PROCESS PIPING SYSTEMS 381 be supplied to the pressure vessels on the process unit for washing out orhydrostatiz testing These comnections should be fiom the cooling-watersystem if the pressure in the system is adequate to supply vater to the top of th: tallest tewer on the unit; otherwise the connections should be to the fire water :ystem, Nonally vessols neod not be permanently counected to 3 source of water. If Permazent connection is made, it shoud be at the bottom ol the vessel and should be blanked off wien the vessel. is in operation. Air Piping. Most process plants have a plant ar system mot oily for use in the procesies but Lo operate tools, equipment, and instruments. ‘Where necesscry, the intakes of air compressor: should be designed to minimize the nobe level. Fiters should be proviced in the intake piping to reciprocating anc rotary air compressors when they take suction fiom the atmosphere. Filters wil sometines be necessary for centrifugal ir compresiors. Whena filter is not providee for a centrifugal air compressor taking suction fom the atnosphere, the intake Piping should be provided with a bird screen. Fiters preferibly should be-of the ; Feplaceable-cartridge type. Such fiers should have an open area not less then three times the area of the intake pipe. The oil-bath-type filter should rot be used with centrifugal air compressors Low points in the discharge line fiom an air compressor should be avoided because it is possible for lube oil to be trapped nd subsequently ignited. If low points are unavoidable, they should be provided vith drains When condensed moisture in air lines is undesirable from a process standpoint (which typically is the case-for instrunent air ccnnections) or the possibilty of moistue freezing exists, consideration should be given to providing an air drier Grum in the supply line near the process unit. The drum should be loccted where it will rot be exposed to heat from other equipment. Based on estimated future air requirements, the size of the drum should be such that (I) the velocity in the drum does not excted 15 fpm (0.08 m/s) during shutdown periods when maintenance equipment is being used and (2) the capacity be equal to at keast 6 percent of the free air requirements per minute during normal operation, In clmates where freezing is possible, the botom 18 in '450 mm) of-the dry drum should be insulated and heat traced. The d-um drain (or blow-cff) should also be traced or insulated. All blow-off connections should be installed pointing downwird so that any rust or scale blova out will aot endanger personel, Air piping should slope downward to dry drums or moistire traps, cr be hori- zontal, Branch cornections to air headers should te to the tcp of the ppe. Block valves siould be provided in all branch lines. Wher an air lin: is connected to process piping, two block valves, a check valve, and a bieeder shotld be provided. A second bleec valve should also be provided upstream of the check valve to test for tackflow th-ough the check. Consideration should be given to also providing a removable secion of line or hose in order to guard against inadvertent opcration Air for operating instruments is normally a sepirate system from the plant air system, and backup compression systems are often provided 1 increase in-service reliability. For process units, a steam-deiven compressor shculd be fumished to supply instrument air in case of failure of the main supply. Where plant air is the primary source, ant! the possibility of a power failure is remot, electrically driven compresiors may te used. In exensive insirument air systems, tre piping siould be a-ranged with header and subjeaders, such that groups of instruments mey be isolated from the systems without affecting tke air supply to all instruments. Block valves should be providede382 DIPING SYSTEMS. atthe instrument air headers in all branch lines to instramenis, Leads to individual instruments should be NPS ¥%4 (DN 15) minimum. As a rule of thumb, headers serving from 1 to 25 instruments thould be NPS 1 (DN 25) pipe size, and headers serving from 26 to 75 instruments should be NPS 2 (DN 50) pipe size. Steam and Condensate Piping. Process plants usually have twe ox more steam systems and an exhaust steam condensate system. One of the stean systems gener- aly operatesin the range of 100 tc 150 psig (690 to 1035 kPa) (low-pressure stzam), and another operates 2t superheated conditions and significantly tigher pressures (tigh-pressuce steam). The exhaust steam system normally operates at a pressure of less than 50 psig (345 kPz). The design problems astociated with these systems aie not all sinilar to those encountered in a central pover station, consequently a biief discussion on process plant steam piping requirenents follovs. The prindpal concern is to supply clean, dry steam to the equipment using it. In accomplishing this, itis desirable to connect all branch lines (except condensate ‘ellection.pcints) to the top of horizontal steam mains. However, if the line to a stam driveris at least one size smaller than the main apd the stesn has a consider able amount of superhzat, it may be permissible 1o make a cente‘line connection to the side of the steam main. With other steam contitiors it probably will be necessary to install a knockout pot or drum or 2 stean separatcr in addition to making the connection to the tor of the main. Pockets should be avoided in the line to the turbine. + Connections to exhiust headers should preferably 2¢ made to the top of the header so that the condensate in the header does not run back into the driver. In the steam line tc a steam criver, a block, valve(:) should be located at the diiver and be easily accessible for aperating purposes. A single gate valve is needed inthe exhaust line from each steam driver that does nct exhaust cirectly to atmo- sphere or ditectly into an individval condenser. However, valves reed not be.pro- viled where iwo or more drivers, which will never be shut down separately, exhaust to the same condenser. This exhasst gate valve should be installed at the driver so that the position ‘of the gate (ie., open or closed) will >e obviousto the operator whenever he is tequired to operace the inlet vaive. ‘Wherever steam is echausted to the atmosphere and could create such personnel hwzards as burns, freeziag of condensate on walkways, o- the blanketing of working area with a heavy fog, the line should be fitted with ar exhaust head and a drain toa sewer. Tae use of asilencer should be considered where noise misance is lkely. The fiexitility of steam piping should be attained through the tse of expansion bends and ebbow fittings. The use of expansion joints is discouraged except where the size and arrangement of exhaust lines prevent th: use of expansion. tends, which may be the case of certain steam exhaust connections to steam condensers. Particular attention shculd be given to the anchorage and support of the cornect- ‘ng piping. . ‘When recuired by the service, means should be available for purging process ecuipment with steam or inert gas. For example, each pressure vesse in hydrocurbon service should be provded with a steam-hose coanecton near the bottom £ not, permanently connected to the source of steam. However, where a permanent con- nection is made, it should be blinsed during operation of the unit ‘The stean supply for smothering, snuffing, service hoses, space heating, and auxiliary of 2rotective heating should be connected tc a source that will not be shut off during unit shatdowns or to a source thet wil not be shut off when the steam to a fiece of equipment sich as a turbine is stut off. For fire protection+ PROCESSPIPING SYSTEMS cata Purpcscs, smothering (or saultfing) steam usually is required for fied heaters and for relief valve cischarge lines Gondensate Renoval and Steam Treps. Concensate shuld preferably be di charged into an oil free drain system, but under no ‘circumstances should it be discherged into 2 sanitary sewer, Corsideration should be given to a condensate collce ion systemin installations whichinvolve a large numberof steam:raps. When Condensate is to 2¢ discharged to a cast iron or concrete sewer of a coreretn sewer box, tae hazard of vaporizing hydrocarbons which may exst in the sewer should pe cossidered. Also, to avoid damage to the coxcrete, the connection should be below the water level. If there is insuficient quantity of water for quenching, the condeasate should be first led to an atmospherepressure dain tank, Steam traps should be provided for the removal of condensate from collection Points in live anc exhaust steam systems, in partcular from condensate drip legs Grains on steam turbines, steam separztors, connectors, unit heaters, and termina fads of companion piping: Ail low points in steam lines, except steam companiot lines and the encs of long headers, shculd be prcvided with drip legs. It may alse be Recsssary to install drip legs at interniediate ponts on headers with long sestions at one elevation (ie., in addition to those low points at the end). When a valve’ installed in steam piping in such a manner that condensate can collect above the valve, a trapped drain should D2 provided above the valve seat Whenever posible, a steam trap siould be installed below end ciose to the cauipment pipelite being drained, but the trap should be easily accessible for Period inspectios. Each trap should serve only onc collection point. Where large Quantities of condensate are expected, cither condensate pots or condensate draive should be provided. : Drans from turbine shaft packing glinds and fom governor valve stem packing slands should preferably be connected to an open drain system. The drain lines and betdors should be of sulfcient size to preven: a backpressure builiup. Also, untrapped drains chould be provided at the lowes: point of the steam ead of each reciprocating pump and compressor. _—— Drains not discharging into a closed drainage system shouilddischarge downward and sheuld be arrenged so that rising stzam does aot create « hazard or condense Sn cauipment, such as a turbine or pump. The condensation of rising steam.on such equipment can create lube oil contamination. One thing that can te done to help eliminate this problem is to quench the.condensate. principal cawe of steam traps freeing is improperly designed discharge lines. Steam tap dischaige lines should be sicped for drainage where possible. In cases where. freezing is likely, no part of the trap discharge header should be at aa clevatioa above that of the trap dischaige. Focke's in the diicharge lines should be avoiced. Long trap-discharge lines, itt in heated enclostres, should be inou Hiet, miaP-dlscharge lines in heated enclcsures needto be insulited only ifyecessary {for burt protection, To decrease further the posibility of teezing, stam trap bodies shoulé not be insulated unless the followng circumstances make doing s0 advisable: * The trap is installed downstream of auiomatic steim control: that coule shut the steam off for long periods of time. * The trap is installed in a location where operators might be burned by the bare metal surfaces, * The trap is part of a heat recovery system where retention cf heat is important,cm PIPING SYSTEMS + The trap is installed tohandle exkaust steam condensate that comains quantities cf cylinder oi Inverted-backet and -hermodymmic steam traps, whch are conmonly used in prccess plants, are generally installed without strainers. Steam taps should be selected for 2 continucus discharze rate, which is the actual condensate rate muitiplied by a safety factor. A safely factor of at least 3 siould be used for inverted bucket type traps and thermodynanic traps. A larger safety facto: is needed for ‘xaos draining jacketed :quipment, and trap manufacturers shoule be consuited. In borderline cases offering 2 choixe between two traps sizes; the smaller trep is ustally preferred ‘Steam Compenion Pipisg for Auxillary Heating. The most commonly encoun- tered situatioas requiring auxiliary heating are as follows: 1. Piping in waich the fluid temperaxure could drop below the pour point or freezing point, and piping in which the fitid is subject to coagulation, excessive viscosity, or salting cut 2. Hydrocarbon vapor ad ges pipng where condensate formatior and icing will affect the safety and operation of the equipment, such as might be caused by che reduction in pressure that tekes place through’a control, throttle, or relief valve and 3, Liibe and «eal-oil eysioms for compressors and turbines Auxiliary heating is a6rmally not needed for freeze preventios and viscesity maintenance a equiprrent in intermittent service if tie equipment is draixed, Aushed, blows, or steamed out when there is no flowing steam, or ifthe equipment is for enough unidergromd to provent freezing. When required, auxiliary heating is wsually furnished by external steam companion piping (steam tracing). Other acceptable methods of heating piping and other equipment are internal stam trasing, steamjacketing, hot-water tracing and jacketing, md electric!racing. Details of tarious hea: tracing techniques are covered in detail in Chap. B6 ofthis handbook. Ic is desirable that each steam compenion line be coatinuous from the header to a trap at the end of the line without any vents, drains, branches, or deadend extensions at intermediate points. Each companion line should hav» a block valve at the upstream end and be arranged so that flow is generally downward, avoiding pockets as mich as posible arid kaving no section of the companion line at a greater elevation than te companion header. Live steam is preferred for steam companion piping in colier climates unless a lower temperature is required. In the design of the companion piping system, provisions shoud be made for the differentis] expansion between the traced line and the tracer. When the piece of equipment which is tc he kept hot is irregular in shape (such as ‘Taps, strainers, valves, and pamps), tubing must te used. The item should be sprally wrap2ed, stacting at the top and working toward the bottom. Several lines tobe traced nay be grouped irside a single covering of insulation if ther are to be maintained at the same temperature. CASE HISTORIES: CHALLENGES/SOLUTIONS © Process plantsofferthe pping desigaer some uniqite challengesnot feund elsewtere. ‘The combinations of denanding service requirements. end mechasical needs willPROCESS PIPING SYSTEMS 6.385 necessitate innlovaiive designs and soluions. Included herein are a fev practical approaches to proslem resolution: Challenge Installed Type 304, stainless steel piping and mating vessel nozzle NPS 8 (DN 200) Class 300 flanges were found to be inadequate for the specified 750°F (400°C) design tempersture and 440 psig (2760 kPa) design pressure hydrofining reactor service. ‘The reactor shell material and its other principal nozzles were constructed from low-alloy material weld overlayed with Type 304L stuinless sted. The reaccor flanges were allspecified with Class 300 flanges, vhichis acceptable forthe low-alloy flanges but not for the solid alloy Type 304L Manges. ASME B16.5 maximum working pressure for Type 304L SS Class 300 flanges is only 335 psig et 750°F (2510 kPa at 400°C) and clearly inadequate for the specified resctor design pressure. Solution ASME B16.5 downrates flanges in Type 304L miterial in elevated temperature service in comparison to the low-chrome ‘eactor Ranges and otter non-low tempera- ture grates of stainless steel. Attempts te rerate theinstalled Class 300 fiange based on the provisions of B31.3 for 10 percemt metal design temperature reductions for ‘uninsulzted flanges and the design procedures of ASME BPX&V Code Sec. VIII, Divisior 1 proved to be unsuccessful. It was ultimately decided to replace the existing Type 3041, flanges with Type 347 stainless steel Class 300 flanges, which permit ¢ maximum working pressure of 490 psig (6380 kPa), and as such, clearly acceptable for, the specified system design pressure Challenge ‘Two recent experisnees with installed spiral-wound gaskets with flexible graphite filler hare led to different but related ins ability proslems with these gaskets, which raised questions atout the standard ASME B16.20 covering these gaskets. The first experience involved Class 1500 and 250 spiral-wound (SW) gaskets fitted with inner retaining rings that suffered severe inward buckling at initial beltup. The second experience pertains to the gross iaward buckling of the inner spirals of Class 600 and ower rating gaskets supplied without inner “ings. Everts led to the ultimate removalof some 2(00 gaskets supplied bs 3 different manufactarers, which revealed that severe inward buckling bad occurred on about 12 percen: of installed gaskets actoss a wide rang: of sizes, Solutior Geskets supplied in both cases complied fully with ASME 516.20 requirements, which hghlighted inadequacies in this tandard fo: spiral wound gaskess. Efforts have betn initiated to work with manufacturers in their assessment of furdamental design considerations and with appropriate code committees to address apparent deficiencies discovered with this type of gasket. The buckling in both experiences386 >IPING SYSTEMS had occurred during the initial compression of the gasket, before :he flanges were pit into service While the root cause of the problem has yet to be identified, the buckling plenomenor is clearly related 1 the incompressible progertics of the flexible gaphite andthe tightness of the sriral windings. The experiences heve also revealed tnt the inner ring wieths specifizcd by ASME B16.20 for many gasket sizes are inadequate t> effective y resist buckling. Interim meastres have teen adopted by ASME B16.20, and it is recommended that users specify inner rings for all NPS 6 (DN 150) and larger SW gaskets with flexible graphite filer until more definitive measures ate identified to resolve the root cause of the bisckling phenonena Reference 1' provides more information on this industrywide coneern and overall cansiderations for gasket performance testing protocol: Challenge ‘Severe acoustically induced piping vibrations generated by high-caoacity presure- Jekdown valves have ledto fatigue failures at downstream piping braich conneaions wihin days o' their initial operation. One suck experienes involved « safety le control valve within an LNG treet gas unit to a flare reader sysem. The initial operation of this system ed to cracks at an NPS 10 (DN 250) branch connextion toan NPS 28 (DN 700) fiare header. The failure occurred after about 5 to 10 hours ofits inital startup and eventually kd to the branch connection completely brecking ‘axay from the run header. The Ietdowa valve was designed for amass flow rate ‘of about 383,000 Ib/r (-75,000 kar), with an upstream pressure of 620 psia (4278 KPa) letting cown to 30 psia (207 kPa) flare header back-pressure, ‘This and other experiences in the gas production, petrochemical, and other industries have demonsxrated that acoustic energy in high-capacity, gas pressure- reducing systems can case severe piping vibrations thatin extreme cases have led topiping fatigue failures within a few hours of commencing operation. ‘Sdlution Based on a statistical approach, criteria were generated to reflect maximum levels of acoustic power genezated by the pressure letdown valve before fatigue falure ‘was experienced (see Ref. 5). The ultituate solution involved the -eplacement of the installed pressure letdown valves with low-noise producing valves with labyrinth multistaged pressure reducing trimto avoid choked sonieflow condiions generated by the valve. Challenge Screre vibrations were found with the initial start-up of an NPS 2 (EN 50) nitrogen utiity line comected to an NPS 10 (DN 250) suction line cf a reciprocating compres- sor in make-gas service The nitrogen line was relatively flexible, and had ong lengths of supported piping. Detailed acoustical analyses were concucted with the man suction and discharge piping of this reciprocating compresscr, but this did not include the subject utility connection.PROCESS PING SYSTEMS C387 Solution Additional pipe sipports were installed to the nitrogen line, changing the natural frequeacy of the piping geometry and reducing ‘he response to the compressor pressure pulsation excitations. ‘Challenge An erosive slurry vas causing material loss at charges of direction in a convention- ally coxstructed piping system with elbows and tee:. Space coastraits did not allow for long-sweep turns. Solution ‘Dead-end tees were installed where the solids filled the impact area of tke tee, The abrasiv: solids then wore on themselves thereby p-otecting tte presstireboundary. Challenge Aheater outlet line was expected to ope-ate at about 1500°F (£16°C). The attendant expansion and stress analysis difficulties were magnified, since the process piping material was well into the creep range, Premature failure was expected Solution ‘The hot metal heater line was transitioned into an internally refractory-lired system near the heater outlet. The lower shell temperature eliminated the prosability of creep rapture failure, simplified the exsansion and stress analysis protlems, and reduoec system maintenance. ‘The previous discussion only touches on the multitude of challenges/solutions encountered in th: area of process piping. Reference literaure has documented some of the many valuable experiences encountered in this regard. REFERENCES 1. ASME Code forPressure Piring, B31.3, Process Pipitg, Americas Society of wfechanical Enghteors, New York, 1996 edition, including ASME B31.34-1996 addenda, 2. ASVE Standard B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Hanged Fiings, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1996. 3. WEF. Bland, R.L Davidson, eds., Petrolum Frocessing Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967. 4, J. Hirschhorn, Dynamics of Machinery, Barnes & Noble, Ine., New York, 1958. 5. V.A.Carucei andR.T. Mueller, “Acoustically Inducec Piping Vibmtionsin High Capacity Pressure Reducing Sysiems,” American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 82 WA/PVP- 8, New York, 1992.368 PIPING SYSTEMS 5. ASME/ANSI Standard B1.20.1, Fipe Threads, General Purpose (Inch) American Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, 1992. 7. ASME Boiler and Pessure Vesel Code, Section VIM Division 1, Pressure Vessels, Americar Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, 1996. 8. ASME Sandard B1C9, Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt-Welding Fittings, Ancerican Socicty 0! Mechanica! Engineers, New York, 1993, 4. ASME Stindard B16.11, Forged Fuings, Socket-Welding aid Threaded American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1996 18. ASME Standard 81648, Steel Line Blanks, American So:iety of Mecianical Engneers, New Yort, 1997, 1. ASME Stndard B3610M, Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, American Society of Mechanical Enginests, New Yark, 1996. 1:, ASME Stindard B1647, Large Diameter Steel Flanges, American Socety of Mectenical Engineers, New York. 1996 HL Bicklord, ed., Gaskets and Gaskered Joints, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1997. ASME Stundard 816.22, Nonmetdlic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges, Axerican Socety of Mechanical Engineers New York, 1992. 1 LR. Payn:, RT. Mueller, and A. Bazergui, “A Gesket Qualifcatior Test Schene for Petrochenieal Plants: Parts 1 & 2” pp, 53-79, ASME PVP Vol. No. 158, June 1589. 16 LR. Payne, RT, Mueler, M. Derenne, “Specifying Flexibe Graphite 3ased Gaskets for High Tenperature Service (Qualfication Testing Protocols to Verily Performance),” resented at ASME PV&P Conference. Montreal, Quebec, Canada, july 1996. 17. RIT. Mueler, “Recent Buckling Experiences with Spiral Wound Fexitle GraphiteFilled Gaskets." pp. 23-34, ASME PVP Vol. No. 326, presented at ASME FV&P Confecencs, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, July 1996. 18 ASME Stindard B1620, Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges: Ring Jon, Spiral Wound, tnd Jacked Ameian Society of Mechanical Eagineen, Nev Yor, 1986, incing ‘ASME B16.20b-1997 addenda. 19 ANSI Stardard B1.1, Unified Inch screw Threads (UN and UNR Thread Form), Amesican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1989. 20 ASME StmdardB16.4, Valves—Hanged. Threaded, and Welding Find, American Society (of Mecharical Engineers, New York, 19%, 24 APLStandird 600, Stee Gate Valves—Flanged and Buit-Wetting Ends, Bolted and Prssure Seal Bonns, American Petroleum Institute, Washington,DC, 1997. = 22 MSS Stancard SP-45, Bypass and Drain Connections, Manttacturer StandardizationSoci- ety, Vienm, VA, 1992 23 API Standard 607, Fire Test for Soft-Sected Quarter-Turn Valves, American Petrcleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1993. 24 APIStandird 394, Check Valves: Wafer, Wafer-Lug, and Double Flangec Types, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1997 25, API Standard 598, Valve Inspection and Testing, American Petroleum lastitute, Washing ton, DC, 1996. 26. P.A. Schweitzer, Handbook of Corrosion Resistant Piping, Industrial Fress Tne., 1669. 21, ASSE Stardard A 1264, 1, Safety Bequirements for Workphce Floor ard Wall Openings, ‘Siatrs ana Xailing Systons, American Society of Safety Engineers, Des Plaines, IL. 1992, 28. D, Burgrem, Principles of Piping Analysis (Fst ed), C.P Press, Jamica, NY, 1977. 29. M.W. Kellogg Co., Design of Pipirg Sysiems, John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 1967. 30. ASME Boiler and Presure Vessel Code, Section IX, Qualtication Stardard for Walding ‘and Brazing, Americar Society of Mechanical Engincers, New York, '995.PROCESS PING SYSTEMS C389 31, ASME Standard B16.25, But Welding Exds, Americin Society o! Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1997 32, PFIStahdard BS-7, Minimum Length and Spacing of Welded Nozzles, Piping Fabrication Instkute, Springiale, PA, 1994. 33, PFIStandard E3-24, Pipe Bending Methods, Tolerasces, Procest and Material Require- ‘men's, Piping Febrication Kastitute, Springdale, PA, 1992. 34, PFIStandard ESS, Cleaning of Fabricated Piping, Pipng Fabrication Institute, Springdale, PA, 1993, 35, J.H.Bickford, As Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Boltet Joints, Maxcel Dekker, New York, 1997, 36, ASME Boiler ard Pressure Vessel Coda, Section V, Nondestructive Exeminaion, Amori- can Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1995. 31, LH.Gary, and C.E, Hendwerk, Peiroleun Refining—Technologyand Econonics, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1975, 38 RE Johnson, “Specifying Plastic-Lined Piping.” Chemical Engineering, May 1982. 39, J.C. Wachel, anc C.L. Bates."‘Esceping Fiping Vibrations while Designing,” Bydrocarbon Processing, Vol.55, October 1976. 40, APIStandard 618, Reciprocating Comprassors for Peroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Sendce, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1995, 41 APIStandard 6:7, Centrifugal Compresiors for Petwoleum, Chenical, and Cas Industry Senice, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1995. 42, API Standard 610, Centrifugal Pumps jor Pevoleun, Heavy Duty Chemical, and Gas Indistry Service, American Petroleum fastitute, Wachington, DC, 1955, 43, APIStandard 614, Positive Displacemest Pumps—zeciprocating, Americas Petroleum Institute, Washiagion, DC, 1995. 44, APIStancard 6(1, Air Cooled Heat Excsangers for General Refirery Services, American Petraleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1997 45, APIStandard 60, Atmospheric Storage Tanks, American Petrobum Institute, Washing- ton, DC, 1994, vith 1996 addenda 46, APIRecommented Practice RP 520, Stzng, Selection, and Installuion of Pressure-Rellev- ing Devices, American Petroleum Institte, Washington, DC, 19. 47, APIRecommonied Practice RP S21, Guide for Pressure Relief are Depressurig Systems, ‘American Petrocum Institute, Weshingon, DC, 19°7.CHAPTER C8 CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION Nicholas P. Theophilos, Ph.D., PE. Manager Standards and Quality Ascurance Praxiir, Ine: Cryogenics (from the Greek “kryo-genikos,” meaniag cold generation) is the science and technology astociated with very lov temperatires. Depeading on one’s point of view, any temperature below ~20°F san be set fo establish such a demarcation. Here the ~20°F point has been selected because it normally represents the onset of embrittlement for ordinary carbon steels in typical structural applications, Cryegenics is not a separate branch of physics, snce it obeys all laws of ordinary physics. In fact, crfogenics is low-temperature physics. The reasons for its special treatment, therefore, are not because of its uniqueness as 2 science but rather because of the very special problems it creates: as a technology. These problems relate to embrittlenent of materials, lavge displacements (exoansion and contrac- tion), repid change of phase due to large heat fluxes (big delte T), and small latent heats of the fluids involved. In order to obtain a better appreciacion of the special cossideration: involved in cryogenic piping system applications, it was fek that it would be nezessary to review ‘he behavior of materials at cryogenic temperatures and the physical and thermodynamic properties of cryogenic luids. These considerations are covered in the sections “Progerties of Cryogenic Fluids” and “Materiab. Used in Cryogenic Piping Systems.” additionally, cryogenc piping system design is discussed in the sections “Piping Systems Design—Huids” and “Piping Systems Design— Mecharical.” From the strictly heuristic point of view of fundemental applications of scientific principles there ar> hardly any differences between cold box piping and all other types. Nevertheless, we are making a svecial topi¢ of cold box piping tecause of the conined spaces involved and the ccncepiual arrangements required to satisfy logisticelly workable and economically feasible process considerations. Such piping is discussed in the section “Cold Box Piping.” “The 2overage on cryogenic distribution systems as provided under the sections “Liguid Storage aud Conversion Systenss” and “Mobile Equizment System,” con- siders more than jest piping; it covers the functiona design philosophy ofcryogenic fluid stcrage and dstribution and provides quite an insight in-o the logistics of the entire operation, ‘With the advert of chip making, the need for ultra-high-urity inort gases has come isto clear focus, and industry hus responded to this need by developing suitablestorage and distribution systems These aspects of cryogenic piping systems are discussed in the last section. Naturally, the drive behind most tectnologies iseconomicin nature, ind in this 391ca92 HPING SYSTEMS respect cryogenics is no exception. This is certainly much ‘more so when it comes toliquid distribution because there is no other motive. Industrial gaies can certainly bedistributed in the compressed gaseous form. even in sulk quantties, if cosis are ct a consideration. Such economic aspects are discussed in the next section References for each section are at the end of each ection. ECONOMIC PARAMETERS OF CRYOGENIC FLUID DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Norman H. White, Engneering Associate Praxair Inc. Cryogenic processes are typically applied to commodity chemicds that exist as gaies at normal ambients, Such gaws are liquefied at rediced temperatures and are nomally maiatained at saturated conditions. The processing techriques generally involve both the liquid and gaseous phases and explo: the dramatic changes in physical and thermodynamic properties that occur with dranges of sate. Cryogenic ‘tenperatures are applied at cach step in the process of bringing these gases to the final consumer, including production, distribution, and storage. . ‘Typically, industrial gases ere found in mixtures in which some of the comporents: have commerzial value. Two of the most important examples of such mixtures are gates from certain hydrocarbon wels and the Earth's atmosphere. Tie feed streams are separated by liquefaction and subsequent fractiona’ distillatioa with the pro- duced stream: deliveredin either tie gaseous or liguid sate, Cryogenic distillation allows a wide choice In he degree of separation, ranging trom crude to extremely fine. It is a hghly efficient process with power consumed chiefly n refrigerstion lostto the envronment and pressure lost in the product streams, Ecoxomic consder- ations in the liquefaction and distillation process involve trade-offs between op- ‘erating efficiency and capital expenditure. No other method is as versatile or as effective as cryogenic separation of industrial gas mixtu-es for conmodity usage. The key toindustrial gas distribution and storage ope-ations is tke use of a cost- effective mettod that increases the product density. The -ransport or storage vessel is educed to manageatle dimensions in this way, The historical solution to this prcblem is elevated pressures at ambient temperatures. Indeed, high pressure cyl des and reo:ivers made to a variety of US. Department of Transportation (U3DOT) and ASME specifications are widely used today to store gases at pressures exceeding 2000 psig: (138 bar). These vessels are typicilly of singe-piece forged corstruction involving fabricetion and inspection procedures that enable then to safely operate at ultimate to desiga stress ratios of 3:1. In spite of these measures to achieve an efficient oackage, the ratio of vessel weight 10 preduct weigat is extremely hig. Therefore, the cost of storing and transrorting these gases in such vessels is very high relative to the value of the product ‘hey contain. Some of the characteristics of typical high-pressure receivers and cylinders are summarized in Table C8.1a and Table €8.Lb.(CRYOGENIC TIPING SYSTEMS e393 TABLE G8.1a -Typbal Speciations or Seumless Forged Pressure Vesses ay ASME Pressure Veseel Code. Sizes, capacitis, and design pressures 1 508 | 610 | 610 | 610 | 610 Min vall* in| 125 | 1.25 |1.303 | 1313 mm | 318 | 318 | 331 | 331 Max length r| so] 30] 23] a] 24] 24 mm | 9144 | 9144 | 7010 | 7010" | 7315 | 7315, Max water volume cut | 27] 27 | 342 | 342 | 602 | 602 liter'| 76 | 765°|969 "|, 969°] 41765 | 1705, Matera] 65:2) 70 [265] 70 | 65°] 70° asst ss : z. [F re Weight _ e _ - Unit weight thre | 232.4 | 222.4 | 2944 | 2944 | 2202 | 230.1 kgim | 331 | 331 |438.1-| 4381 | 343.9 | 343.9) Max vessel weight .« tb | 6672 | 6672 | 6670 | e710 | 5537 | 5537 kg | 3026 | 3026 | 3071.| 30:1 | 2516"| 2516 Design agit, ,ssc0-|, 2450, 332] 39 | 169 eis | aia" 184i. 249 | “2ea [327C394 PING SYSTEMS TABLE C8.1b_ Typical Specifications for Seamless Forged Pressure Vesstls USDOT speciication. Dimensions ana data for typical vessel sizes. —— vsbor i Speciation’ pei | 3442400 | 3AAx2400 | 344x-2900 | arax-aess | 2r-2400 | a7 2890 bar | 3AA465 | 3AACI65 | 3AAX.200 | 34AX-256 | TT-166 | 37197 Dimensions oD m) om 2 2 18 2 2 mm} 6) 39 559 457 39 | 58 Min wal = in | ost 086 ase 07s | ons | oun mm | 143 136 164 179 sos | ns Max engi? ein | 6-125 a 36 40 40 a m] 2a rig 097 wig | s219 | ais Max averoge Ib | Ue 5616 05s, sos | ass | sia veight kg | 5 2597 ma 262 | ro | ret Yom water me | 157 o 96 568 ns | oe volume titer | 44 2m D4 1609 | 262 | 200 2 Specifications areas defited in United States Code of Federal Regulations Tite 9 2 Length canbe varied to meet spec equiroments > Ipeiodes ent fing. Sours” CPladua Liquefaction is another approach that has been widely used for efficient stcrage and transportation of industrial gases. Gases typically errerge from ‘he liquefaction process saturated at approximatelr atmospheric pressure and from this poin: are transported and stored in eryogeni: vessels. These are typically double-walled ves- se with an ianer container design:d for the working pressure and temperatu:e of the product and an outer casing designed for ambient emperaturss and external pressure. In between the two vessels is a high-performance insulatien system which is wsually evacuated for the purpose of further enhancing thermal protection. Sruc- tual members to support the inner container and pipingto provide access to it are also located in the insulation space. Heatis continuously entering the vessel through the insulation, supports, and internal piping. This heat wil make the liquid contents bol, and the resultant zas must te removed from the tank if the pressure and tenperature of the contents ate tobe held steady. For tais reason, heat leak must be minimized The thernal efficicacy of the tank desiga is expressed in terns of the percentage of full expacity thot will be lost per day when the tank is hed at atmospheric fressure. This parameter is termed the nornsal evaporaion rate (NER) ‘and is produc: specific. Table C8.2 summarizes the specifications of typical tancage applied in vatious prodvction and distribution funetions Gaseous sate storage at high pressures and liquid state storage at cryogenic temperatures both have their placc in industry today. Therefore, itis important 10 Compare theit relative exonomics. The primary costs to be compared are those for storage vessel constructian, transpertation, power to acheve the storage stateand product loss. The constriction metiods used in forged high-pressure receiver: are very different from thove used in high thermal efficiency eryogeric temperature vesels. However, the resultant costs per unit weight may be considered equal for(RYOGENICPIPING SYSTEMS 0398 TABLEC8.Z Typical Specifications for Crrogenic Stonge Vessels 3 Model © DM- | DM | DM- | DM- | Dé- DM- | DM- 900°} 150% | 3000 | ooo | sao | 1100 | 13000 Capacty Warm Water git 960 | 1585 | 100 | 6020 | 9:80 | 1130¢ | 12300 liter 3634 | 6000 | 11734 | 22788 | 34°49 | 42771 | 50345 Net Liquid gel 900 | 1490 | 3000] 5880) 8900 | “11000 | 13000 titer or | sow | rise | 22058 | sse9 | snose | 42209 | Oxygen 1€00 cuft | 1040 | 171.0 |:3453 | 76 | r0a.4 | 12560 | 14960 | em oA 17790 | 2626:| 33277 | 39322 | Nivogn acoveue | s38'| i384] ams [ser | exxr | aoost [anion com 2203 | 36363] -t3ar_| 14301 | aui82 | 26916'| 31805 | 2 92s 71000 eu ft }-401.2 | 167.6-}°3375%p6615 | 108.3 | 1237.0.|-14620 | “um 2660-408 |~ 8871 ~) 17388 | 26e19-|-32515 | 38429 | nin 159 | 15-9 | 1540 | 262 | 297 | 315, | 360 a 48 | 48 |-433 |-20:| 99.|-96 | x0 | ftin 66° | 66°) 80 80 bs | 102° | 102 | em | 19°] a9-[-24-[-26 Weight ‘Tare 1000 Ib 95 | 105 | 155 | 27.9 f 10k | 43 | 48} 70 | 127 | we] 213 | m7 Orvgen: >, 100%.) 184.) 248] 44a} 999 | s24s | 1520,] 1700, vie wins 1 10 KB, | 82 | 112"); 200 | 38.0; | sea") | Nitrogen 1056 15 |) 156 [20:6') 357 -| 672.7] 910 *]> 1000 kg, Ta} °93'| 162° | 307° |) 439 “Argon 1000 Ib 20.0."}: 28.0: | $04 >| 96.3.) 1405 =}175.0.4.:201.0- so kg | 69.4 | t27-}-229 | 423 |. a7. |. 794.|.< 912 Design parameters . * ele NER (oxygen % per day}. 04 04 05, 03 0.5 0.25. 0.23, MAWE sia 250.,} 280} 20 } 50 :|--25) | 250 | “so bar 172} 172} 172 |. 172 172 172, 17.2" ‘Source Tayior-Wharton Div Harsco Corp.e396 PIPING SYSTEMS TABLE C8.3- Weight Ratio: Lading/Vessel Ctyogenic storage vessel Volume MAWP Lacing weight/Tare weight [a liters | psa | bar nN 02 AR 900 sor | 250 | x72 058 0.90 110 190 | 560 | 250 | 172 0.96 135 165 300 |. 11356 | 250 | 172 131 134 225 $880 | 22258 | 250 | 172 12 2.00 2aa 00 |. 33689 |. 250 | 372 182 2.29 280 noo | anes +]. 250 | x72 158 223 22 000 | 4920) | 250 | 372 us 248 3m Gas receiver J Volume MAWP ‘Lading weight/Tire weight cut | tiers | pois | bar Ne oz AR, 502 a70s~ | 2800 |: 193 04s. 018 0 461 |.1306 | 4000 | 276 033 047 oa “M2 969--} $800--] 379~ | - OM —|~ O45 - 019 20 fs 765-"~| 6667 |] 460} 040 O14 | 007 Source: Prasair, tre. oe ‘rough comparison. Therefore, storege vessél and transportation cost: for alternative systems can be compared by the ratio of thé vessel weight to product weight. Table C83 compares this ratiofor several products stored in typical gas and liquid stcrage vessels. Generally the wtal cost (apital plus operating) to liquey 2 product is ‘lover than that required to compress it-as a. gas to receiver pressure, Inceed, receivers are most often charged with gas pumped to presure in the iquid state and subsequently seated to ambient temperature rather ihan by ges state comprestion, ‘Product losset to be expected in verious liquid systems can be éstinated from the NER specifications given in Table C8.2. mo Considering these ‘circumstances, cryogenic liqaid phase storaze is thé’ nost ‘ecchomical approach in most cases. Gas storage should be considered where the -odpirement involves small quantities or long periods of noause or difficulty in disposing of the gas boiLof expected in a.cryogenic eys:om. The pipingused in cryogenic systzms obviously must meet the structural demands imposed by lew temperatures. Fron an economic point of view, the thermal eff. iexcy of the piping system mast be carefully considered ince the heat of addition, {o the system will ordimarily resul: in loss of product. There are two important, faciors of procuct loss involved in piping systeras that must be considered: refrigera- tiot required to bring the line to operating temperature (cool dovn) and steady state heat addition. Table C8.4 gives these parameters for uninsulaed lines, ines insulated with closed-ce] polyuretaane foam, and lines insulated with radiation shidds in high vacuum (vacuum insulation). .‘CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS 397 TABLE 68.4 Heat Addition’: Steady State and Cooldown Steady stat heat adition ‘Noninal ppe size NPS (DN) 3@ (100) 135) Bu Btu Beu Bu Insulation sett | warerm |e | waren | Jhe-A | vatt’m | forse | watt Uninsuated* 2630) aig |5330| siaz | 7870) 1562 | 10379 Polyurethane foam thickness Lin @5.4 mm) : 1s4.] 253] 243 | 329} 316 | 413 * 2 ia 6a nia) roa] I3a]-143 | 198]. 90 | 2a 3 in 062mm)" gs-/'22| u7 | 152] 146 | 192 ‘Yasin isuetion® oa |-0g| = 03} 20s x0 faa -amgh wind over Fosted insulated line." * Closed call poutine foam with PVC colt. ‘ Evorulated lamine radiation shields, SASIM BS Typel. + : * Schedule 5. , "ca alton duct inslton oly : fo” Source: Prexait re :398 HPING SYSTEMS PROPERTIES OF CRYOGENIC FLUIDS Theodore F. Fisher Process Engineer Praxair, Ine. Physical and thermodynamic proverties of cryogenic fuids consitute impcrtant dita that are needed for the desgn of cryogenic piping systemt. The following discussion, tables, figures, and references are furnished with this reed in mird. ‘Transpori property data are readily available for the more common pure cryo- genic fluids. The biblicgraphy at the end of this section lists sources of physical loperties and thermodynamic taoles and charts, which supply the detailed data Tequired forthe design of piping systems. Table C8.5M (Melzic) summarizes some ‘of the more important properties for a number of crycgenic fluids. ‘Thermodmamic. charts show pressure-temperaturephast-demsity (or specific vdume) and enthalpy {heat content, H) relationships ‘or a specie fluid under a .Natiety of formats. Entiopy data are often included but are rot gexerally required for the purposes under consideration in this chapter. Fig. C8.1 i 2 pressure-enthalpy shart for nitrogen, which will be wsed to illurtrate the behaviorof fluids in ransport systems, and various uses of pressure-temperature- velume-enthalpy (P-T-7-H) data. The most obvious use may be t» determine the density (the reciprocal of specific volume) of a fiuid which is being transported urder constant pressur> and temperature conditions. Referring the char, for caample, the density of nitrogen a: 101.5 psia (0.7 MPa} and 80°F G00"K) is fund tobe approximately 0.5 Ib/f? (8.C ka/m*). Other uses f the chat are illust-ated inthe examgles which ‘ollow, The dome-shaped curve ct the bottom left of the chart oncloses the two-phase (vapor-liqui¢) region. Nitrogen at pressure and temperature conditions to the left ofthe dome is a saturated or subccoled liquid. Conditioas to the right of the dome earrespond 10 saturated or superseated vapor. Vapor and liquid phases. coexist wihin the dome at a unique presture for a specific teriperature. This pressure is designated as the vapor pressure o° the fiuid at that tem>erature. The length cf the isobar (constant pressure) line between the sides of the dome is proportional to th: heat input which is required to :ompletely vaporize the fluid at he pressure and corresponding temperature. The fraction of the fluid which is vaper at a concition corresponding to a sperific point along the isobar is ecuivalent tc the fraction of its distance from the saturated liquid line, divided by the totel length of the itobar within the dome. ; ‘The pointat the verypeak of the dome represents a uaique condition of pressure and temperaure which is designated as the critical poiat of the fhuid. As nitrogen approaches 493 psia (340 MPa) and ~232.5°F (126.2%) from aay direction, all distinctions between the characteristics of vapor and liqud phases disappear. Lquid being warmed at a pressure above the critical pressure behaves zs a dense Tuid, which gradually approsches the characteristics of a hgh-pressure gas at hgher temperatures, without passing through any observable shase chanze. ‘The vertical lines or a pressur:-enthalpy char: correspond to a constant heat(CRYOGENIC PLFING SYSTEMS case content condition, Movement along these lines des gnates an Benthalpic or adiabatic (ao heat input or output) process, Flow through reasonably short or insulated runt of piping or fittings, or at a temperatureclose to thet of the environment, approache: isenthalpic behavior. When a ttuid sowing within a pipe is throttled through 3 valve, the change ir its pressure.tempsrature-phase and deasity relationships is »seentially iaenthalpic Tia fluid is initially a gas which is reduced in presture, its de:rease in pressure anc density may be accompanied by a chaage in temperature (Joule-Thomson effect) Tn most cases thé will be a decrease in temperature, as shown, for example, by nitrogen at 725 psia (5 MPa) and —153.7°F (170°K) following the 60.23 Btu/lb(m) (140kI'kg) isenthalp to about ~215°F (136°K) when throuted to atmospheric pres- sure. At conditions more remote from the eriticel point, th: temperatare change is less dramatic, A rise in temperature may occu: when the fluid is well above its critical temperature. Tais is shown by nitrogen ai 80°F (300°K) when throttled to 5800 psia (40 Ma) from a higher pressure, but it is more typically encountered with hydrogen or helium under normal processing conditiors. - ‘When a saturated liquid is throttled to lower pressure, an isenthalpic line is followed into the dome, indicating partial vaporzation of the downstream fluid, For exumple, if liguid nitrogen which i: initially seturated at290 psia (2 MPa) and ~251.€F (115.58°K) is throtiled to atmospheric pressure, the downstrean condition will be about 45 percent vapor. This vill be accompanied by a change in density from a2out 35.77 1b(m)/#t to 0.637 Ib(n)/fl (573 to 10.2 kg'nn"), or a laetor of 56 increase in volume. If nitrogen vapor is throttled from a point above the dome, it may pettially liquefy (retrograde condensation) or, within’ a very narrow range of conditions, pass firough the two-phase region before ending up as all vapor at a final low-pressure concition. ‘The large change in specific volune which may occur with throttling—and particularly vapotization—may necesstate a substantial incease in the diameter ‘of downstream piping in order to main‘ain reasomble velocties of the fuid. If the proces: leads to z two-phase downstream condition, there may be some slippage between the phases (icc., the relative Faction of the vapor end liquid iaventoried in the fiping may differ from that of thenet througkput). Two-phase flow character- istics can be extremely complex, and determinatien of this behavior is beyond the scope of this discussion. ‘An important consideration in the desiga of « cryogenic piping system arises from recognition that aconfined fluid cinnot inerease in speefic voltime, or change in density, when heated. Extreme overpressurization can reiult when a cryogenic liquid vhich is trapped between valvesis warmed, for example by heatleak. Con- fined nitrogen which is initially liquid at 101.5 psa (0.7 MPa) will [folowing the 43.70 Ib(mm)/f (700 kgim’) constant density line] =xceed 1160 psia (8 MPa) when warmed to ~2707°F (105°K) and approacit 14,500 psia (00 MPa) at ~100°F (200°K). This makes overpressure protection mardatory wherever entrapment of a cryogenic liquid or (initially) high-pressure cold gas is posible. Presure-enthalpy charts for other eryogonic fluids aro simlar to those for nitro- gen. Ctarts for oxygen and argon are provided as Figs. C8.2 and C83, respectively. Sources of charts for additional fluids are given in the bibliography at the end of this settion. The thermodynamic prorerty interlationshirs of these fluids are similar to those which have been illustrated for nitrogen. Rapid caposurs of a partially confiaed cryogeric liquid io heat may result in ‘overpressurizatior even when some outkt is provided. The possibility of c cryogenic liquid spill into.a warmer environment mast be considered in designing any enclosure around a piping system.° eur wo 0 feud eeu. «we mo eyo tad hoeod. aa oe ort ag tet et at ae uso sco geet, ewe BH et Gt poy rus vos eames ng cays ya's ic) cuos Sty ee sr ease sere Soest Ew woo aero sre “tro oo wo mo cue” 2is0% eo ato zo eco voz sco exo so ae oT fist 6 wore seoor = eber Sie ervapononso ont vor "fe atpt us 9S . wrt nye eee wet st wor sett eu > sang om yeas get seat eve siz re ett St te. eo Wor est syas sews ge ares woo wes ome setae ikon 10H) OND mew SHO wait sreuioW 18S wow saad, 2a (ousew) ig"80 STEW. c.400tio 99 capo 100 55200 wu 2000 BUY eeu ‘uy oer cen at aor srt ssc bathe ews ass ut Sone wee | seeme weme Tse ue to spo o0stop0 100 ao ‘sto ‘sto’ tooo too 100 oo 0 wo 150 seo reo on see, sei ow we otto eee wise” 900 eoe wee Se a (panna) epanya amtain ke: jaded aymmrtGpamran, pa peystina (ona) were sav e401(ea) sunsssud (2661 ‘8914 vumeayg “spi 24080) yo sonrode1g oeuEEipOWON,uouNDT pru0 OYE>UO.od ‘veeqoon, wid uogrucsd a peompondox) (sesX OO- WO = d) HoBOsIU 10) WERE Hrd. THD HUNT (EP) Ac THINS co ° (ea! aunssaud (Gur) AcTwHINA$0000 (ean) aunssaud wo o oz a oor ssa wrayer ‘spinys ausfokin yo sonsedosg sueeuspouony, ‘wounue pu opeouowog one Peonroniee) Coane WS UUO =) AEA 90) WP Ha C8 TAO (uM) Ad TWHINA e On ho Ce (ean) aunsssud (60) AdTWHLNA 6.403(ean; aunssaud (1661 AN sug temuarg spn swuatokia Yo sopsotos, ueuKpoMLOYY,uouUaT pu ojs2u0Ne, ‘wasqoonr wou) uexsnaad yn peompory) (Cai 09-900 = d) woRrE 29} WERE Hd E¥ TUN (aw) aunssaud > Gur) AaTwHNa » C404CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS 6.405 Certain fluidsrequire special consideration, Liquid carboa dioxide, for example, is notstable at atmospheric pressure. (This is indizated on Trble C8.5N. by a triple. point pressure above atmospheric). Loss of pressure on a liquid carson dioxid: system (or a high-pressure gas system: at sufficiently low temperature) will result in dry ice formation. Physical and thermodynamic property data on sryogenic mixtures are not readily available in easily applied chart or tabular format (as they are for pure ‘luids) Required design data are usually computer generated from complex correlatiors for specific cases. Knowledge of pur: fluid betavior will, however, provide a ‘awareness of many factors which require consideration in th: design ofa cryogenis piping system. -Anong the specific differences between the bzhavior of pure fluids and that cf ‘mixtures is a potentially much broader range of temperature end pressure condition, withir the two-phase region for the latter case and differences in éomposition between the individual phases and that of the overall misture. There is also 2 possitility of oneof the components freszingunder condition: wherein other compc- nents, may exist as gas and/or liquid mixtures. Although 1 component waich & below its norma. freezing point may have considerable solubility in tae liquid or as mixture, the possibility of solid formation should be atticipated when any cf the components s present in a mixture at a temperature below its triple point. This situation may result from the mixing of two streams, noithor of which contains 3 froze. component. ‘The designer should have knowledge of the corzbustion and physiological propei- ties o the fiuids being handled. Air and cther oxidants must be excluded fron piping transporting flammable fluids and from any enclosure (such as a cold box) inio which leakage may occur. Conditons which may concentrate flammable con- taminants preseat a danger in air separation. A number of cryogenic fluids ar: toxic, and all canpresent an asphyxiation hiazard, particularly within corfined areas. Venting of these fluids must take ino account the possibility that temperatur: differences from the ambient air may lead to unexpected localized ccncentratioa buildips which threaten the safety of personnel ind equipment. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sources of Physizal and Thermodynanic Properties of Cryogenic Fluids: AGA Gas Handbcok, AGA AB, Lindinge, Sweden, 1785. ASHRAE Thermotynamic Properties of Refrigerants, American Sodety of Heatng, Refriger- atingand Air Coiditioning Engineers, A\lanta, 1986.Tabular data and charts Beaton, CF. and G.F. Hewitt, Physical Property Data or the Design Engineer, Hemispher: Publishing, New York, 1989. CRC Handbook of Chenisiry and Physics, CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. Jacobsen, RT., §.G. Penoncello, and E.W. Lemmon, Thermodynamic Properties of Crogent Fluid, Plenum Press, New York, 1997, E:tensive tabks and chars for the mgjor cryogens Langes Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw Hill, New York. Mathe:on Gas Dani Book, Matheson, Lynchurst, NT, 1980, Include: data for specialty gases, including toxicity, reactivity (Bammability,corrosiveness, ineompatbility, etc.) and safe har- dling procedures. Matheson Unabridged Gas Dasa Bcok; Matheson, East Ruherford, Nc: 1975. More extersive property data for these components.C408 MPING SYSTEMS Maxwell, .B., Data Book on Hydrocarbons, D. Van Nostranc, Prinveton,NJ, 1950. Tibular and chart daia for light iydrocarbors. National Stontard Refererce Deta Service of the USSR: A Seies of Property Tables, “temi- sphere Publihing, Washington, 1987. Comprehensive thermodynamic anc physical property ‘ables in volumes covering helium, nitogen, methane, cthane,oxygen, aiethylene, helocar- ton refrigerants, and rar: gases (aecn, argon, krypton and xenon) Pury, RH. aad D.W. Green, Chemnicul Engineers’ Handbook sixth ed., MeGraw-Hill New ‘York, 1984. “abular date and thermedynamic charts for many cryogens. Ruznjevic, Kusman, Handbook of Themodynamic Tables and Charts, Hemphere Publshing, Washington, 1976. : Reid, RC, JM, Prausnita, and -K. Sherwood, The Properties of Gases and Liguids, third cc, McGraw Hill, New York, 1977. Estimating methodsfor ptysical properties of pureffuids and mixtures. : Tubles of Themodynamic and Transport Properties of Air, Angon, Carbor Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, Nivogen, Oxygen, and Stean (orginally issied as NBS Circula1 564), Fergamon Press, New York, 1860. : TRC Thermoaamic Tablés—Hydrowarbons, 199. TRC Thernodynamie Tables—Now-Hy- ‘srocarbons, 1993. Thermodynamic Research Center, The Texas A&M University S)stem,, ~ College Station, TX. Mukiple volumes. MATERIALS USED IN CRYOGENIC “ hysical properties, compatibiliy with process fluids, fabriccbility, cost, and compliance with Tegulatory codes. ‘The subject of materials for cryogenic applications hasbeen generously treated in the technical iterature. For those irterested in additionalbackground information, a few selected works in tais area. appear in the references and bibliography a: the end of this section. The 2rime focus of this section, however, is cryogenic piping for the chemical process industry and commercial cryogenic distribution applications. Consequently, this overview will be deliberately limited in its seop: and coverage, and many materials’ (such as those used in aerospace applications) will net be covered. Thematerials trat Will be covered include ferrous alloys, nenferrous aloys, and nonmetallic materials. FERROUS MATERIALS Ferrous alloys most often encountered in cryogenic piping applicatons are ustally classified as ferritic or austenitic tyes. The terms austenitic ard fersitic refer to the predominant crystallographic phases fertite or austenitic, which are body centered cusic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FOC), respective y.(CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS C407 Ferritis Alloys “Most cf thie steels in common use are fertitic. This classification also covers steels which are martemitic 2s a result of heat treetmert. Low cos, ease of fabricability. and high strength via heat treatment are major ressons for their popularity. Ferric alloys, however, can exhibit a ductileo-brittle toughness tansition. The Charpy ‘Impact Test, by which measurements of energy apsorption, lateral expansion, anc ductile fracture appearance are made, is the mos common method of measuring this trensition, Hovever, the ductile-to-brittle trarsition temperature ir forritic steels can be influenced by a rumber of variables involved in the steel-naking process whict ‘contro, the levels of residual elements, inclusion shape, and heat treaiment tech- niques which in turn control grain size ind crystallographic morphology. compre- hensive review ofthese approaches is beyond the scope of this document. However alloying with nickel, reduction of sulphur levels, and reductions in gran size may be stated as the most popular approaches with ferritic alloys. Table C86 contains a listing of some of the most common ‘erritic alloy steels used in cryogenic piping Minimum service temperatures are inclided as we! as the applicable ASME specifi- cations. Tatle C87 and Table C8.7M (Metrc) containa listing of the same materials ax TABLE C86 ‘Typizal Ferrous Alloys Used in C:yogeric Piping Minimum ASUE® , Alloy temperature* | _speciftation Comrient CMa steal! 46°C (-S0°F) | SA-33°.Grade.1 | Aluminum tilled, fine srain practice DAM Ni steel 73°C (-100°F) | $A-337°Grade 7 | Aluminum tilled, fine “ - arain practize 3890 steel? ~tor'e (150°) | $4-383°Grade 3 |" Aluminum titted, nne arain practice 9% N steel! 196°C (~320°F) | $4333? Grade 8 -|. Aluminum killed fine grain practice 304 Sainless ste? | -254°C (-425°F) | SA-312 3O4L Stainless stee!’ | -254°C (—425°F) | SA312° 316 Sainless ste? | -196C (—120°F) | SA-31P 316L Stainless steeit | ~196'C (—320°F) | $4312 347 Sainless stee? | ~254°C (~25°F) | SA312" * Design mnimurr temperature for which maerialsnormaly suited witout impact vesting otter thar that required by mateial specification, " Femitie steels. rueniti steel _Conesponding ASTM speciation ste ABD and A312chew pus eeey aa sonoeid ured our ‘unum ‘p32HeaHION “EE-Vs wonkoypods ap ySy UH Paves Se copes UBUD ° zu > oe oe oe - wea — SB “8 09 os 99 06 Lt ae WS SSO1UIIS [pe grese aes | oie se oung se- | eat as OTE 88 ouFeg OTe se owes -. oy ge SB Le ae WS ssoqunens “I9TE ° ¥ = 9s 9 161 see oie al. 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Included in Tables C8.7 and Table C8.7M are mechanical properties such as stength, impact, and elongation, «s well as thermodynamic data such as thermal expansion ard thermal conductivity at cryogenic temperatures (boiling point at 1 atmosphere). Austenitic Alloy Steels In addition to providing data on the ferritic alloy steels, Tables C26, Table (8.7, and Table C87M also contain a lising of austenitic stainless sieels which are Lkely tobe encoun‘ered in cryogenic piping. Most of the auscenitic alloy steels used in cryogenic pipng are chromium-niccel stainless steels of :he AISI 3)0 type, such as 301, 304L, 316, and 316L. Other stainless steels classifizd as martensitic, duplex, ani precipitation hardening also zxist; however, the preceding dloys are nost conmonly used in cryogenic piping for chemical proces: and distrbution applica- tioas, - Acmrajor consideration in the use of the 300 Series staialess steelsis the improve. ‘ment in toughness properties they provide and elimination of the sharp ductile-to- britle transition found n ferritic steels. These alloys have been ised to cortain' and distribute iquid hydrogen and helium. Consequently, while the austenitic siain- less steels were originally developed for corrosion resistance, their toughness and excellent fracture properties are what led to their selecticn for cryogenic piping ap- ications. ; : nO the 300 Series alloys, the AISI.304 compesition is the most popular as. ‘measured by ionnage. It should be noted that there is a oreference for AISI 316L. in the electronics industry for the distribution of high-purity gases that are free of; articulates, Furthermore, piping and tubing used in this application are frequently: eleetro-polished, and the trend is for an increase in electro-polishing for ultra-high unity applications. Cast versicns of the somnion austenitic stainless steels may be used if valve applications exist. CF3, CF3M, CF8, and CF8M are cast equivelentsof 304L, 316L, 304, and 316, -espectively. Note thet the cast stainless stzels have teen optimized forcastability, and incressed delta ferrite levels may adversely affect toughnes at cryogenic temperatures. Similar efiects may be observed in austeritic weld fller meials, and both castingsand weld filers should be well characterizei and qualified rior to, use in cryogenic piping sysems> NCNFERROUS ALLOYS Nonferrous alloys encountered in cryogenic piping are usually of the aluminam, ‘cup‘ous, or nicke] families. None of the three alloy families exhibit ductile-to-britle toughness transition due to the FCCcrystal lattice. Common nonferrous alloys wed in cyogenic piping appear in Table C8.8, Table C89, and Table Cé.9M (Mettic). Aluninum Aloys Common aluminum alloys used in eryogenic process pipng do not represent the gamut of whatis availabe in aluminum alloys. The high-strength aluminum alloysCRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS, TABLE C8.8_ Typical Nonferrous Alloys “Jsed in Cryogenie Piping : Minimam * ~~] > ASME! Alloy Tempers temperaure spec. 1100 Aluminum 0, EM 254°C (-452°F) SB 210 3003 Aluminum, 0, uz ~254°C (-452°F) $B 210 5052 Aluminum, 0, ER 254°C (-452°F) $B.210 5083 Aluminum om | -2ec earn |. Se20 $086 Aluminum, ori: | -2ec(asrR |” sa 210 6061 Aluminum 256 (as2"F) = |. sa 210 Copper (C10200, €12200) 5 ‘Copper-nickel (70600) _ € $8467 ‘Copper-nickel (C71500) EE Boece S|. spse7 ‘Monel 400, Al-Ca alloy 198°C (-325°F) _ |. SB 165 * Design minimun temperature for which iatéria is normaly Stable without inipa testing otha = fan the required by material specication | Coresponting (STM seseations ae 37, B16, BzI0and BAT. commonly used in aerospace aplicaions are rot used in the chemical proces} = industy Beaute ofthe lack of ASME Code coveigeoroter consideration such = as-corosion. Pere Aluminum compositions of the 5183 and 661 types constitute the highest. - strenghh alloys wed in cryogenic applications, and‘tempers of these alloys ‘are. = Suitable at temperatures as low as —452F (—254°C). From the toughnessstandpoint, 5083 would be preferred. However, prolonged exposure to temperattres as high as 152F (66°C): faring ‘thaws can result in both areduction .n corrosion resistance and toughness. For low-strength applizations, the 3000 series are also ased. 5 Copper and Cuprous Alloys et Most of the early. work in the cryogenic industiy was accomplished through the “use of copper process vessels, piping, and tubing, Aluminum has extensively replaced * copper and cuprous alloys in the fabrication or air Separation plants However, copper and cuprcus piping are still extensively used in piping and tubing runs from cryogenic tankage for several readons which includ» eade of fabrication (ag., brazing, solderng), resistance to ignition, and combusticn resistance in oxygen-enriched systens. It may be noted that orbital are-welded stuinless piping systems are increas- ingly replacing cxprous piping for the delivery of particulate and contaminant-free electronic grade gases.‘OTe ‘SLs 918 suontoynads WISV “Areansadsox supnipsoo pouapiey pue os aImdysep HI pur § 8I97>| UL « s se os 9 0s sit Ste st se 3s o sc 08 TE | soras Oot [340K a 0 te se ste- ste yao u 6 ol oF o + Ta] toras INE C€/0L | Ste soe vad 9 | 6 aw or oF sa | ras ENED 01/06 st os Se 9” vt we ep (oozid oer ce 95 s or te ta | sews | vv) ssa z ae] 9s oe 2p OL 66 or or a ov sp La | orz-as, | wonurmmyy 1995 we see | Het soz | 196 se | csr- ze ‘0 e ver Her see | Hutt sit | wep see | ia | orcas | wnuwny 9905 + s See sez seo | csr 0 89 er vor o7 | ucer siz | um see | au | orcs coos ‘ HE sey.| Hote suv | 9s soz | zop— zH‘O. se ver HB -Sct,| Hose sie | Hop ser | au | oras | umawnry zoos Ey ‘sev 30 see | sr aH’ 6 HL Sse | Heat. 9° | Hz sor | ay | orcas | umuumy soo ot $98 ty zm '0 ser HOL Sob sp | reas | uimanunry cont (a.-¥-WaLe) ") (%) (a) “eds Aory Auanonpuos ‘vowuedya wpduans ea ‘dwet | .aNsv reunouy, rewroq, yeeduy | uoneduorg faro49, _| sSfony sromayuoy, jo sorsodoug ropes PUR ToRUONDOYY TOOKKL GED ATAVL caiz‘suy yexeg snes, in OL PO T2919 set om montenosie wLsy Suptodes, sO : © 8 soras or 1aU0Hy = sor- [Pi sib yuu 6 or ia | wras IN-9O 06/04 aot | 90, vad sy a sbi | isi-as I-79 0106 ocr m6 OE 861- (ooze cae ee waa | sias | ‘eoz01o) seddo3 ar: ec a ut a 2a | ore-as | wnummry 1509 GLI Sect | vst THO ger & HLIL Set Ta | tas | amumnry ops “ 6 S65 ¥st— , zu‘ at ez Hest sere ebr: | oreas | aaumnry esos zt HOLE s¥ce vst- zee‘. oer « Hose sssv. Bi | orcas. | wnupunry eops an 6 s9! ¥s0= a0 ost w H9gt Sir’ za | orgs: | wnumnry cope os? 6 sss ¥50~ Caray oz @ Hast SHE ax | orcas | anummry oort ewan) “| G00 x 87) | ‘sads fou Axapenpuee ‘ropa aiady, | ansv PULL, TUL siete askory snonagnegs Jo eanearions resektar Pwo TeoqueRaayy Te=AL, (OMMOW WNO'ED TIVE carscat4 TIPING SYSTEMS ‘Nickel Alloys ‘While nickel alloys could be used in eryogenic piping srstems on the basis of their mechanical sroperties, their high cost generally precludes their use. One najor exception is he use of Monel,® a rickel-copper alloy, which may be used in oxygen systems to rrinimize ignition tendencies where there is soncern ofimpingement or the potential for high velocities. NONMETALLIC MATERIALS Although the bulk of the materialsused in cryogenic pipelines are metals, nonnetal- lic materials nave criticel functionsin cryogenic pipelinecomponents such as valves and insulation, Numerous nonmeallic components have been used in cryogenic Pipeline appications, and it wouldbe beyond the scope of this section to cite them v al. A brief listing of some of th: more common nonmetallic materials used in pipeline components is found in Table C810, Table C8.11, and Table C811M (Metric). - TABLE C810 ‘Typica, Examples of Nonmetallic Materia Used-in Cryogenic Piping 8 Application Material Gaskets Durable, (bonded or compresed asbestos | Grafoil (exible graphite) = Insulation (Biber) Mineral woo! Fiberglass =; | Insulation (foam) Polyurethane : Styrofoam * Foamgless(R) 2. | Insulatios (powder) Perlite Vermiculite Insulation (sheet) < Mylar ‘Aluniauni opacificd paper Insuiatior (support brock) Transite Micarta ‘Valve packing, seals, and lubricants | Viton KELF Glass-teinforced Teflon Fluorclube_ ‘Source: Praxalr ia.CRYOGENIC PINGSYSTEMS cats TABLE C811. Typical Mechanical and Pliysical Properties of Nonimetallic Materials “enaié [Moats] emt | Tews | Sea sang |"taty | Speete| expan || contoy ae GS" | “Gad” | ary | Gar 10-9] ret") ee Bee) [rat Gor paar anal) i ‘Gnd Gee ie) asa | 2m | 1a | am om [a Merl vol ernst | 02] asa} 0 ‘igs fi ition 5m | “ome 05.08 Verisalite powde asain wef | ode ‘Myr stl» as sf 19 |: ‘Through aictness conduetwity, Souree:” Prexar Ine. plssis ob TABLE C8:11M Metric): ‘Typical Mectanical and Physical Properties of Nonnete Meena) Peat Mesinie . law cen Hepsie | Nous], Tuewa | aeaw Sue EEA | || ae |e [ay Dunble (asbestor gaket maserial) |.27~75 |, . - Gatton emmy fer | ae | Ser wari | > waa] Ts ; “Fibemlass fiber insuktion 344-3400 | 57,880. ay Pet powder insaion| Verniuiteromde i a la been” um | wa | ap am 28 | hone. Aluninum ose oper abet | No loner Ilon valabe “Trant innntion bk Ne loter ea * Through thickres conductivity, Source: PraxairIne,cate PIPING SYSTEMS Again, compatibility and mechanical and physical properties must be considered in the selecion of noametallic materials. With respect to comoatibility, iquid onygen is the commercial cryogen of greatest concern because of its large tsage. ‘Typical tests or experimental parameters covered in tke selectior of nonmetallic materials for oxygen service include aufoignition temperature, hea: of combustion, inpact test, and oxygen index. Materials that are compaible with cxygen generally heve high auoignition temperatures, low heats of combistion, hig energy absorp- tion in impact tests, and high oxygen index values. Reference’ gives advice roduction Consequently, many common materials turrently used in cryo- genic 2iping systams are likely to be fhased out over time. Rerent legislation mandates that material safety data sheets (MSDS)be obtained for all industrial substances that are ia industrial use. This obviously includes the metalic and nonmetallic materials used in eryogeric piping. Failure to comply with the requirementsand implementation provisions of the original legislation can have serious consequences for fabricators. Equipment used in oxygen services 1as additional requirements such as cleaning and velocity limitations which must be considered. Oxygen equipment must be cleaned to elimizate contaminants such as hycltocarbons and metal particulates, which could serve as ignition sources. Reference 3 provides a general discussion cf this issue. In addition, ‘velocity limitations may be placed on certain classes of inaterial to preclude ignition by particlz impingement. See Reference 4for velocit limitations and d:sign considerations peitinent to oxygen sjstéms. ‘Other industral gases that-might te encountered in cryogenic pipeliries have specifi hazards «sociated ‘with them (ie., fammability, toxicity, ete.) These are summarized in MSDS forms available from induitrial gas suppliers. REFERENCES. 1, “Guide for Evahating Nonmetallic Materials for O:ygen Servite,” ASTM Specifcatior 663, Amecican Society for Testing and Vaterals, Pulladetphia, PA. 2, “Design Handbcok for Liquid Fluorine round Handling Equipnent;" Technical Report No. AFRPL-TR65~133, Air Foros’ Rocket Propulson’ Laboratory, Edwards: Air Force Base, 1965. : 3.16. Hist and Git, Ady #A\ Survey of Compatibitty of Matedais, wit High Pressure ‘Onysen Service,” Cryogenics, vol. 13, 1973, pp. 325-335. 4. “Cleaning Equipnent for Oxygen Service.” CGA Panphlet G.4. 1,Compresse¢ Gas Associ- atior, Arlington, VA. BIBLIOGRAPHY Handbcok on Mauerials jor Superconductixg Machinery, Technica Report MCIC-HB-04, Metal & Ceramics Information Center, Batelle, Colunbus, OH, November 1974. ‘Metals ‘landtook (desk edition), American Society for Metals, Ceveland, OH, 1985, pp. 170.2420 34 Reed, R.P., and Clark, A.F. Metals Park, OF, 1983. ‘Schwaruberg, F. R. Cryogenic Materials Dita Hendbook, vols. 1 and ll, Techical Report AFML-TR-G4-280, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, D4, July 1570. “Materials at Low Temperatures.” American Society for Metals,cae. TPING SYSTEMS PIPING SYSTEM DESIGN— FLUIDS M. J. Lockett Corporate Fellow Praxair, Inc, PIPE SIZING CRITERIA For all cryogenic fluids, except onygen gas, pipe sizing is based oa pressure drop censiderations (for oxygen gas, seethe section “Oxygen Sas Piping”), The pressure dop criteria presented in Chap. B8 ate applicable to cryogenic fiuids wher the fitid is either in the liquid phase or gas phase flow regime. Heat transfer into a saturated cryogenic liquid ot a érop in pressure can cause a portion of the liquid to flash inte a gas (sce the section “Properties of Cryogenic Fluids”). A two-phase (gas-liquid) flow condition must then be considered vhen determining the required pipe size and pressure head requirements (sce the next sestion). Two-phase flow will resut in larger pressure crop losses or a larger pipe size requirement than will liguid phase flow. Therefore, whenever possible, the fluid should be maintained in a single-phase flow condition. Th: liquid om be suacooled to prevent fiashoff due to pressure decreases such as zcross thrattling valves. Use of pipe insulation car reduce the heat leat into the piping, thereby ako reducing flashoft. TWO-PHASE FLOW Fer prediction of the pressure drop experienced by a two-phase cryogenic fluid fiowing along a pipe, the usual rractice is to divide the pipe irto sections for calculation purposes (see Fig. C84), At the beginning of @ given pipe section, . ig ae i » prado h h+Ah FIGURE O84 fipe section.(CRYOGENICPIPING SYSTEMS cai9 conditions are assumed to be known. The pressure drop over the section is'then calculared based on the conditions at the begining of the section, and so the pressure at the end of the section can be determined. The heat leak into the section is estimated from heat transfer correlaions. An exthalpy balance over ‘he section then alows the exthalpy (h) at the end of the sortion to be calculated (potential and Kirti energy changes ver the sertion can ually be nigleted), Knowledge of the pressure and entialpy at the enc of the secon allowsnew conditions to calcula‘ed from tke thermodynamic properties of the cryogenic fluid. Such condi- tions include the temperature, vapor fraction, and physical preperties of each phase. ‘The caculations are then repeated for the next ection, and soon to the end of the pipe. ‘Two-Prase Pressure Drop The toral pressure drop for two-phase flow consists of three parts; the frictional, gravitational, and accelerational pressure drops, s9 that, ap apr (#2) (2) 2 Pe) 4 (Be (C8.1) (2), +2) en where p is the pressure, pdl ft (Nm™)and z is the distince along the pipe, f(a). Mary correlations have been propcsed to prelict the fri:tional pressure drop (épp/d:) and they are discussed in Chap. B8. The 2arliest comelation, which is still widely used, is that of Lockhart and Martinelli? To use this comelation, the steps are: 1. Calaulate the Reynolds nimber for each phasé flowing abne in the pipe. M.D Re, = —— (C8.2) a (€8.2) Reg = Me2 (C83) Autc : where M;, Mg = liquid and vapor flow rates, Ibs"! (kg s™ AD cross sectional area, ft (m’), and diameter, ft (m) Hy ie = liquid and vapor viscosities, Ib °! s-! (Nsn-?) 2, Calailate the frictional pressure d:op for each phase lowing alone in the pipe. dpe 2keRex)""er (Mu \? (4) =") (84) dpe) _ 2ka(Rea)-"oc ( Mo \* (HF) ES (a) ee ‘Where pz, pc = liquid and vapor densities, lb ft” (kg m~),cazo HPING SYSTEMS ‘The folloving table can be used to determine ki, ke m, and nr Liquid | Vapor | Ren Ree ke ke n m t t >2,000 | >2,000 006 | 0c | 02 | 02 v t <1o00 | 32,000 | 16 006 | 10 | 02 t y >2,000 | <1,000 | oo | 16 02 | 10 v v <1o00 | <1,00 | 16 16 10 | 10 The value of 0.04 is based on smooth pipes, and ¢ and v denote turbulent or laminar flow respectively. +3. Calculate ¥ from te) /(#) “ x= |(@F oer (C8.6) (2/2), oo) 4, Use Fig. C85 to deiermine 4, or do. 5. Calculate the fiictioral pressure drop for two-phase flow irom either, dpe) _ gs (tee (22) = 3(%) This correlation typically allows prediction of the frictional pressure drop to about +3(%, but the discrepanzy can be greater uncer some circumstances. Where the flow is other than horizontal, the gravitational pressure drop be- cones significant, and in vertical flow it is the dominant term. It may be calcu- lated from dq (#2) = ssinélape + (1 er] (8.8) where g = aczeleration due to gravity, ft s-? (ms-*) @ = void fraction @= angle to horizontal, des Numerous correlatioas are available for the void fraction, and that of Lockhart ani Martineli is shown in Fig. C3.5. As it was derived originally for horizontal flow, it can be rather inaccurate fcr vertical flow. Other void fraction correlaions are mentioned in Chap. B.8. The accelerational pressure drop is often negligible for two-phaie flow of «ryo- genic fluids. I can be estimated frm, dD, Ld [Me ME (%) Adz [me pul = @), (9) where the expression on the righthand side is evaluated over the pipe section, ‘The total pressure drop calculsted by this method should be increased by at‘CRYOGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS Caz oot 2 04 at 1 100 FIGURE C85 Locthart Martineli correlaticn. Teast 30% for design safety. A final chect should also be made for critical, or choked, flow atthe downstream end ofthe pipe. An equation proposed by Sehwveppe and Foust? for the maximum possible flow ate is : 05 ae -ln~ (10) G), maxinum fiow rate of the mixture, Its“! (kg s~. speciic volume of the mixture based on homogenous flow, f Ib“ (a? 1) Me where M.cazz PIPING SYSTEMS sothat Mo 0a +Mu/ ou M+ Me (ca) and the partial derivative is evaluated under isentropic conditions. It can be calcu- lated for conditions at the downstream end of the pipe from the thermodyramic properties of the cryogenic fluid. An alternative Version, involving the enthalpy, f, which is sometimes nore cowenient, is os 2 7av av w) 4 (® ( op ] » (i) > where the two partial derivatives ae evaluated at constant enthalpy and constant pressure respectively. If M, is less than the assumed total flow rate, the aressure crop calculation should be regeated with a reduced total flow rate or an increased vipe diameter. M=- (Cz.12) OXYGEN GAS PIPING aE Fo: oxygen gis, the fluid velocity must also be considexed when determining the pipe size. Th: allowable velocity is a function-of the oxygen gas pressure and temperature «nd the material of the piping and its componenis. For systems with Pressures up ‘0 1000 psi (69 bar) and a maximum temperature of 200°F (366 K), carbon steel end stainles steel piping are acceptable provided thal the maximum allowable gas velocity as shown in ig. C8.6 is not exceeded. 09 1s0| AAT 200°F GAS TEMP. MAX) dl a a) INTERNAL PRESSURE, PSIG* FIGURE C8.6 Maximum veboity versus internal pressure for steel pipé= lines. (Ref. 3.)(CRYOGENICPIPING SYSTEMS e423 ‘When the velocity is exceeded, copper or a conper-base material'such as brass ‘or monel is required. The velocity criteria should also be considered at valves. For ‘exampk, sonic velocity can occur at throttling and safety valves. Copper-base materials are required for the parts of the valves where high velocity can occur. ‘When oxygen za8 impinges directly on ferrous piping, such as from a side back feed line, the allowable velocity must 2¢ reducec to one-half the values given in Fig. C86, or the impingement surface must bea copper-base alloy. When the velocity returns to accepteble levels, the copper bass alloy is extended for 8 diameters in pipe leagth before returning to ferrous piping. For a more thorough discussion of material requirercents for oxygen service, see Re’. 3 at the end of this section. PIPING: ARRANGEMENT Consideration ofthe cryogenic Auld ‘rapertes hay an effect onthe piping arrange- ment, Because the cryogenic fluid is cxlder than ambient ai, the continuous heat leak from ambient air to the piping system is a design consileration. ‘Whenever cryogenic liquid ean be trapped between two valves. a line block safety ralve must 2¢ provided to prevert overpressurization caused by heat transfer from the ambient air (o the cryogenic fluid, As noted earlier in the discussion of ‘cryogenic fluids, containment of the pressure increase caused by vapcrization of the tragped cryopenic liquid is not pra:tical and tse of a lin: block safety valves mandatory. Wher. eryogenic gas can bs tapped tetween'two valves, the preselre rise should be cacculated to ensure that the pipiag system design pressure is not cexceedéd when the trapped gas warms vp to ambient tempereturey Wher. the. design _pressure ean be exceeded, aline-block safaty:valre should te‘uséd. 91 es: ‘oTrags are:normally designed: into liquid piping systems > prevent indesirable heat leak from a:branch of the piping system When it is not-n use."To Jorm atrar at the branch and main. run connection; a.vertical rise equa! toa mirimum:of 2 pipe diameters is provided in the branch: Heat transfet into te nonflowwing-branch will caise the liquid to vaporize and a:gas-liquic interface will-form:in-the trap. ‘The. gis-liquid: inerface in the. vertical. rise will >revent'flow from:the main? run into the-nonflowing branch. Undesiratle, heat traasfer:and iquid loss is therefore seduced, When’ Lquid flow is require. through the branct, the liquit wil: flow through the trap: »» - ‘When a cryogenic ligui tin is initial putin service, the varm piping will case liquid flashoff, waich.could restrict th: flow during the two-phase flow transient period. When it is possible to. precool the lines; tae piping can be sized for liquic phase ow, which will result in smalle: piping. If rapid: cooldown is required, the piping must be sized for two-phase flow. ‘AS 2 good aprroximation, the amount of liquid required to cool down-aline is . We ~- €8.13) where W = liquid, Ib (kg) 4m = lineto be cooled, Ib (kg) Com = mean specific heat of linc, Btu/(Ib-F), (kt kg“'K-!) AT» = temperature change throvgh which ine is coolzd, °F(K) snthalpy of fluid as a vapor at ambient conditions, Btu/Tb (kJ kg!) initial enthalpy of liquid wvhen entering line, Bru/Ib (kJ kg") Hh)Gaza DIPING SYSTEMS REFERENCES 1. RW. Lockiart and R.C Martnell, Chem. En. Prog, 45,39, 1949, 2. JL. Schweppe and A.S Foust, Chen. Eng. Prog, 49, Symo. Ser. 5,77 1953. 3. CGA Pamphlet G-4.4, “industrial Practices for Gaseous Oxygen Transmission and Ditribu- tion Piping Systems,” Compressed Gas Association, Ine. Arlington, Va. PIPING SYSTEM DESIGN— MECHANICAL A.R, Belair Engineering Manager Praxair, Inc. APPLICABLE CODES AND MATERIALS ‘The applicable code for the design of cryogenic piping systems is tke ASME 31.3 Process Piping Code." H31.3 presents a design procedure to determine the stresses inthe pipe due to fluid pressure, ppe ard Ould weight, and therma expansion and contraction othe pipe. The code 2lso lists piping materials by ASTM specification number. The allowable stress as a function of design temperature is listed for each material The listed minimum design temperature is used to determine which miterials aresuitable fer cryogeni: service. Some of the meterias can be wed in lower-temperaure service, provided the specified impict test is performed to ensure adequate ducility at thelower tempera- ture, The B313 Code ako lists pipe fittings and bolting by ASTM number so that zmieterials compatible with the pipe can be selected. For more discusson of materials, see the section “Materials Used in Cryogenic Piping Systems.” Other piping design considerations such as corrosion resistance, chemical com- Paiibility, and material melting poiat can affect the mate‘ial selecticn. Some eam- ples of these sonditions include: 1. Copper-baie materiak arc not recommended for amnonia or acetylene service Ddecause copper alloys react with the fluid, 2, Stainless steel piping is recommended for flammable fluids such as hydrogen father thax lower-melting-point materials such as copper or aliminum ualess she piping is protected to preveat exposure to heat ir the event of a fire. 3. Copper-bate materials (such as monel) are recommended for high-velocity axy- yen service See Chap. 82 for discussion of formulas which can beused to cakulate the sipe wall thickness as required to contain the fluid pressure,CRYOGENICPTPING SYSTEMS 0.425 ECONOMIC PIPE SIZING When 4 piping system is being designed, an initial pipe size mast be selected before the piping configuration is developed. This subsection provides recommendations for selecting the initial pipe size. However, after the piping system is developed, the pipe size selestion is finalized by calculating :he pressure drop bated on the actual siping confguration and compaiing it to the pressure head available. For cryogenic liquid lines, the initial pipe size should be selected 0 that the liquid velocity is in the range of 5 ft/s ‘1.5 m/s). For cryogenic liquid lines, the initia. pipe size should be ielected besed on the available pressure head (sce section “Piping System Design—Fluids,” subsection “Pipe Sizing Criteria”). When estimating pipe tmgth and aumber of fittings to calculate the initial pipe size, add 50 percent to the total resistance coefficient, K, to allow for pipe loops and extra fittings as may be required ‘or therma: flexibility To ensire good process control, one-third 6f the total system pressure drop should be allotted to the control valves. Except for oxygen gas, as discussed in'the section “Piping Syster: Desi Fluids,” subsectica “Oxygen Gas Piping,” there ace no specific gas velccity limita- tions. However, the gas velocity is nornally less shan 400 {vs (130 m/s) to avoid noise groblems aad excessive pressure drop. For systems with pressures up to 400 psi (2750 KPa), gas velocitiesin the rang? of 50 to 2(0 ft/s (15 to 65 m/s) are common, ‘When the pipe size of the gas line affects the plant pover consunption, the initial pipe size can be selected by using the folowing equation. The equation calculates the pige diameter that provides the minimum tctal cost; that is, pipe capital cost plus aperating power cost. Econonical pipe sizing (Imperial units) D= coors, MEE ES (a4) EA Pa where M = molecular weight ~ T = absolite temperature, K U = average compression temp, K C = cost of power, S/kW-h Y = evaluation period, years E-= compressor overall efficiency A= pipe sost fraction, $ per 100-fi/in pipe diameter Q =flow -ate, ft'/h @ 70°F, 147 pia P = absolate pressure, psia D = inside pipe diameter, in PIPING COMPONENTS ‘Econonical pipe sizing (Metric units) mrucr)' ge Ea) Sex (cate D=(1:58)| ‘waere M = molecular weight T = absohite tempersture. K average compression - temp. K C = cost of power, $'megejoule evalustion period, years compressor overall efficiency A = pipe cost fraction, $ per 4vscimm pipedianeter flow mate, m/h @ O°C absolute pressure, KPa = inside pipe diameter, mm. ‘The types of valves used in cryogenic service are similar to those used ‘or conven: tional fluids, except that the valves may require unique design features due to theC426 PING SYSTEMS cryogenic fitids. Metallic and nonmetallic materials must: be suitable for the low= temperatureservice. See the discussions on materials in the section “Materials Used in Cryogenic Service.” Valve types used include gate, globe, butterfly, ball, creck, ard safety. ‘The stems of gate, globe, butterfly, and ball valves are extend so that the yalve packing and operator remain at ambient temperature when eryogenie fluid is in the valre body. The valves are oriented so that ‘he packing is ai a higher elevation then the valve body, so that a gas pocket cin form inside the velve’s extension tute, thereby making the extension tube more effective at insulating the pecking fromthe cold tenperatures, Figure C8.7 shows au extendedstem gate valve EMO. PARTNAME 6 SOMETEOLTING Boney easter PACKNO, ‘Your asians FIGURECE7 Extented stem gate valve, (Coutesy Prax- air, Ine.) ‘Yalves must be designed so that quid cannot be trapped in a porion of it wien the valves are cycled from open to closed. When a conventional gate valve is closed, it ispossible for liquid to be trapped in the bonnet area, If liquid is trapped, Feat input from the atmospheie will caus: the liquid to veporize and overpressurize the valve body. When a gate valve is ased'in cryogenic sewice, the bonnet ‘area is Yented to one side of the valve so that any vaporized gas sannot be Tapped inthe bonaet area. Figure C8.8 shows one method that is used to vent the bonnet wea of agate valve ‘With a conventional ball valve, liquid can be trapped between the ball and the(CRYOGENICPIPING SYSTEMS az? FIGURE C88 Gav valie—vasted bon. (Coury Pres, Ine! hag swrarast 2 ‘Seat. Similaily, for bail Valves' in’ cryogenic service, the ball area is vented to one side of the valve. .- _ Duting the’ cool-dovn' or thaw of & cryogenic piping system, different parts of ‘the Valies‘may’ccoY’ down, or Warm ‘ip at differen: rates, resilting in varying rates ‘of contraction aid expansion{’The valve design must consider that the valves are required to be operational curing thes» conditions. FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS AND SUPPORTS FOR. CYROGENIC PIPING SYSTEMS Piping flexibility analysis’is ‘an: important design consideraton because the large’ difference: between ambient and cryogenic temperatures wil result in significant thermal contraction. ‘The:analysis methods used are similar to those required for conventional piping systems as discussed in Chay. B4. The one difference is that piping in cryogenic service contracts rather than expands asis the case with high- ‘temperature service. However, since the commerdally availzble flexibilty analysis compuer prograns have the temperattre range as an input value, and the program calculates the resulting thermal contradion, the analysis methods become identical to thos used for conventional piping «ystems. ‘When possible, cryogenic piping is iouted so that the pipng configuration pro- vides adequate fexibility. Generally, pping is routed in a manner that :ncludes Z, L, and U bend configurations to take up the pipe movernent while keeping the stresset within the allowable range. When additonal flexibility is required, the flexibilty can be increased by the addition of expansion loops (U bends) or the addition of flexible metal hose. Flexible hose can accommodate larger pipe move- ments and can result in a more compad. design. However, the use of flecible hosescaze >IPING SYSTEMS ay result in requiring more pipe supports to guide the. piping so that the pipe movement is taken up by the how. The flexible hose is tocated so that pipe movement + lateral tc it. The briided cever on the flexible Lose prevents any significant pise movement axial t> tho flexible hose. A flexible hose acts similarly to an expansion joint designed for lateral movements. The recom nended ugper pressure limit for 1exibie hose and expansion joints is 100€ psi (6900 kPa). ‘Hanging. Buh) ‘wi(mK) Urethane foam oor 021 Foanglass nz 042 Perlte (at atmogheric pressure) aos “031 Perlite (vacuum xt 1 pm) 19x 10" ee Laminar radiation shielding 21x 10" 383 x 107 (wieuum at 0.1 xm) The typical values for thermal ‘conductivity are shown in Table C8.12. The expanded foam insulations use a plastic covering, such as PVCor neoprene sheeting, to provide the vapor barrier protection. The initial sapital cos; is usually lower than the other systems, but more frequent maintenance is required to maintain a tight vapor barrier. Powder insulation is generally used vhen severil piping segments and picees of equipreent can be grouped in one area. A metel jacket or casing is used to contain the perlite around the piping and equipment When theinsulation space is maintained at atmospheric pressure, it must be purged with a dry gas, suck as nitrogen, to keep atmospheric moisure out of the casing For improved heat transfer performance, the casing cen be made vacuum-tight and the insuation spac: evacuated to a high vacuum. For powder insulation, high vacuum is a pressure level less than 1. um: of mercury when theline is at the normal cryogenic teriperature operation cxndition (1 yum of mercury is oqual to 10° torr). See Table C8.12 for typical thermal conductivity ‘values. When considering this insulation option, the difficulty in ma:ntaining’a ‘vacuum-tight casiag must be weighed against the difficulty of maintaining a dry gas purge, considering the difference in heit transfer performanze. ‘Vacuum-insulated piping (VIP) is constructed cf a stainless steel inner pipe that ‘contairs the cryogenic fluid, a stainless teel outer jacket to form the vacaum space, and insulation in the vacuim space. The insulaticn is normally laminar radiation shielding that consists of altcrnatc layers of a reflective material, such as aluminum foil, ard an insulation material, such is glass paper. For vecuum-insulated pipe, the recuired vacuum is a pressure level less than 0.1 um, when the line is at the normal cryogenic operating condition. Heat leak by conduction and radiation is reduced by the laminar radiation shielding, The heat leak by 2onvectionis reduced by the vacuum. Normetallic sfacers are required inthe vacuun space to support and maintain alignment of the nner pipe withia the outer pipe jacket. Bellows are required in one pize to account for the differential expansicn between the inner and outerca30 OIPING SYSTEMS yj Ly oman H MALE EW OF wer tt | | ‘BAYONET FIGURE C89 Vactum-insulated pipe bayonet assembly, (Courtesy Praxair, In.) TABLE C8.13 ‘Typical Heat Leak Values for Vacaum-Insulated Pipe when the Fluid ‘Temperature is ~320°F (-196°C) ee Baycnet and feld- Pige size welded yr Pipe Elbow Tee ~—Flex hose joits- Valve % 047 150 2.00 141 B 4 1 050 230 3.40 450 a 15 Ms 058 260 4.00 174 2B 19 2 064 = 3.00 450 192 a 25 3 07 3.80 570 237 a a 4 092 4.40 650 276 & 2 6 1.20 6.00 9.00 360 ww 120 8 146 740 11.00 438, 4 180 OO * (eat leak values are BTU/h/ft of pipe and flex hose and are BTU/h for each ftting and vahe) {For the inner pipeCRYOGENICPIPING S¥S"EMS 431 TABLE C8.13M (Metric) ‘Typical Heat Letk Values for Vacuum-Insulated Pipe when the Fluid Temperature is ~320°F (~196°C)* Bayonet and ficld- Pipe Size welded (am) Pipe Elbow - Tes Flac hose joints | Valve 19 os, 144 12 136 4 4 B 048 221 327 144 6 4 3B 056 2.50 35 167 7 6 50 062 288 433 18s 7 7 Bs 0.76 3.65 548. 128 4 9 100 088 423 635 165 2B 2B 150 Las S71 855 346 2 35 200 1.40 72 1050 421 41 3 * Hot leak valuesare watts/m of pipe and fx hose chd ae wats for etch fitting and valve.) + Forthe inter pipe. pipe. Due to the labor-intensive nature of fabricating VIP, it is'normally shop- fabricated. To accommodate field installation, a mechanical joint is required be- tween fipe segments. A bayonet assembly is one type of jointthat has ar extended heat leek path between the inner pipe and the flange connecton of the outer pipe. Figure 28.9 illustrates the bayonet assembly. ‘Table C8.12 shows typical values of insulation termal performance for laminar radiaticn shielding For a vacuum-insula‘ed piping :ystem, thethermal performance of the straight pire is affected by the umber: and type of spacers. The thermal performance of fitings and other components devend on fébrication techniques. Tables 08.13 and Table C8.13M (Metric) show typical heat leak performance values for commercially available vacuum instlated pipe. ‘The total cost, including the piping system anc the cost cf refrigeration losses due to heat leak, should be considerec when selecting an insulation ssstem. For many permanent piping systems, vacuum-insulated pipe prevides the ‘nost cost- effective insulation system. CLEANING * All maerials used in oxygen piping ststems or connected with oxygen systems should 3e cleaned before the system is put into service. The deaning must remove mill scale, rus, dir, weld slag, oil, grease, and othe: organic materials. Tke purpose ofthe deaning is remove hazardous hydrocarbans and pariculate costaminants which could ignite and cause a fire in aa oxygen atmosphere.To obtain additional information on cleaning requirements, see Ref. 2. For a discussion of the factors affecting ignition in an oxygen system, see Ref. 3. All materials used in nonoxygen cryogenic systems are also cleaned >efore the system is put in service. The purpose o: the cleaning is to reduce contaminants to the point where they will not migrate, seize up maving partset low temperatures, or prevent the attainment of high prodict purity or vacuum levels.