Leonardo Da Vinci 1999 .

:
EL/99/2/011015/PI/II.1.1.b/FPI TEPRES, Guide for the Training of
Engineers in the Electricity Production Technologies from RES.
, ,
. TEPRES :
( ), ARMINES-Centre d Energtique
() Zentrum fr rationelle Energieanwendung und Umwelt GmbH (ZREU - ).
TEPRES,
1999 2001,
(
).

LEONARDO DA VINCI
6 1994,
Leonardo Da Vinci
. , (1995-1999),

,
.
Leonardo Da Vinci
,
,
COMETT, PETRA, FORCE,
LINGUA EUROTECNET, .
15 .., 3 (, ),
, , , ,
, , , .
,


.


,
- ,
29 1995.

,
. (, ARMINES ZREU)
,
,
,
,

, .

 LEONARDO DA VINCI 1999

: Guide for the Training of Engineers in the
Electricity Production Technologies from
Renewable Energy Sources
: EL/99/2/011015/PI/II.1.1.b/FPI

2001

CRES

1.
1.1.
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
1.2.
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.3.
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.3.3.
1.3.4.
1.3.5.
1.4.
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
1.4.3.
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
1.4.6.
1.4.7.
1.5.
1.5.1.
1.5.2. MY
1.5.3. MY
2.
2.1.
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.3.1.
2.1.3.2.
2.1.3.3.

2.1.4.
2.1.5.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.3.1.
2.2.3.2.
2.2.3.3.
2.2.3.4.
2.2.3.5.
2.2.4.
2.2.4.1.
2.2.4.2.
2.2.4.3.
2.2.5.
2.2.6.
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.1.1.
2.3.1.2.
2.3.1.3.
2.3.1.4.
2.3.2.
2.3.2.1.
2.3.2.2.
2.3.2.3.
2.3.3.
2.3.3.1.
2.3.3.2.
2.3.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.3.4.1.
2.3.4.2.
2.3.4.3.
3.
3.1.
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.2.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
2

3.2.3.
3.3. / ()
3.3.1. /
3.3.1.1.
3.3.1.2.
3.3.1.3.
3.3.1.4.
3.3.1.5.
3.3.1.6. /
3.3.2. /
3.3.2.1.
3.3.2.2.
3.3.2.3.
3.3.2.4.
3.4. /
3.4.1. /
3.4.2.
3.4.2.1.
3.4.2.2.
3.4.2.3. /
3.4.3.
3.5.
3.5.1.
3.5.2.
4.
4.1.
4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.1.1.
4.2.1.2.
4.2.1.3.
4.2.2. ( )
4.2.2.1.
4.2.2.2.
4.2.2.3.
4.2.3. /
4.2.3.1.
4.2.3.3.
4.3.
4.3.1.
4.3.2.

4.4.
4.4.1.
4.4.2.
4.4.3.
4.5.
5.
5.1.
5.1.1.
5.1.2.
5.1.2.1.
5.1.2.2. -
5.1.2.3.
5.1.2.4.
5.1.3.
5.1.4.
5.1.4.1.
5.1.4.2.
5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2. ( )
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.2.5.
5.2.6.
5.2.7.
5.2.8.
5.3.
5.3.1.
5.3.1.1.
5.3.1.2.
5.3.2.
5.3.3.
5.3.3.1.
5.3.4.
5.3.4.1.
5.3.4.2. ,

5.3.4.3.

5.4.
5.4.1.
5.4.2.
5.4.3.
5.4.3.1.
5.4.3.2.
5.4.3.3.
5.4.3.4.
5.4.3.5.
5.4.3.6.
5.4.3.7.
5.4.4.
6. -
6.1.
6.1.1.
6.1.2.
6.1.3. (-)
6.2.
6.2.1.
6.2.1.1.
6.2.1.2.
6.2.1.3.
6.2.1.4.
6.2.2.
6.2.2.1.
6.2.2.2.
6.2.2.3.
6.2.3.
6.2.4.
6.2.4.1.
6.2.4.2. ()
6.2.4.3.
6.2.4.4.
6.3.
6.3.1.
6.3.2. ( )
6.3.2.1.
6.3.2.2.
6.3.2.3.
6.3.3.
6.3.3.1.
6.3.3.2.
6.3.4.
5

6.3.4.1.
6.3.4.2.
6.4. -
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.2.1.
6.4.2.2.
6.4.2.3.
6.4.3.
6.4.4.
7.
7.1.
7.2.
7.2.1.
7.2.2.
7.2.2.1. -
7.2.2.2.
7.2.2.3.
7.2.2.4.
7.2.2.5.
7.2.3.
7.2.4. ()
7.2.5.
7.2.6. ()
7.2.7.
7.3. ()
7.3.1.
7.3.2.
7.3.3.
7.3.4.
7.3.5.
7.4.
7.4.1.
7.4.1.1.
7.4.1.2.
7.4.2.
7.4.2.1.
7.4.2.2. -
50 Hz

7.4.2.3. -

7.5. TOY
7.5.1. -
7.5.2. -
7.5.3.
8.
8.1.
8.2. ...
8.2.1.
8.2.2.
8.2.3.
8.2.4.
8.3.
8.3.1.
8.3.1.1.
8.3.1.2.

8.3.1.3.
8.3.1.4.
8.3.2.
8.3.2.1.
8.3.2.2.
8.3.2.3.
8.3.2.4.
8.3.3.
8.3.3.1.
8.3.3.2.
8.3.4.
8.4.
8.4.1.
8.4.2.
8.4.2.1.
8.4.2.2.
8.4.2.3.
8.4.2.4.
8.4.3.
8.4.4.
:
7


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, Leonardo Da Vinci 1999 TEPRES
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17


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.

21

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Ek = 95 MWh

[MWh]

80
60
40
20

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0
0

10

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2.3.2.3.
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24 30%, 28% .
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1985 1995,
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).
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2.12 ( ).
/ 71 kW 1985
523 kW 1996. 673
1037 kWh/m2 .
/ , 44%
95 kW 600 kW ( 2.12 - ).

2.12. , /
[: "Wind Energy in Europe The Facts", 1997]

2.3.4.

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27


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28

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3.1.1.
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Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), .
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18% ,
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.
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(. 3.1.).
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 3.1.
[: http://renewable.greenhouse.gov.au/technologies/pv/pv.html]

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P

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Imax  u   u Vmax 

(3.3)

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I-V I-V
. 3.10
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12

 3.9. I-V

3.10.

3.3.2.2.
( ) ,
,
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I-V.

.
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(3.4)

:
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(3.5)

(3.4) - (3.5):
P
P

I u V
  u Imax  u Vmax 

13

(3.6)

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3.12. , ,

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,
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3.14. ()
()
[: http://aurora.crest.org/pv/array/components/index.htm]

3.4. /
3.4.1. /
.

,
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.

/ .
/
( 3.15). ,
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,
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1100 GWp, 14-19%
6800 Wh.

16

 ,
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.

3.15. Zandvoort ()
: [http://www.euronet.nl/users/oke/PVPS/pv/sa_syst.htm]

3.16. /
A27 ()
: [http://www.euronet.nl/users/oke/PVPS/pv/sa_syst.htm]

1998, /
135 MW , 40

17

MW 1990. 15%
,
.
15-20% .
, 1.000 MW
2010, / 5 8
.
3.4.2.
,

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.

, /
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/ :

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.

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3.1 .
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18

(, ).
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19

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3.5.1. /
,
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0,017 - 0,15 kWh, /
22

 0,5 - 0,6/kWh. ,
.
3.19,
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3.19. /
[: http://renewable.greenhouse.gov.au/technologies/pv/pv.html]

,
,
. 3.20
,
30 .


. , .

3.20.

[: http://www.nrel.gov/research/pv/docs/pvpaper.html]

23

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60 MW
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25

4.1.


5.800 .
,
.


.

,

.
,
.
.
()

, MW
15 .

( 4.1),

Stirling. ,
.

4.1.

:
1

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.
.
.
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,

, :
-

4.2.
4.2.1.
4.2.1.1.



,
.

,
.


,
.

10 100, 400C.

,
350 MW ,
90% .
(SEGS - 4.2)
,

 390C
.
.
75% 25%
. , 110 -
9 , 14 80 MW.
1991 ,


.

4.2. / Rankine
SEGS

SEGS
. ,
,
96-97% 99,5%,
.
Kramer Junction 30%
.
,
SEGS VI 1997 10,8%. ,

21%.
60%. , (
) 24%.
.
3


15-16% 25-70%.
4.2.1.2.

SEGS .
, SEGS
$2700/kW
(ISCCS - 4.3) $850/kW.
$275 m2.

4.4.

4.3. ISCCS

4.4.

,
(. 4.5)
:
-

:

.
, 12

14% ,
.

ISCCS:

. ,
ISCCS
22%
SEGS ( 25% ) .

: 4.4,
40% ,
20-25% .
,
.

: ,
.


.
Plataforma Solar de Almeria ().

:

.
,
25 30% .

: ,

. 2% 9,5%
30%.

4.5.

4.2.1.3.



(GEF)
( 4.6).
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,
, , , , , , ,
, .

, .

,
/
.
4.1.

()

()

135 MWe ISCCS 35 MWe GEF 49 . US $

KfW 100 . US $
140 MWe ISCCS 35 MWe GEF

40 50 US $
150 MWe ISCCS 30-50 MWe GEF

40 50 US $
310 MWe ISCCS 40 MWe GEF

40 50 US $
50 MWe SEGS - THESEUS
IPP,
Thermie E
50 MWe SEGS


30 MWe SEGS

4.6.
[: Kramer Junction : Gould Electronics]

4.2.2. ( )

4.2.2.1.
,




.

,
,
,

.

,
. / ,
, .
. ,
, Rankine
Brayton.

300 1500, 1500C
, 10 MW .

. 4.7
.

4.7.

,
290C
565C, .

 ,

/ Rankine.
,
.


.

13 .
.
,
.
,
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-
. 2,7 ,
Mojave
65%,
25%.

SOLERGY.
( , , ,
, , .)
10 MW Solar One
(~1MW)
1980,
.
Solar Two.
Solar Two
8,5%.
, ( 4.8)
20%
.
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,

20% 77%, .

 4.8. 10 MWe
Solar Two

4.2.2.2.

Solar Two,
Southern California Edison.
& 2000
.
4.400 $/kW, 2030
2.500 $/kW. $475
$200 m2. /
4.9.

4.9.

Solar Two,
.
0,2 $/kWh
. ,
&

.
:

: ,

10 Solar Two.

,
MW.
.

:
(>250 $/m2). ,

,
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(220C).
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&
.

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.
4.2.

Solar
Two

2005

2010

2020

MW

10

30

100

200

200

m2

81 000

275 000

883 000

2 477 000

2 477 000

MW
MW

43
10

145
30

470
100

1 400
200

1 400
200

13

13

20

43

44

65

75

10

8,5

15

16

17

20

/kW

4 350

3 270

2 700

2 700

4.2.2.3.

(
ISCCS) .
(SOLGAS Coln Solar)
..
20MW

, 1998
.
ABENGOA 10MWe
-
PHOEBUS -
, Coln Solar 90 m2
(Planta Solar PS10 Sanlcar, - ). 35%
ENERGIE 5 ..
.. 1999,
.
20 GWh 2002

2.700/kWe.
10 MWe
- Ghersa, Boeing
Bechtel Crdoba ,
.

,
,
.
4.2.3. /
4.2.3.1.

, .
,
.

11


.
, ,
,
.

600 2000
1.500C.

.


.
,

,
. ,
. ,

, 95%.
1 kW/m2, /Striling 25
kW 10 .

Rankine Brayton,
,
Stirling. , Stirling Brayton
. / ,
, ,
(
).
,
/
(29,4%),
.
/

. /
.


. /
12

 , . /Stirling
25 kW McDonnell Douglas Aerospace (MDA)
80 (1997).
/,

. ,
(Schlaich, Bergermann & Partner) Steinmller (
) SOLO Kleinmotoren ( Stirling)
9-10 kW. ,
1992
30.000 .
, Southern California Edison
MDA 1986 1988.
12%,
. ,
23%. ,
23% .
/ ,
.

.
/Brayton ,
/Striling.
/Brayton /Striling
30% 33%, .
MDA 12,5%,

50%, 50%.
4.2.3.2.

9-10 kWe /Stirling 10.000 14.000 Euro/kWe,
7.100 Euro/kWe ( 100
).
0,15 Euro/kWh.
, /Stirling
,
.
Euro-Dish
7.100/kWe (100 /) 3.700/kWe (1000 /),

13

 2.400/kWe (3000 /) , , 1.600/kWe (10.000 /

), .
/
4.10

4.10. /

: 1.250/m2 (40 m2 Shenandoah, 1982), 300/m2 (91 m2
MDAC, 1985), 200/m2 (44 m2 LaJet, 1986) 150/m2 (44 m2
SBP, 1992). -
125
105 /m2 .

:
-

,
,
, ,
,
.

Stirling Brayton (),
.

/ Stirling.

, ,
Stirling Brayton.

4.2.3.3.
, /Stirling
PSA,
- /Stirling 9-10 kWe
( DISTAL I 1992 DISTAL II 1997).

14

 DISTAL I 30.000
.

Stirling.
& EuroDish, ..,
1998 PSA /Stirling 9-10 kWe,

-Stirling. ,
SES,
/Stirling 25 kWe McDonnell Douglas (MDA)
.

25 kWe /
Stirling ,
( 4.11)
&. ,
1994
400 m2
150 kWth.

4.11. /Stirling
[: One Omnium G SERI : ]

,
50 kWe .
,
2,6 MWth

, Newcastle - .

15

 Negev
.

4.3.
4.3.1.
,

.
, ,
. ,


. ,

.
,
.
.
,
. ,
.
,
.
/ .
Stirling ,
, Brayton
.
/Stirling .
,
.
, 15 .
, ,
/ ,
. ,
.
,

. ,
Stirling Brayton
.
16

4.3.2.

.
SEGS ( 90%)
.
Rankine
.
( 90%),
. , 10%
.
,
SEGS, 3 8 m3
MWh. /
.
.
4.3.
4.3.

MW
m2/MWh

SEGS

80
320
7,5
8,5

Solar Two
10
200
27
11

0,025
3,5

4.4.
4.4.1.
()
,
.
, ,
.

.
.


.

.
,
17

, ,
kWh .
,
:
- ,
,
- ,
/ .
,
,
.
4.12
(SEGS, , /Stirling)
,
.

4.12.

,

. /

kWe 10 MWe,
, ..
,
.
4.4.2.

.

18


.


.
,

.
,

.
,

.
4.4.3.


kW MW. ,
,
. . ,

,
(&) ,

&
.
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.

/. (10 50 kW)
.
/

.
,
,

.
.

19

4.5.
80, Mojave
( ) 14 80 MW,
354 MW, .
SEGS Luz
,
, .
.
400 kWh/m2 ,
170 GWh 80 MW.

4.13. SEGS IX

SEGS IX Harper
(80 MW) Luz,
4.13.
,
4.4, :
-

, 888
LS3, .

,
,

. .

.

.

80 MW .
30 ,
.

SEGS IX 250 GWh ,

3000 .

20

 PURPA (
) ,
75% .
,
.
4.4. SEGS IX

kWh/m2
ha

Harper (, 35)
2 727
169

LS3

()

m2
C
m3
m3

888
198 912
483 960
391
/
1 289
567

LS3
m2

350 C

m
m
m
m
m

545
224
5,76
95,2
0,07
82
2,12
17,3
0,8
0,94
0,965
0,19
0,96
0,68
0,49

MW
MW
MW
tons/h

89
80
251
357

mbar

80
0,338

Rankine

Rankine

21

0,324

5.1.
5.1.1.
() ( )
( ).


.

.
, , 200-1000C
3500-4500C .
,
,
, .
,
,
.

. ,

()
.

.
.

-
( 350C), ( ,
) ( ).
.
,
.
,
10 km .
,
.


.

5.1.2.
, ,
-, .
.
5.1.2.1.


(100m 4,5km).
,
,
.
,
.
,
(.. ),
, (
5.1).
.
( 180oC 350oC)
, ( 100
180oC) .

5.1.
[: Boyle, 1998]

,
, :
) ,

, ,

) , .
,
,
.
, Dogger
Pannonian .
5.1.2.2.
,
,
3-6km,
,
.

90 200oC.
,
( ), /
.
5.1.2.3.

5.2.

(HDR)
,

( 5.2).
.
, ,
.
.

5.1.2.4.
, ,
3 - 10km , .
700 1200oC. .
5.1.3.
, , .

2,9x1024 Joule, 10000
. ,
,
.

3 km ,
.

. ,
,

' , .
2km,
3km.
.

( 150oC)
, . ,
,

, ,
,
. (
) ,
.
5.1.4.
,
:
(1) ,
3 km 6-7 km,
( ).
4

(2)
,

.
(3)
,
.
(4)
,
(
) .

.
5.1.

(> 220oC)

(100-220oC)

(50-150oC)

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

(
& )

5.1.4.1.

.

.
, ,
,
.
,

( 100MW). ,

, , , .
,
.


.
( ),
.
204C,
.
204C
, .
5.1.4.2.
,
100C.
( ,
, ), (
), ,
, (..
), ,
, .

12.000 MW 30 .
(30%
, ),
( ~70C Melun,
Creil Villeneuve la Garenne), Pannonian .

5.2.
5.2.1.

.
.
( )
Rankine. ,
5.3, , , ,
, , .
( 1)
2. ,
( 3).
.
, ,
6

 ( 4),
, , 1.
.

5.3. T-s Rankine

,
.
() kWh,
Btu (1 kWh
3413 Btu).
()
,
.
5.2.2. ( )
(,
1904).
(
), /
.
( 5.4).

5.4.

 , 55 110 MW
Geysers ,
. ,
. ,
.
5.2.3.
,
.
, ( 5.5)

, .
,
, ,
.

5.5.

,
. ,

(
) .
.
.

,

. ,


.

.
,

, ,
.
5 100 MWe.
, , , ,
6 9 1 MW .
( 10 MW)
,

.
. ,
( 10-20 MW )
.
5.2.4.

180C.
,
5.6.
( )
.
,
().

 5.6.

( " ")

, .
,
,
.
, (
) .
,
CFC ( Freon).
HFC ( - , , .),

.
. ,
200 1.000 kW.
5.2.5.

.
,

. ,

,
.
, :
x

/ .

/ .

- .

, ,
10 100 MWe. ,
(
) , ,
.
5.2.6.

2 .
10

 .

u 2 .
,
th .

th .
,
,

, ,
. u
( ) .
:

Ku

W
e
m

(5.1)

W , m
, e
, :
e = h(P1,T1) h(P0,T0) T0 [s(P1,T1) s(P0,T0)]

(5.2)

h s (P1, T1)
" " (P0, T0).
. T0 ( Kelvin)
,
, , .
,
50-70%,
(15-50%). "" ,

(.. , ), "
". ""

.
5.2.7.
100 kW, 1-5 MW,

.
24
365 , . ,
11

 ,
.

,
,
.
.
.

, (
5MW) .


. ,
,
.

,

.

: - (< 5MWe)
:

Fang, ( 5.7)
1989, Electricity Generating Authority (EGAT)

( 150 m) Fang, 60
/ ( 120C).
ORMAT 0,3 MWe ( 85-90%
).
6,3-8,6 c/kWh (
1995), 5% 90%.

, EGAT

(80C)
.
Royal Recommended Project

. , Mae Fang
.
Fang ,
, -
-
.

12

ORMAT 300 kW . 120C

100C. ,
.. ,
,
. ,
. (80C)
.

5.7. (300 kW)

Fang ()

5.2.8.

.

,

( ).
100 MW
, 365 .
.

:
:

Kamojang, , ( 5.8)
Kamojang
1920,
. 1973
.

1983 ( 140
MWe).
-.
.
Mitsubishi (1x30 MWe

13

2x55 MWe) . 26
15 bar (
6,5 bar). 30 MW
1983 55 MW 1987.
150 kV
Bandung.
, 85%, 90% 97,5%
,
.

140 MWe
2021, 38 (30 MW) 34
& (50 MW ).

5.8. Kamojang
()

5.3.

5.9.

14

 ,
,
5.9. ,
.
5.3.1.

( )
.


.

.

, .. .

,
.

.
,
,
. , ,
.

.

.

,

. ,
,

.
,
.
, , ,
. , ,

15

 , , ,
.
5.3.2.

,
. ,
,
,
.

.
, 200
1500m , 700 3000m
.
,
, ,
. /
- .
() .

.

, " ",
.
.

2 200m ( 500m )
50 150mm. 200
3000m , 100 220mm.

.

, .
" " $250 $1000
, $450.000 $1.000.000
1500m.
,
.
5.3.3.
16




. :
x ,
x ,
x ,
,
x ,
x , ,
x .
,
,
, .

.
,
.
.

, :
x ( ),
x ,
x ,
x (),
x ( ,
, .),
x ,
x ,
x .

.
,
$100-400/kW.
,
, . (&).
5.2
.
5.2. &
(1993$)

17

[: DiPippo, 1998]

(kW)
100
200
500
1.000

(oC)
100
120
140
($/kW)
2.535
2.210
2.015
2.340
2.040
1.860
2.145
1.870
1.705
1.950
1.700
1.550

& ($/)
19.100
24.650
30.405
44.000

kW
, & ( 1,5
4,5 cents kWh)
( ).


.
&
. ,

100% ,
.
90% (.
90% ),
97 98% .

,
. ,
, (
) . 5.3
,
10% 90% (
).
5.3. ( cents/kWh)

(<5 MW)
(5-30 MW)
(>30 MW)

5,0 - 7,0
4,0 - 6,0
2,5 - 5,0

5,5 - 8,5
4,5 - 7,0
4,0 - 6,0

6,0 - 10,5

10 20
cents/kWh, ,
,
. ,

18



,
- .
5.3.4.
5.3.4.1.
,


.
,
, ,
.

300 500m.

.

, .
,
, .
,
Darajat .

/,

.
20% .
, .
5.3.4.2.
,
,
.
,
,
, ,
, .

.
19

5.3.4.3.
. ,

,
. ,
(" ").
,
, ,
.
, ,
.

Kamojang (.
). ,
, Salak Wayang Windu,
.

5.4.
5.4.1.

, ,
.
1904 Larderello , 250 kW
.
'50 Wairakei
, Geysers '60.
12.000 MW 8.000 MW
.
,
0,4%
. ( )
, , , , , ,
. 5.4
. 8.246 MW
1999 40% 1990.
5.4. ( MWe)

20

1990

1999

2775
891
545
700
145
215
283
45
0
95
70
45
19
0
20

2850
1848
769
753
590
530
345
140
120
105
70
45
32
29
20

5867

8246

: International Geothermal Association (1998) -

1999.

20 MW , ,
, (), (), .

,
Geysers .
,

. .
,
,
( / ).

, 24 365 .
80% 5 cent
kWh, 3 US$ .
5.4.2.
MW


. :
x
.

21

x
x
x
x
x

.
.
,
, A.

.

.

,
136 gr kWh
, 453 gr/kWh CO2
1042 gr/kWh CO2 . 5.10
SO2 ( ) CO2 (
)
,
.

5.10.

, o
, ,
.
70%,
20-35%.
,
,
.
-
90%. 5.11
, ,
,
(. ). ,

22

,
, .

5.11.

.
,

,

.
, ,
.
,
,
.

( )
.

.

.

, .
,
, ,
. ,

23

 ,
( " ").

( ),

.
.
,
.
" "

. 10
50%
( 1% ).

,
.
5.4.3.

,
.
, .
5.4.3.1.

. ,
Salton Sea (). ,

,
.
.
,
.
5.4.3.2.
.

(
), ,

24

.
( )
.


.
5.4.3.3.

,
( ),
.
pH.


. , ,
, .. ,
, .
5.4.3.4.

( 120 dB),
.
.
,
,
.

.

, 100:1
.
.
.
,
, , ,
. .
( 0,15%), , , .

,
( Stretford).
25


. (3-200 nanocuries/kg 0,1-7,4
kilobecquerels/kg), .
(1-10 g/kg)
, .
.
(< 0,5%) ,

. ,
, , , ,
. ,
, .. , , , ,
, . ,
.
,

.
,
, .
, ,
,
( 0,5 ppm) .
5.4.3.5.


.
.

( 50 MWe) .

, ,
. ,
.


.
Ahuachapan .
5.4.4.

26


.
,
.
,
.
2005 2010.
,
. ,
32.250 MWe 69.500 MWth .
,
. ,
. ,
,
.
, , "".

.

.
,
80 GW
. ,

,
.
,
, ,
. ,
'80
. ,
, ,
. ,
946 MWe 2005, 45 MWe 20 MWe.
, .. 1.011 MWe
2005 1.200 MWe 2010.
, 1.000 MWe 2010.

27

6.1.
6.1.1.
"" ,
.

, ,
, .. , ,
. , , ..
, .
, , ,

. "", .
, ,
,
,
, ,
. ,
.

[ (6.1)].
,
. (.. ),
, ,
CO2 .
, .

CO2 + 2H2O ([CH2O] + H2O) + O2

(6.1)

. ,
,
. ,
. , ""
( , )
, ""
, .. .
, ( ),
() ,
. ,


,
,
, , .
,
,
.
, ,
.

.
6.1.2.

6.1.
[: BIN]

.

, .

.
.
, 6.1.
(CO2)
() (,

, ). ,
, , , , ,
, (, ,
.). , ..
, ,
, .
( )
.
,

, .. .
,
.
( - )
, , , , .

.

,
.
(, )
. ( ,
, , .) ,
.
, CO2

.
,

CO2 .
,
.
6.1.3. (-)


.
,
, , (
) .

.
3

 .
, 7%
1990 1994, 59.000 GWh 1994.
30 GW,
150.000 200.000 GWh 2020.
2% ,
15% 2010.

( ),

.
. ,
,
.

,

, .
$2.000
kW, 40%,
$1.500 kW, 45%. ,

.

, ,
.
,
,
.
,
.

6.2.
, ,

:
x

( , , ),

, (),
, ,

( , ),

, ,
, .

,
6.2 ( . ).

6.2.

,
, , ,
. ,
.
( ,
, .).
,
.

.

, ,
.

. , 4%
80 km,
100 MW.
6.2.1.


.
(),
,
.

39 -
7.500 MW -,
.
6.2.1.1.
,

.

. ,
.
6.2.1.2.
,
,
, .

(.. ,
). , 5%,
.
6.2.1.3.

.
,
(.. ). ,
,
. ,
.
6.2.1.4.
,
, ,
, . ,

,
6

 .
,
.
6.2.2.

.
, (, ), ,
.

( ).
,
, , .

. ,

. ,


, .

/ .
6.2.2.1.

.
( )
, .
4-11% ( ),
.
,
, , .
, , ,
Reunion, , , .
6.2.2.2.

,
.
( 20%
).
.
7

 , .
, , , ,
,

.
6.2.2.3.

550-600oC. ,
,
,
.

.
6.2.3.
, , ,
,
.

, ,
,
.
,
. , ,
.
,
.
,
. ,
.

3 10 , ,
20 .
,
, ,

.
,
.
, .. , , .
8

 , ,
,
.
,

.
6.2.4.
6.2.4.1.

, .
,
.
,
, ,
.
.
,
, , -
, , ,
. , ,
, .

,
.
6.2.4.2. ()

.
.
46% ( ), 24%
, 26% , , 4% .
, ,
80% .
8-12 GJ/.

. ,
( 50% 50%
)

.
9

6.2.4.3.

. ,
( ),
.

,
.
.

, .

,
.
6.2.4.4.

,
.

.
, .

6.3.
6.3.1.

, .
,

. , ,
Rankine ( 6.3). ,
,
.

10

 6.3.

,
, ,
.
, ()

.
, ,

.

.
. , ,
. ,
,
.
.
. ,

, (40-75% ) .
-
.
, .
() .
, 30-60%
. ()
.

. , CH4,
/
, , 10 MWe.
0,2-0,3 m3 kg .

11

, 80%
.

. , ,
,
,
. 6.4
.

6.4.

6.3.2. ( )
,
,
, .

, 45 MWe.
,
.
.

" " " ".
6.3.2.1.
, ,

.
.
.

.

12

 ( )

.
,
.
. ,

.
,
.

(
).
.
, (
50%) .

.
,
.

,
. ,

.

.

, .
, ,
.
6.3.2.2.

.

.

,
, .
,
.
13


(BFB) (CFB),
.
BFB 1-3 m/s
.
,
.
,
.
CFB
4-9 m/s.
.

. BFB,
(. 6.5).
. CFB
, x
.

6.5. BFB CFB

, . ,
8 MWth
. ,
:
x ,
. ,
.
x
, .
x x.

14

SO2,
.

BFB 100 MWe CFB 400-600 MWe.

CFB 70
, . BFB

, 5 MWth .
CFB ,

(<10 MWe).
6.3.2.3.

.

.
, . 15%
1,5 mm, ( 80%)
50-55%
65%.
.

. , , ..
.
Oxford Energy 27 MW Williams
, ASSI Lvholmen
Pite , Klabin do Parana Monte Alegre ,
E.B. Eddy Espanola .
6.3.3.
6.3.3.1.
.
, ,

13.000 20.000 Btu/kWh / ,
,
9.000 13.000 Btu/kWh. ,

, .

15

 -,
, CO2
, SO2
, NOx
,
. , CO2

.
,
,

.

,
100% .
11.000 Btu/kWh,
14.000 .
, ,
7-10% ,
0,3 1,0
85% . ,

, . ,


, 3% ( 0,3% 100/10 0,85)
16% ( 1,0% 100/7 0,85).
6.3.3.2.


.

,
,

.

.

.

16

 , $50/kW $200/kW
.
.
, 100MWe 10% 10We
$200/kW
$2.000.000
. $20/kW.
250 We
2% , 5 MWe
$50/kW $250.000.
, $1/kW.
,
" PC",

,
" ".
2%, 2%
, (
Btu/lb kJ/kg) .
10%.
2% 10%
PC.
,
, , ,
.
.

.

,
PC,
2%
PC. 10%

,
.

,
.

,
17

 .

,
.
6.3.4.
6.3.4.1.
,
, . , ,

600oC ,
, CO, CO2, , .
(70-86% )
(30%),
, .

.
, ,
(. + )
/ ,
.
( ),
, ,
.

6.6.
(IGCC)

,

18

 . ,
,
.
(IGCC) 6.6,
.
,
(. 6.7) (. 6.8).

6.7.

6.8.

,
. ,
, .. ,

. ,
.

6.6 .
, .
,

19

 (5,6-7,5 MJ/Nm3),
. ,
( + ) ,

,
, .
12,8-13,8 MJ/Nm3
, .

,
(13-18,7 MJ/Nm3),
(~38 MJ/Nm3). ,
.

, ,
.
,
.
,
.
(,
) ( ).
,

(~ 538C)
.

. ,
, .
,

10%. ,

,
.
, ,
.
.

/ ( ),
, .
20

 , / ,
,

.
,

( ).
, , ,
, , ,
1 MW.

, ,
. 6.9
,
.
, ,
.

1kW

100kW

1MW

10MW 100MW

1000MW

6.9.
[: Rensfelt, 1997]

6.3.4.2.

,
. ,


Rankine. (
) .
,
.
,
(.. - STIG,
- HAT)

21

 50% (6800 Btu/kWh).

, NOx, .
,

(),
/. ,
/ .

.
/ ,

,
NOx 80%.
STIG (ISTIG . 6.10)
,
50%.

6.10.

6.4. -
6.4.1.
14.000 MW ,
.

.
,

(
) .

22




.
,

. ,
,
.

-. ,
:
x ,
x
,
x -
.

.
,
.
.
,
.
( 20% )

.
, -

. ,
8 MWe ,
.
,
,
.
,

.
, .

23

, 30 MWe
.
, 150 Sao Paulo
200 MWe, , ,
,

3000 MWe, .
, ,
8000 MWe,
.
- 6000 MWe
2000,
, , , ,
. ,
2010
26.000 MWe 50.000 MWe .
..,
, , ,
( ), .

,
.
,
,
.
,
,
. ,
..,
,
.
25-30% 2010,
.. 2000 2400 MWe.
..,
,
,
. , 2010
5500 MWe, 22.000 .
2010
4500 MWe. 15% , 50%
.

24

6.4.2.

.
( ),
.


.
6.4.2.1.
,
(SO2), (Nx)
(CO2). - :
x

:
,
(SO2), .
5%
SO2
. SO2
(..
5%
SO2 5%).

:

NOX . ,
, NOX
,
5% NOX
10%. , NOX
,
20% .

:
CO2. - , ..
,
. , -
.

: (CH4)
,
, .
( )
,
.

25

:

.

6.4.2.2.
, , , , ,
. ,

.

.

.
6.4.2.3.
20%
.
.
""
, / .

.
, -
. , , ,
,
,
.
,
, ,
.
6.4.3.
,
, ,
, .
,
,
. ,
,
,
.

26



.
,
. ,
EPRI, 5 . Btu
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27

.
.
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NOx.

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(..
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28

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17

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18

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19

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20

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3 000 /kW (~20 kW)

:
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( )

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( kW)
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17

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:
3 x 2700 kW
2 x 1200 kW
/ : 4800 / 1800 kW
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1: A/
2: 7 x 100 kW + 8 x 55 kW = 1140 kW
3: 1 x 1140 kW + 8 x 225 kW = 2940 kW
- : .
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(kWh)

2330588
2330588

2330588
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(86%)
328461
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(1,0%)

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334
1712623
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18

- (kg)
- (kg)
-
(kg/kWh)
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 (
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26



1. Layman's guidebook on how to develop a small hydro site,
, ..
, (ESHA), 1997.
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ALTENER , DG-TREN,
(EWEA), , 1999 (Volume
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Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
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1. Green, M.A., 1982, Solar Cells-Operating Principles, Technology, and System
Applications, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
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September 1993 issue of Physics Today.
1

3. Solar Electricity, Ed. Th. Markvart, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, 1995.
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for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology CREST):
http://aurora.crest.org/pv/index.htm
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http://renewable.greenhouse.gov.au/technologies/pv/pv.html
6. IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme:
http://www.euronet.nl/users/oke/PVPS/pv/sa_syst.htm
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http://www.nrel.gov/research/pv/

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Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Paris, France, September 1516.
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Program of the International Energy Agency, SolarPACES Brochure,
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