UNIT II

Electricity & Electromagnetism

Electric Flux :It refers to a hypothetical surface in the field which may be closed or open. For a flow of field, the flux is measured by the number of stream lines that cut through such a surface. The flux of the electric field E through the elemental area ds is a scalar product of the field vector E and the vector area ds. The electric field through the whole surface is obtained by adding up the scalar quantity E.ds for all element of area into which the surface gas been divided. Definition: The total number of lines of force passing through surface is called "Electric flux", and denoted by *E. J E ! E. ds Gausss Law :It is the converse of coulombs law. With the help of coulomb's law we can calculate E for a given charge, while Gauss law enables to determine the charge provided E is known. Statement : The total normal electric flux *E over any closed surface is 1/Io times the total charge q enclosed by the surface. 1 (Total Charge) Total electric flux = I0 q where Io is permittivity of free space. J E ! E. ds ! E ds cos U ! Io Proof :- Let a charge +q is placed at O within a closed surface of irregular shape as shown in fig. Consider point P on the surface at a distance r from O. Now take a small area ds around P. The normal to the surface ds is represented by a vector ds which make an angle U with the direction of electric field E along OP. The electric flux d*E outwards through the area ds is given by d*E = E . ds = E ds cos U where U is angle between E and ds . 1 q d* E ! ds cosU 4Tto r 2 1 q where E ! from coulomb' s law 4Tto r 2 q ds cosU d* E ! 4Tto r 2

But Hence

ds cos U r2 dJ E !

is the solid angle d[ at O q d[ 4T r 2

The

total q JE ! d[ 4T r 2

flux

*E

over

the

whole

surface

is

given

by

is the solid angle subtended by the whole surface at O where the charge q is present. Irrespective of the shape of the volume involved, the integration over the entire closed surface is equal to 4 . q JE ! . 4T 4T r 2 q @ JE = This verifies Gauss's law Io

d[

Field due to a point Charge (Derivation of Coulombs Law):

Consider an isolated charge +q as shown in fig. at a Our aim is to find out electric field point P at a distance r from q.

Construct a Gaussian surface of

radius r.

At any point on the spherical surface, the electric field intensity

E

will

have

the

same magnitude and direction normal to the surface. Both E and ds are directed outward.

Thus, the total flux over the spherical surface is given by

E.

ds . According to Gauss law this must be equal to q/ q 0 Hence, E . ds = or 0 E.ds Cos 0 = q I0

0

0.

E.4 r2 = q

E!

1 q 4TI 0 r 2

Since E is constant everywhere at the spherical surface and is the surface area of the sphere is given by 4 r2.

ds

If at the spherical surface, a second charge q is placed, it experiences a force given by qq' F = E. q @ F! This is coulomb's law. 4TI 0 r 2

Magnetic Induction B:- If a positive test charge q moving with velocity v through a point P in a magnetic field experiences a deflecting force F, then the magnetic induction & at P is defined by the relation. F ! q vvB The magnitude of B can be obtained as follows: F = qvB sin U or

B!

F qv sin U

where U is the angle between v and &. The direction of the force is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and & or direction of cross product. The magnitude of the force is maximum when v and B are right angles to each other, i.e., U = 90o. The direction of maximum force F can be remembered by Fleming's left hand rule. The force is zero when U is equal to zero or 180o.i.e.,is parallel to &. "so if a charge moving through a point P in a magnetic field experiences no deflecting force, then the direction of motion of the charge is defined as the direction of B.

As

B!

F and hence qv sin U

the

unit

of

is

given

by

newton newton newton = (coulomb/sec) x metre =ampere x metre coulombxmetre / sec This composite unit is called weber/m2 or Tesla newton 1 Tesla = weber /m2 = ampere x metre In C G S system of unit, the unit of & is Gauss. 1 Weber/metre2 = 104 Gauss.

Circulating Charge (Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field):In fig. the magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane of the paper and going in to it. A charge q is projected with speed v in the plane of the paper. As the magnetic force on a particle is perpendicular to the velocity, it does not do any work on the particle. Hence, the kinetic energy or the speed of the particle does not change due to the magnetic force. The velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The force is F=qvB in the direction perpendicular to both v and &. This force will deflect the particle without changing the speed and the particle will move along a circle perpendicular to the field. The magnetic force provides the centripetal force. If r be radius of the circle, m be the mass of the particle. mv 2 mv or r! qvB ! r qB The time taken to complete the circle (time period) is 2 m 2 r 2 mv T! ! ! x qB qB v v 1 qB The frequency of revolution is ! ! T 2 m We see that the time period is independent of the speed v and r. The faster particle moves in bigger circle and slower particles in smaller circle such that time period T is the same. This frequency is called the Cyclotron frequency. Cyclotron:- It is an important device designed in 1932 by Lawrence and Livingstone to accelerate charged particles to high energies. Principle:It is based on the principle that a charged particle moving at right angles to a uniform magnetic field is acted upon by a force perpendicular to its direction of motion and follows a circular path. The speed(or kinetic energy) of the particle increased with the help of electric field Construction:- It consists of two flat semicircular metal boxes (D1, D2)called "dees" and are arranged with a small gap between them. A source S of ion is located near the mid-point of the gap between the dees (or D's). The Dees are connected to the terminals of a high frequency high voltage square wave

oscillator, so that a high frequency alternating potential of several million cycles per second exists between the dees, which act as electrodes. The dees are enclosed in an insulated metal box containing gas at low pressure. The whole apparatus is placed between the poles of strong electromagnet, which provides a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the dees.

Theory:- The +ve ions produced from a source S located at the centre of the gap between the Dee's(D's). At a particular instant, When the dee D1 is -ve, and D2 is +ve, the positive ion will get accelerated towards D1. Since, there is a uniform magnetic field & acting at right angle to the plane of the dees, the ion traverses a circular path within D1. So long as the ion is inside the dee, its speed remains constant. After describing a semicircle through the dee D1, the ion emerges into the gap. If during the time taken by the ion to complete the semicircle within the dee D1, the electric field just gets reversed (D1 becomes +ve and D2 -ve), the ion gets further accelerated towards D2 while crossing the gap. It enter the dee D2 with greater speed and hence moves in a semicircle of larger radius. As it emerges again from D2 into the gap, the field gets reversed so that it once again gets an additional kick and is speeded up. The process is continued till the ion reaches at the periphery of the dees where it is brought out of the chamber by means of deflecting plate P have high ve potential. And it is made to bombord a target nucleus. Let m = mass of ion, q = charge of the ion v1 = Velocity of ion while entering the dee D1 r = radius of circular path in dee D1 2 mv1 Bqr @ ! Bqv1 or v1 ! = Bqv1 m r

The time taken by the ion to complete a semi-circle is given by m r m T! ! rx ! rBq Bq v1 It is independent of the speed of the ion and the radius of the circle in which it travels. Now, for the cyclotron to work, T must be equal to the half the time period T1 of the high frequency power supply 2 m T1 ! or T1 ! 2T ! Bq 2 Frequency of oscillating field for resonance is T! !

@ given by

1 Bq ! 1 T 2 m which shows that the frequency of rotation of a charged particle is independent of its velocity. Energy of the particle: Let vm be the maximum velocity acquired by the particle just before coming out of the dees and rm be the corresponding radius of the largest semi-circle traced by the 1 particle. Then maximum K .E. ! mv m 2 and 2 2 mv m Bqrm Bqv m ! or vm ! rm m Maximum K .E. ! 1 B 2 q 2 rm 1 B 2 q 2 rm ! m 2 2 m m2
2 2