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Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies. It is the continuous search for Hekma (Wisdom) in the light of Islamic view of life, universe, ethics, society, and so on. Islamic philosophy, understood as a "project of independent philosophical inquiry" began in Baghdad in the middle of the eighth century.[1]
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3.3 Some differences between Kalam and Falsafa 3.4 Main protagonists of Falsafa and their critics 3.5 Judeo-Islamic philosophies 4.1 Illuminationist school 4.2 Transcendent school 4.3 Logic 4.4 Philosophy of history 4.5 Social philosophy 4.6 Contemporary Islamic philosophy
[edit] Introduction
Islamic philosophy refers to philosophy produced in an Islamic society. It is not necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor exclusively produced by Muslims. [Oliver Leaman, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
An Arabic manuscript from the 13th century depicting Socrates (Soqrt) in discussion with his pupils. In early Islamic thought, which refers to philosophy during the "Islamic Golden Age", traditionally dated between the 8th and 12th centuries, two main currents may be distinguished. The first is Kalam, that mainly dealt with Islamic theological questions, and the other is Falsafa, that was founded on interpretations of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. There were attempts by later philosopher-theologians at harmonizing both trends, notably by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who founded the school of Avicennism, Ibn Rushd (Averros) who founded the school of Averroism, and others such as Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) and Ab Rayhn al-Brn,
[edit] Kalam
Main article: Kalam Kalm (Arabic: ) is the philosophy that seeks Islamic theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic the word literally means "speech". One of first debates was that between partisan of the Qadar (Arabic: qadara, to have power), who affirmed free will, and the Jabarites (jabar, force, constraint), who believed in fatalism.
At the second century of the Hijra, a new movement arose in the theological school of Basra, Iraq. A pupil, Wasil ibn Ata, who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to then sunni tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites and Jabarites. This new school was called Mutazilite (from i'tazala, to separate oneself). The Mutazilites, compelled to defend their principles against the sunni Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are one of the first to pursue a rational theology called Ilm-alKalam (Scholastic theology); those professing it were called Mutakallamin. This appellation became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. But subsequent generations were to large extent critical towards the Mutazilite school, especially after formation of the Asharite concepts. More simply put Kalam means duties of the heart as opposed to (or in conjunction with) fikh duties of the body. Theology verses jurisprudence.[2]
[edit] Falsafa
Falsafa is a Greek loanword meaning "philosophy". "Science" is the Latin word for "philosophy". [edit] Divisions of the philosophic sciences These sciences, in relation to the aim we have set before us, may be divided into six, sections:[3] (1) Mathematics (2) Logic (3) Physics (The object of this science is the study of the bodies which compose the universe: the sky and the stars, and, here below, simple elements such as air, earth, water, fire, and compound bodies animals, plants, and minerals; the reasons of their changes, developments, and intermixture.) also includes medicine. (4) Metaphysics (5) Politics (6) Moral Philosophy (ethics) From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them; such were Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averros), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the Brethren of Purity, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean world view. During the Abbasid caliphate a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them heterodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. Three speculative thinkers, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Kindi, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.
Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the Creator of the world. According to Aristotelianism, the human soul is simply man's substantial form, the set of properties that make matter into a living human body.[4] This seems to imply that the human soul cannot exist apart from the body. Indeed, Aristotle writes, "It is clear that the soul, or at least some parts of it (if it is divisible), cannot be separated from the body. [...] And thus, those have the right idea who think that the soul does not exist without the body."[5] In Aristotelianism, at least one psychological force, the active intellect, can exist apart from the body.[6] However, according to many interpretations, the active intellect is a superhuman entity emanating from God and enlightening the human mind, not a part of any individual human soul.[7][8] Thus, Aristotle's theories seem to deny the immortality of the individual human soul. Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter. For, indeed, if it be supposed that God commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to Time, and claimed that just as Space is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique, omnipotent, and omniscient.
less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. Ibn Rushd or Ibn Roshd (Averros), the contemporary of Maimonides, was one of the last of the Islamic Peripatetics. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of Ibn Bajjah and Ibn Tufail, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme worldhypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. But while Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on traditional beliefs, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ex nihilo" (Munk, "Mlanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) declared, but also a necessity. Islamic philosophy found an audience with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent mensuch as the Ibn Tibbons, Narboni, Gersonidesjoined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil Joseph ben Judah, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand and received (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd. (For more discussion, refer to the History of Islamic Philosophy by Henry Corbin.)
essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views. From the ninth century onward, owing to Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy was introduced among the Persians and Arabs, and the Peripatetic school began to find able representatives among them; such were Al-Kindi, Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averros), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. Another trend, represented by the Brethren of Purity, used Aristotelian language to expound a fundamentally Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean world view. During the Abbasid caliphate a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them heterodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. They contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. Three speculative thinkers, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and al-Kindi, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.
School of Illumination (Hikmat al-Ishraq) Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat Muta'aliah) Sufi philosophy Traditionalist School
Illuminationist philosophy was a school of Islamic philosophy founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century. This school is a combination of Avicenna's philosophy and ancient Iranian philosophy, with many new innovative ideas of Suhrawardi. It is often described as having been influenced by Neoplatonism. In logic in Islamic philosophy, systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.[10]
[edit] Logic
Main article: Logic in Islamic philosophy Al-Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the Madrasah curriculum in the 11th century led to increased activity in logic, mainly focusing on Avicennian logic.[9] Ibn Hazm (994-1064) wrote the Scope of Logic, in which he stressed on the importance of sense perception as a source of knowledge.[10] Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (10581111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in Kalam.[17] Fakhr al Din al Razi Amoli (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (18061873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (11551191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.[10] Another
systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (12631328), the Ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), where he argued against the usefulness, though not the validity, of the syllogism[18] and in favour of inductive reasoning.[10]
Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), a notable Muslim philosopher, poet and scholar from Pakistan (then British India) The tradition of Islamic Philosophy is still very much alive today despite the belief in many Western circles that this tradition ceased after the golden ages of Suhrawardi's Hikmat al-Ishraq (Illumination Philosophy) or, at the latest, Mulla Sadra's Hikmat-e-Mota'aliye or Transcendent (Exalted) Philosophy. Another unavoidable name is Allama Muhammad Iqbal who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy amongst the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century [1]. Beside his Urdu and Persian poetical work, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam [2] is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam. In contemporary Islamic Lands, the teaching of hikmat or hikmah has continued and flourished.
Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini, founder of the Islamic Rebublic of Iran, was a famous teacher of the philosophical school of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya. Before the victory of the Islamic Revolution, he was one of the few who formally taught philosophy at the Religious Seminary at Qum. Abdollah Javadi-Amoli, Grand Ayatollah is an Iranian Twelver Shi'a Marja. He is a conservative Iranian politician and one of the prominent Islamic scholars of the Hawza in Qom.Tasnim (Tafsir) the Iranian or Allameh Tabatabaei, the author of numerous works including the twenty seven-volume Quranic commentary al-Mizan (,) Buya Hamka or Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah was a prominent Indonesian author, ulema politician, philosophical thinker, and author of Tafir Al Azhar. He was head of Indonesian mufti council(MUI). He resigned when his fatwa for moslem to do not celebrate Christmas condemned by Suharto regime.Not just as a scholar and a writer in his country, but he was also highly appreciated in Malaysia and Singapore. Murtaza Motahhari, the best student of Allamah Tabatabai, a martyr of the Iran Islamic Revolution; and author of numerous books (an incomplete compilation of his works
consists of 25 volumes). He, like his teachers Allama Tabatabai and Ayatullah Khomeini, belong to the philosophical schools of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya
Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, who is credited with creating modern Islamist political thought in the 20th century, was the founder of "Jamaat e Islami" and spent his life in attempting to revive the Islamic Intellectual Tradition. DR. Israr Ahmed, ( April 26, 1932 April 14, 2010) was a Pakistani Islamic theologian[1] followed particularly in South Asia and also among the South Asian diaspora in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America.[2] Born in Hissar, (today's Haryana) in India, the second son of a government servant, he is the founder of the Tanzeem-e-islami, an off-shoot of the Jamaat-e-Islami.A great Scholar of Islam and Quran. Muhammad Hamidullah (February 9, 1908 - December 17, 2002) belonged to a family of scholars, jurists, writers and sufis. He was a world-renowned scholar of Islam and International Law from India, who was known for contributions to the research of the history of Hadith, translations of the Koran, the advancement of Islamic learning, and to the dissemination of Islamic teachings in the Western world. Fazlur Rahman was professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago Wahid Hasyim first Indonesian minister of religious affairs. Former head of Indonesian Nahdwatul Ulema, and founder of Islamic state universities in Indonesia. His best known idea is reformation of the Madrasah curriculum. Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Imran Nazar Hosein.- Author of Jerusalem in the Quran Javed Ahmad Ghamidi is a well-known Pakistani Islamic scholar, exegete, and educator. A former member of the Jamaat-e-Islami, who extended the work of his tutor, Amin Ahsan Islahi. In Malaysia, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is a prominent metaphysical thinker.; In Southern/South East Europe the teachings of the skeptic Al-Ibn Theodorakis have found considerable favour.
[edit] Criticism
Philosophy as such has not been without criticism amongst Muslims, both contemporary and past. The imam Hanbali, for whom the Hanbali school of thought is named, rebuked philosophical discussion, once telling proponents of it that he was secure in his religion, but that they were "in doubt, so go to a doubter and argue with him (instead)."[23] Today, Islamic philosophical thought has also been criticized by scholars of the modern Salafi movement. There would be many Islamic thinkers who were not as enthusiastic about its potential. But it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed philosophy simply because it was a "foreign science". Oliver Leaman, an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even al-Ghazali, who is famous for his critique of the philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and logic. And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that
God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (but it should be noted that not all philosophers subscribed to these same views).[24] In recent studies by Muslim contemporary thinkers that aim at 'renewing the impetus of philosophical thinking in Islam', Nader El-Bizri offers a critical analysis of the conventions of methodology and historiography that dominate the mainstream academic and epistemic approaches in studying 'Islamic philosophy' from 'archival' standpoints, within Oriental and Mediaevalist Studies, which fail to recognize the fact that 'philosophy in Islam' can still be a living intellectual tradition, and that its renewal requires a radical reform in ontology and epistemology within Islamic thought.[25]
Early Islamic philosophy Contemporary Islamic philosophy Islamic ethics Islamic metaphysics List of Islamic studies scholars Islamic Golden Age Islamic science Islam and modernity
Press. pp. 3 4. ISBN 9780674665804. http://books.google.com/books?id=fuv8Jg7EdAC&pg=PA1. Retrieved 28 May 2011. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Confessions_of_alGhazali#Divisions_of_the_Philosophic_Sciences. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
4. ^ Anthony Kenny, Aquinas on Mind (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 24, 26, 28 5. ^ De Anima 413a4-5; 414a19-20 6. ^ "This intellect is separate, unaffected, and unmixed [...] In separation, it is just what it
is, and this alone is immortal and eternal" (De Anima 430a18, 23-24).
7. ^ Medieval Philosophy, ed. John Marenbon (London: Routledge, 2003), p. 54 8. ^ Timothy Robinson, Aristotle in Outline (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1995) p. 51
9. ^ a b Tony Street (July 23, 2008). "Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and
deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); and Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna and Essentialism', Review of Metaphysics 54 (2001), 753-778; and Nader ElBizri, 'Avicenna's De Anima Between Aristotle and Husserl', in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), 67-89
17. ^ ""The Canon of Medicine" (work by Avicenna)". Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008.
Taylor (edd.). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247265. ISBN 9780521520690.
19. ^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after
1850653569.
21. ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1. 22. ^ Historiography. The Islamic Scholar. 23. ^ al-Hilyah (6/324) 24. ^ Leaman, O. (1999). A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy Polity Press. p21. 25. ^ Nader El-Bizri, 'The Labyrinth of Philosophy in Islam', Comparative Philosophy 1.2
(2010), 3-23 -- See also references above in this section of the footnotes to some of ElBizri's other related earlier studies. Bibliography
Corbin, Henry (April 1993). History of Islamic Philosophy. Liadain Sherrard (trans). London and New York: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 0-710-30416-1. History of Islamic Philosophy (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman [ed.] History of Islamic Philosophy by Majid Fahkry
Islamic Philosophy by Oliver Leaman http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057 The Study of Islamic Philosophy by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy) by Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr
Philosophy in Oxford Islamic Studies Online Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary Islamic Philosophy Online In the Footsteps of Averroes - The Reformist Islamic Thinker Muhammad Shahrur by Loay Mudhoon History of Philosophy in Islam by T. J. De Boer(1903) The Study of Islamic Philosophy Islamic Philosophy From the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Can the Islamic Intellectual Heritage Be Recovered? History of Islamic philosophy by Henry Corbin, part one History of Islamic philosophy by Henry Corbin, part two The Parables of Sophism - Islam Redefined Through Western Philosophy [show]
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