobotismoredifficulttobuildthanadifferentialdriverobot. Itneedsadifferentialtotransferthepowerofthedrivemotortothewheels.Extra gearingisusuallyrequiredtoamplifythetorqueoutputofthesingledrivemotor.The steeringmechanismcanalsobedifficulttodesignusingthepartsavailableintheRISkit. Luckily,therearemanyTechnicsteeringdriveexamplesontheweb.Aquicksearchon LUGNETrevealedover100differentsteeringdrivevehicles. Figure5-12showstwodifferentsteeringdriverobots.Therobotontheleftusescrown gearsandspurgearstopivotthefrontaxles.Therobotontherighthasrackandpinion steeringjustlikemostcarsontheroadtoday.Therobotontherightusesaspecialgear rackthatisavailableinmanyTechnicvehiclesets,butasimilarmechanismcouldbe builtusingthegearrackssuppliedintheRISkit.

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Figure5-12.Twosteeredwheelrobots

5.2.1 Turning
Asteeringdriverobothasanon-zeroturningradius.Thismeansthatunlikeadifferential driverobot,asteeringdriverobotmusttranslate(moveforward,backwards,and/or sideways)whileturning.Suchsystemsaresaidtobenon-holonomic.Inanonholonomicrobot,oneormoreofthedegrees-of-freedom(heading,position)cannotbe controlledindependently.Thismakespathplanningmoredifficultbecauseeachheading changewillhaveanaccompanyingpositionchange.Non-holonomicvehiclescanbe particularlydifficulttonavigateintightspaces.Rememberthelasttimeyouparallel parked?

DifferentialDrive

SteeringDrive

Figure5-13.PathPlanningisHarderforNon-HolonomicRobots

TheonlyodometryinformationIcouldfindonthewebwasforsteeringplatformswith Ackermancorrection.Usedinalmosteveryvehicleyouseeontheroad,Ackerman steeringcorrectionisamodifiedsteeringgeometrythatminimizeswheelskidwhen turning.Duringsteering,thefourwheelsofasteeringdrivetravelalongfourconcentric arcs.AsseeninFigure5-14,thefrontwheelsofavehiclewithAckermancorrectionare orientedsuchthattheextendedaxisofthewheelspassesthroughthecenterofthesearcs. Thisrequirestheinnerwheeltoturnatasharperanglethantheouterwheel.

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TurningCenter WithAckermanCorrection

TurningCenter? WithoutAckermanCorrection

Figure5-14.AckermanSteeringMinimizesGeometryInducedWheelSkid

WithoutAckermancorrection,thefrontwheelsbothturnthesameamountwhensteering. Thisresultsinthemtryingtotravelalongarcswithdifferentcenters.Asthevehicle turns,oneorbothofthefrontwheelsareforcedtoskidsideways,generatinglargeforces onthesteeringcomponentsandproducingexcessivewearonthetires.Moreimportant forroboticsapplications,isthefactthatyoucantcalculatesolutionsfortheodometry equationsbecausetheturningcentercannotbeabsolutelydetermined. ItspossiblebutdifficulttobuildaLEGOsteeringdrivewithAckermancorrection.I foundsomewebpageswithcalculatorsfordesigningthecomponentsandgeometryanda fewbooksdevotedtothesubject.Unfortunately,thesolutionsrequireusingspecifically sizedcomponentsthatoftendontmapwelltomyavailableLEGOpieces. Asimplersolutionistouseonlyonesteeredwheel.Threewheeledsteeringdrivesare mostcommoninspecializednichemarketslikegolformeterreadercarts.Theirmain disadvantage,atendencytotipoverwhenturningathighspeed,isnotabigproblemin theseapplications.However,athreewheeledplatformssimplerconstructionand odometrymakesitagoodchoiceforaLEGOrobot.
A
A =SteerAngle L =WheelbaseLength R =TurningRadius =L/sin(A)

Figure5-15.TurningRadiusisDeterminedbyWheelBaseandSteeringAngle

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AsshowninFigure5-15,theturningradiusofasteeringdriveisdeterminedbythe lengthofthewheelbaseandthesteerangleofthefrontwheel(s).Thisiswhylongtrucks havealargeturningradiusandsmallsportscarsatightturningradius. Letssaywehaveasteeringdriverobotwitha6 longwheelbaseandamaximumsteer angleof30degrees.Whatistheminimumturningradiusforthefrontwheel,andhow farwouldthefrontwheeltravelwhilecompletinga45degreeturn? TurningRadius =L/sin(A) =6 /sin(30degrees) =12 TravelDistance =RadiusxAngle(inradians) =12 x45degreesx(Piradians/180degrees) =12 xPi/4 =9.42

5.2.2 TricycleDrive
Atricycledriveisasteereddriveplatformwithasingledrivenfrontwheelandtwo passiverearwheels(orviceversa).Thoughitmaylookverysimilartoathreewheeled steeringdriveplatform,atricycledrivehassomeuniquecharacteristicsthatmakeit preferableformostroboticapplications.Themostimportantoftheseisitsabilitytoturn inplace.

Figure5-16.TricycleDrive(Left)andSteeringDrive(Right)RobotsLookSimilar

Asdiscussedintheprevioussection,theminimumturningradiusforasteeringdriveis determinedbythemaximumsteerangleandthelengthofthewheelbase,R=L/sin(A). Ifthemaximumsteeranglewas90degrees,thentheturningradiuswouldbeequaltothe wheelbaselength.Therobotcouldpivotaboutapointmidwaybetweenthetworear wheels. Unfortunately,asteeringdrivewillnotturnifthesteerangleis90degrees.Ifthevehicle movesatall,thefrontwheel(s)skidsidewaysinsteadofrolling.Thisisbecausethedrive 5-82

forcesfromtherearwheelsareperpendiculartothedirectionoftravelofthefrontwheel. Alloftheforceisdirectedatpushingthewheelsideways,andnoneatpushingit forwards.Sidewayswheelslipisnoticeableevenatsteeranglessignificantlylessthan 90degrees.Aboutthebestyoucanhopeforistoplacetheturningcenternearthe outsideofthedrivewheels

TricycleDrive SteeringDrive

A=90

A<90

L=R

L R>L
Turning Center

Turning Center

Figure5-17.AnySteerAngleisPossiblewithaTricycleDrive

Atricycledriverobothasthedrivemotorattachedtothesteeredwheel,allowingitto operateatanysteerangle.Thisgivesitmaneuverabilitythatrivalsthatofdifferential driveandskidsteeringrobots.

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