EC 25 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES SEM:II Branch: CSE Staff-in-Charge: M.

UMA SORNA RANI

UNIT I CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES INTRODUCTION Circuit Definitions

Node

any point where 2 or more circuit elements are connected together

Wires usually have negligible resistance Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground) Branch Loop a circuit element between two nodes a collection of branches that form a closed path returning to the same node

without going through any other nodes or branches twice Voltage-current characteristic of ideal resistor: A Node is a point of connection between two or more circuit elements Nodes can be spread out by perfect conductors

Kirchoff s Current Law (KCL) The algebraic sum of all currents entering (or leaving) a node is zero Equivalently: The sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of the currents leaving a node Mathematically: .. . Nkkti10)( When applying KCL, the current directions (entering or leaving a node) are based on the assumed directions of the currents Also need to decide whether currents entering the node are positive or negative; this dictates the sign of the currents leaving the node As long all assumptions are consistent, the final result will reflect the actual current directions in the circuit Kirchoff s Voltage Law (KVL) . The algebraic sum of all voltage differences around any closed loop is zero . Equivalently: The sum of the voltage rises around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the voltage drops around the loop . Mathematically: .. . Nkktv10)( . Voltage polarities are based on assumed polarities . If assumptions are consistent, the final results will reflect the actual polarit ies . The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is zero . Beginning with one node, add voltages across each branch in the loop (if you enc ounter a + sign first) and subtract voltages (if you encounter a sign first) . S voltage drops -S voltage rises = 0 . Or S

voltage drops = S voltage rises

NETWORK THEOREMS This chapter introduces important fundamental theorems of network analysis. They are the Superposition theorem Thvenin.s theorem Norton.s theorem Maximum power transfer theorem Superposition Theorem Used to find the solution to networks with two or more sources that are not in s eries or parallel. The current through, or voltage across, an element in a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source. Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number of networks to be analyzed will equal the number of sources. The total power delivered to a resistive element must be determined using the to tal current through or the total voltage across the element and cannot be determined by a simple sum of the power levels established by each source. Thvenin s Theorem Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and a series resistor. Thvenin.s theorem can be used to: Analyze networks with sources that are not in series or parallel. Reduce the number of components required to establish the same characteristics a t the output terminals.

Investigate the effect of changing a particular component on the behavior of a n etwork without having to analyze the entire network after each change. Procedure to determine the proper values of RTh and ETh Preliminary Remove that portion of the network across which the Thvenin equation circuit is t o be found. In the figure below, this requires that the load resistor RL be temporari ly removed from the network. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of thi s step will become obvious as we progress through some complex networks.) RTh: Calculate RTh by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant r esistance between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and /or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to zero.) ETh: Calculate ETh by first returning all sources to their original position and find ing the opencircuit voltage between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one t hat will lead to the most confusion and errors. In all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.) Draw the Thvenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously re moved replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of the Thvenin equivalent circ uit. Norton s Theorem Norton.s theorem states the following:

Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent ci rcuit consisting of a current and a parallel resistor. The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN. Preliminary steps: Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found. Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. Finding RN: Calculate RN by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short circuits, and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and /or current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sou rces are set to zero.) Since RN = RTh the procedure and value obtained using the approach described for Thvenin.s theorem will determine the proper value of RN. Finding IN : Calculate IN by first returning all the sources to their original position and t hen finding the short-circuit current between the marked terminals. It is the same current t hat would be measured by an ammeter placed between the marked terminals. Conclusion: Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously re moved replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem For loads connected directly to a dc voltage supply, maximum power will be deliv ered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the sou rce; that is, when: RL = Rint The maximum power transfer theorem states the following: A load will receive maximum power from a network when its total resistive value is exactly equal to the Thvenin resistance of the network applied to the load. That is, RL = RTh

Series resistors & voltage division Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected seq uentially and consequently carry the same current. The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a series is th e sum of the individual resistances .. ........ NnnNeqRRRRR121v2122RRRv . .v2111RRRv . . Parallel resistors & current division Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them. The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in parallel is: NeqRRRR111121 .......iRRRi2112 . ..iRRRi2121. .

Delta -> Star transformation

)(1cbacbRRRRRR .. . )(2cbaacRRRRRR .. . )(3cbabaRRRRRR .. . Star -> Delta transformation 2133221RRRRRRRRb .. . 1133221RRRRRRRRa .. . 3133221RRRRRRRRc .. .

UNIT II TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS INTRODUCTION The fundamental passive linear circuit elements are the resistor (R), capacitor (C) inductor (L). These circuit elements can be combined to form an electrical circuit in four dis tinct ways: the RC circuit, the RL circuit, the LC circuit the RLC circuit These circuits exhibit important types of behaviour that are fundamental to anal ogue electronics. RL CIRCUIT A resistor-inductor circuit (RL circuit), or RL filter or RL network, is one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of a resistor and an inductor, either in series or in parallel, driven by a voltage source. The complex impedance ZL (in ohms) of an inductor with inductance L (in henries) is The complex frequency s is a complex number, where

. j represents the imaginary unit: j2 = - 1 . is the exponential decay constant (in radians per second), and . is the angular frequency (in radians per second). RC circuit The simplest RC circuit is a capacitor and a resistor in series. When a circuit composes of only a charged capacitor and a resistor, then the capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor. This voltage across the capacitor over time could be found through KCL, where th e current coming out of the capacitor must equal the current going through the res istor. This results in the linear differential equation Natural response The simplest RC circuit is a capacitor and a resistor in series. When a circuit composes of only a charged capacitor and a resistor, then the capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor. This voltage across the capacitor over time could be found through KCL, where the current coming out of the capacitor must equal the current going throu gh the resistor. This results in the linear differential equation RLC circuit Time dependences Now we study an AC circuit, where the resistor R, coil L, and capacitor C are in series connection. The circuit is ideal, because the internal resistances of the coil a nd the capacitor are ignored. The connections are given in figure 10-1. The power source gives a peri odic voltage, u = sin.t, where the frequency, f = ./2., can be adjusted. Figure 10-1. RLC circuit

When the circuit is closed and the system has stabilized, the current is given b y (compare with eqn. U = RI . I = U/R) ),sin()(....tZti where 22) 1( CLRZ . ... ) /1arctan( RCL.. . . . . The impedance Z and phase difference . (between voltage and current) depend on the frequency of the source voltage. The angle . actually tells how much the current i comes after the total voltage (source voltage) u. The time dependences of i and u are given in figure 10-2, where . > 0. Resonance The circuit is said to be in resonance, if the impedance is the same as R, i.e. the effects due to the inductance and the capacitance cancel each other. In the resonance, the power tr ansferred from the source to the circuit is in maximum. From figure 10-3 is seen that the requi rement for resonance is .L = 1/.C From the same figure is seen that . = 0 and Z = Zmin. The current is given by I = U/Z = U/R= Imax.

Q factor . The ratio of the inductance L to the resistance R of a coil remains constant f or different winding arrangements in the same volume and shape. It makes sense to define this value a s a figure of merit to distinguish different coil structures. The quality factor Q is defined by this ratio. The voltage, which is induced by the same current in an inductor scales with the frequency f and thus the apparent power in the device. The general definition of the quality fac tor is based on the ratio of apparent power to the power losses in a device. From this definition, t he quality factor of a coil results to: with . = 2pf RC and RL Transient Analysis Basics Transient State: If a network contains energy storage elements, with change in excitation, the cu rrent and voltages change from one state to another state is called transient state. The b ehavior of the voltage or current when it is changed from one state to another state is called transient state. Transient Time: The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady state is called the transient time. Natural response: If we consider a circuit containing storage elements which are independent of so urces, the response depends upon the nature of the circuit, it is called natural response. Transient response: The storage elements deliver their energy to the resistances, hence the response changes with time, gets saturated after sometime, and is referred to the transient respo nse. Laplace Transform: The Laplace transform of any time dependent function f(t) is given by F(s). Where S.A complex frequency given by S=s + j.

Inverse Laplace Transform: Inverse Laplace transforms permits going back in the reverse direction i.e. from s domain to time domain. Order of a System: The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation gover ning the th th system. If the system is governed by norder differential equation, than the syst em is called norder system. n n-1 n-2 Q(s) =a0 s + a1s + a2s + ..+an-1 s +an the order of the system is equal to n.. Initial Value Theorem The initial value theorem states that if x (t) and x. (t) both are laplace trans formable, then Final Value Theorem The final value theorem states that if x (t) and x. (t) both are laplace transfo rmable, then Driving Point impedance The ratio of the Laplace transform of the voltage at the port to the laplace tra nsform of the current at the same port is called driving point impedance. Transfer Point impedance The ratio of the voltage transform at one port to the current transform at the o ther port is called transfer point impedance. Resonant Circuit . The circuit that treat a narrow range of frequencies very differently than all o ther frequencies are referred to as resonant circuit. . The gain of a highly resonant circuit attains a sharp maximum or minimum at its resonant frequency.

Resonance Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied voltage and resulting curr ent are in phase. Bandwidth The Bandwidth is defined as the frequency difference between upper cut-off frequ ency (f2) and lower cut-off frequency (f1). Half Power frequencies The upper and lower cut-off frequencies are called the half-power frequencies. A t these frequencies the power from the source is half of the power delivered at the reso nant frequency. Selectivity Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth to the resonant frequency of re sonant circuit. Q factor The quality factor, Q, is the ratio of the reactive power in the inductor or cap acitor to the true power in the resistance in series with the coil or capacitor. Series Resonance in RLC circuit . In series RLC circuit resonance may be produced by either varying frequency for given constant values of L and C or varying either L and C or both for a given frequen cy. . At resonance inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance. . If f < f0 the current I leads the resultant supply voltage V and so the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit at the frequencies which are less than f0. . At f = f0, the voltage and current are in phase. The circuit behaves as pure res istive circuit at the resonant frequency with unit power factor. . If f > f0, the current I lags the resultant supply voltage V and so the circuit behaves as an

inductive circuit at the frequencies which are more than f0. . At resonance series RLC circuit acts as a voltage amplifier. . Series resonance circuit is always driven by a voltage source with very small in ternal resistance to maintain high selectivity of the circuit. Parallel Resonance . A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage and resulting current are in phase that gives unity power factor condition. . Parallel resonance is also known as Anti resonance. . At anti resonance the parallel resonant circuit acts as current amplifier.

Reactance curves The graph of individual reactance versus the frequency is called Reactance Curve . Types of Tuned circuits Single tuned circuit Double tuned circuit Single tuned circuit In RF circuit design, tuned circuits are generally employed for obtaining maximu m power transfer to the load connected to secondary or for obtaining maximum possi ble value of secondary voltage. A single tuned circuit is used for coupling an amplifier and radio receiver circ uits. Double tuned circuit . In double tuned circuits, a variable capacitor is used at input as well as outpu t side. . With the help of adjustable capacitive reactance, impedance matching is possible if the coupling is critical, sufficient or above. . It is also possible to adjust phase angle such that impedance at generator side becomes resistive. . The magnitude matching can be achieved by adjusting mutual inductance to the cri tical value, which effectively fulfills maximum power transfer condition.

UNIT III SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Review of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors Intrinsic semiconductor An intrinsic semiconductor is one, which is pure enough that impurities do not appreciably affect its electrical behavior. In this case, all carriers are c reated due to thermally or optically excited electrons from the full valence band into the empty conduct ion band. Thus equal numbers of electrons and holes are present in an intrinsic semiconductor. Electrons and holes flow in opposite directions in an electric field, though they contribute t o current in the same direction since they are oppositely charged. Hole current and electron curr ent are not necessarily equal in an intrinsic semiconductor, however, because electrons and holes have different effective masses (crystalline analogues to free inertial masses). The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the temperature. At low temperatures, the valence band is completely full making the material an insulat or. Increasing the temperature leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a corresponding i ncrease in conductivity. This characteristic shown by intrinsic semiconductor is different from the behavior of most metals, which tend to become less conductive at higher temperatures due to increased phonon scattering. Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valenc e electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond-li ke structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed by the f our atoms which are closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four imm ediate neighbours, so that each atom is involved in four covalent bonds.

Extrinsic semiconductor An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped with impurities to modify the number and type of free charge carriers. An extrinsic semiconductor is a semicon ductor that has been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it di fferent electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. Doping involves adding dopant atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilib rium. Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an ntype or p-type semiconductor. The electrical properties of extrinsic semiconductors make them e ssential components of many electronic devices. A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. Howev er these are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers can by achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor in a controlled man ner. The result is the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This process is referred to as d oping. There are basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Don or impurities are made up of atoms (arsenic for example) which have five valence electrons. Accept or impurities are made up of atoms (gallium for example) which have three valence electrons. The two types of extrinsic semiconductor N-type semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole concentr ation are known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and hole s are the minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor impurities. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than t hat of the intrinsic semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence band.

Arsenic has 5 valence electrons, however, only 4 of them form part of covalent bonds. The 5th electron is then free to take part in conduction. The electrons a re said to be the majority carriers and the holes are said to be the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the pos itive charge of the hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons ar e the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi energy levels below the intrinsic F ermi energy level. The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than the conductio n band in a p-type semiconductor. Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4 covalent bonds to fill. Th e 4th bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole. The holes are said to be the maj ority carriers and the electrons are said to be the minority carriers Theory of PN junction diode On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is not very useful. However when com bined very useful devices can be made. The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-type material to diffuse into a n-type region at high temperatures. The p-n junction has led to many inventions like the diode, transistors and inte grated circuits.

Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can initially diffuse across the junction. Uncovered charges are left in the neighbourhood of the junction. This region is depleted of mobile carriers and is called the DEPLETION REGION (thickness 0.5 1.0 m). The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to the barrier potential differenc e (p.d across the junction) reaching some critical value. The barrier potential difference (or the contact potential) depends on the type of semiconductor, temperature and doping densities. At room temperature, typical values of barrier p.d. are: Ge ~ 0.2 0.4 V Si ~ 0.6 0.8 V FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION When an external voltage is applied to the P-N junction making the P side positi ve with respect to the N side the diode is said to be forward biased (F.B). The barrier p.d. is decreased by the external applied voltage. The depletion band narrows which urges majority carriers to flow across the junction. A F.B. diode has a very low resistance. REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction making the P side negativ e with respect to the N side the diode is said to be Reverse Biased (R.B.). The barrier p.d. increases. The depletion band widens preventing the movement of majority carriers across th e junction. A R.B. diode has a very high resistance. REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION Only thermally generated minority carriers are urged across the p-n junction. Th erefore the magnitude of the reverse saturation current (or reverse leakage current) depends on the temperature of the semiconductor. When the PN junction is reversed biased the width of the depletion layer increas es, however if the reverse voltage gets too large a phenomenon known as diode breakdown occu rs.

I-V CHARACTERISTICS I-V CHARACTERISTICS When the diode is F.B., the current increases exponentially with voltage except for a small range close to the origin. When the diode is R.B., the reverse current is constant and independent of the a pplied reverse bias. Turn-on or cut-in (threshold) voltage V.: for a F.B. diode it is the voltage whe n the current increases appreciably from zero. It is roughly equal to the barrier p.d.: For Ge, V . ~ 0.2 0.4 V (at room temp.) For Si, V. ~ 0.6 0.8 V (at room temp.) Energy Band structure The highest electronic energy band in a semiconductor or insulator which can be filled with electrons. The electrons in the valence band correspond to the valence electrons of the constituent atoms. In a semiconductor or insulator, at sufficiently low temperat ures, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty of electrons. Some of the high energy levels in the valence band may become vacant as a result of thermal excitation o f electrons to

higher energy bands or as a result of the presence of impurities. The net effect of the valence band is then equivalent to that of a few particles which are equal in number and similar in motion to the missing electrons but each of which carries a positive electronic charge. These particles are referred to as holes. In solids, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which e lectrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature.The valence electrons are bound to individual atoms, as opposed to conduction electrons (found in conductors and semiconductor s), which can move freely within the atomic lattice of the material. On a graph of the electro nic band structure of a material, the valence band is located below the conduction band, separated from it in insulators and semiconductors by a band gap. In metals, the conduction band has no energy gap separating it from the valence band.

Energy-band diagram of pn junction in thermal equilibrium in which both the n an d p region are degenerately doped. Zener diode A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward di rection like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named a fter Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is rev erse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. In case of large

forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a volta ge drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage dro p depends on the semiconductor material and the doping concentrations. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is speciall y designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhib it a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener dio de is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for a n amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. Zener diode characteristics A zener diode is much like a normal diode, the exception being is that it is pla ced in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characte ristic curve illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that its forward characteristi cs are just like a normal diode. The zener diode.s breakdown characteristics are determined by the doping process. Low voltage zeners (>5V), operate in the zener breakdown range. Those d esigned to operate <5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range. Zeners are available w ith voltage breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V.

Note very small reverse current (before Breakdown occurs @ knee. Breakdown Characteristics: VZ remains near constant VZ provides: -Reference voltage -Voltage regulation IZ escalates rapidly IZMAX is achieved quickly Exceeding IZMAX is fatal Zener Diodes Equivalent Circuit

knee ).

Ideal Zener exhibits a constant voltage, regardless of current draw. Ideal Zener exhibits no resistance characteristics. Zener exhibits a near constant voltage, varied by current draw through the serie s resistance ZZ. As Iz increases, Vz also increases. Zener Diodes Characteristic Curve .Vz results from .Iz. .Iz thru Zz produce this.

Zener diodes have given characteristics such as; Temperature coefficients describes the % .Vz for .Temp (0C) .Vz = Vz x T0Cx .T %/oC Power ratings the zener incurs power dissipation based on Iz and Zz P = I2Z Power derating factor specifies the reduced power rating for device operating te mperatures in excess of the rated maximum temperature . 0 PD(derated) = PD(max) mW (mW/C).T

UNIT IV TRANSISTORS TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS: The basic of electronic system nowadays is semiconductor device. The famous and commonly use of this device is BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors). It can be use as amplifier and logic switches. BJT consists of three terminal:

collector : C base : B .emitter : E Two types of BJT : pnp and npn Transistor Construction 3 layer semiconductor device consisting: 2 n-and 1 p-type layers of material npn transistor 2 p-and 1 n-type layers of material .pnp transistor The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the i njection process into the oppositely polarized material A single pn junction has two different types of bias: forward bias reverse bias Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.

Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT. Base is located at the middle and more thin from the level of collector and emitter The emitter and collector terminals are made of the same type of semiconductor material, while the base of the other type of material Transistor currents -The arrow is always drawn on the emitter The arrow always point toward the n-type -The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current: pnp:E B npn: B E IC=the collector current IB= the base current IE= the emitter current

Transistor Operation The basic operation will be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged. One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward -biased Forward-biased junction Reverse-biased junction of a pnp transistor of a pnp transistor

Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majo rity and minority carrier flows indicated. Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into t he n-type material. A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base ter minal. Resulting IB is typically in order of microamperes. The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased jun ction into the p-type material connected to the collector terminal.

Majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased junction because the injected maj ority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type material. Applying KCL to the transistor : IE = IC + IB The comprises of two components the majority and minority carriers IC = ICmajority + ICOminority ICO IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current. COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the : -base is common to both input and output of the configuration. -base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic symbols have a direction defined by this convention. Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated for each branch. To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of character istics: -Input or driving point characteristics. -Output or collector characteristics The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:

-Active region defined by the biasing arrangements -Cutoff region region where the collector current is 0A -Saturation region-region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship between IE and IC in the active region is given by IC IE Once a transistor is in the o be VBE = 0.7V on. state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed t

In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related b y a quantity called alpha .= IC = .IE + ICBO

It can then be summarize to IC = .IE (ignore ICBO due to small value) For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curv e, an ac alpha defined by ECII . . .. Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent from current flow from emitter to collector.The value of . is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998. COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION It is called common-emitter configuration since : -emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals. -emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for curre nt and voltage. Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output (collector terminal) parameters.

Input characteristics for a common-emitter NPN transistor Output characteristics for a common-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE constant IC IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC IB=0 A ICEO occur. Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows. COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection p oint.

The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar with commo nemitter. configuration. Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the load resistor connec ted from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high input impe dance and low output impedance. Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration: (a) pnp transistor ; (b) npn transistor For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range of values of IB.

Limits of Operation Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of operations. At least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet. There are: a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO . c) Maximum collector current: ICmax There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are: i) transistor need to be operate in active region! ii) IC < ICmax ii) PC < PCmax FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) Field effect devices are those in which current is controlled by the action of a n electron field, rather than carrier injection. Field-effect transistors are so named because a weak electrical signal coming in through one electrode creates an electrical field through the rest of the transistor. The FET was known as a unipolar transistor.

The term refers to the fact that current is transported by carriers of one polar ity (majority), whereas in the conventional bipolar transistor carriers of both pola rities (majority and minority) are involved. The family of FET devices may be divided into : Junction FET Depletion Mode MOSFET Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Junction FETs (JFETs

JFETs consists of a piece of high-resistivity semiconductor material (usually Si ) which constitutes a channel for the majority carrier flow. Conducting semiconductor channel between two ohmic contacts source & drain JFET is a high-input resistance device, while the BJT is comparatively low. If the channel is doped with a donor impurity, n-type material is formed and the channel current will consist of electrons. If the channel is doped with an acceptor impurity, p-type material will be forme d and the channel current will consist of holes. N-channel devices have greater conductivity than p-channel types, since electron s have higher mobility than do holes; thus n-channel JFETs are approximately twice as efficien t conductors compared to their p-channel counterparts The magnitude of this current is controlled by a voltage applied to a gate, whic h is a reverse-biased.

The fundamental difference between JFET and BJT devices: when the JFET junction is reverse-biased the gate current is practically zero, whereas the base current of the BJT is always some value greater than zero. Basic structure of JFETs In addition to the channel, a JFET contains two ohmic contacts: the source and t he drain. The JFET will conduct current equally well in either direction and the source an d drain leads are usually interchangeable. N-channel JFET This transistor is made by forming a channel of N-type material in a P-type subs trate. Three wires are then connected to the device. One at each end of the channel. One connected to the substrate. In a sense, the device is a bit like a PN-junction diode, except that there are two wires connected to the N-type side The gate is connected to the source. Since the pn junction is reverse-biased, little current will flow in the gate co nnection. The potential gradient established will form a depletion layer, where almost all the electrons present in the n-type channel will be swept away. The most depleted portion is in the high field between the G and the D, and the least-depleted area is between the G and the S.

Because the flow of current along the channel from the (+ve) drain to the (-ve) source is really a flow of free electrons from S to D in the n-type Si, the magnitude of t his current will fall as more Si becomes depleted of free electrons. There is a limit to the drain current (ID) which increased VDS can drive through the channel. This limiting current is known as IDSS (Drain-to-Source current with the gate sh orted to the source). The output characteristics of an n-channel JFET with the gate short-circuited to the source. The initial rise in ID is related to the buildup of the depletion layer as VDS i ncreases. The curve approaches the level of the limiting current IDSS when ID begins to be pinched off. The physical meaning of this term leads to one definition of pinch-off voltage, VP , which is the value of VDS at which the maximum IDSS flows. With a steady gate-source voltage of 1 V there is always 1 V across the wall of the channel at the source end. A drain-source voltage of 1 V means that there will be 2 V across the wall at th e drain end. (The drain is up 1V from the source potential and the gate is 1V down , hence th e total difference is 2V.) The higher voltage difference at the drain end means that the electron channel i s squeezed down a bit more at this end. When the drain-source voltage is increased to 10V the voltage across the channel walls at the drain end increases to 11V, but remains just 1V at the source end.

The field across the walls near the drain end is now a lot larger than at the so urce end. As a result the channel near the drain is squeezed down quite a lot. Increasing the source-drain voltage to 20V squeezes down this end of the channel still more. As we increase this voltage we increase the electric field which drives electron s along the open part of the channel. However, also squeezes down the channel near the drain end. This reduction in the open channel width makes it harder for electrons to pass. As a result the drain-source current tends to remain constant when we increase t he drainsource voltage. Increasing VDS increases the widths of depletion layers, which penetrate more in to channel and hence result in more channel narrowing toward the drain. The resistance of the n-channel, RAB therefore increases with VDS. The drain current: IDS = VDS/RAB ID versus VDS exhibits a sub linear behavior, see figure for VDS < 5V. The pinch-off voltage, VP is the magnitude of reverse bias needed across the p+n junction to make them just touch at the drain end. Since actual bias voltage across p+n junction at drain end is VGD, the pinch-off occur whenever: VGD = -VP.

JFET: I-V characteristics MOSFETs and Their Characteristics The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor has a gate, source, and dr ain just like the JFET. The drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source voltage VGS. There are two basic types of MOSFETS: the enhancement-type and the depletion-typ e. The enhancement-type MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET, and the depletion-type, a D-MOSFET. The MOSFET is also referred to as an IGFET because the gate is insulated from th e channel

n-channel, enhancement-type MOSFET The p-type substrate makes contact with the SiO2 insulator. Because of this, there is no channel for conduction between the drain and source terminals.

Unit V SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES Tunnel diode( Esaki Diode)

It was introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958. Heavily-doped p-n junction Impurity concentration is 1 part in 10^3 as compared to 1 part in 10^8 in p-n junction diode Width of the depletion layer is very small (about 100 A). It is generally made up of Ge and GaAs. It shows tunneling phenomenon. Circuit symbol of tunnel diode is : Tunnelling Effect Classically, carrier must have energy at least equal to potential-barrier height to cross the junction . But according to Quantum mechanics there is finite probability that it can penet rate through the barrier for a thin width. This phenomenon is called tunneling and hence the Esaki Diode is known as Tunnel Diode.

CHARACTERISTIC OF TUNNEL DIODE

Ip:-Peak Current Iv :-Valley Current Vp:-Peak Voltage Vv:-Valley Voltage Vf:-Peak Forward Voltage ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM Energy-band diagram of pn junction in thermal equilibrium in which both the n an d p region are degenerately doped AT ZERO BIAS Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at ze ro bias.

-Zero current on the I-V diagram; -All energy states are filled below EF on both sides of the junction; AT SMALL FORWARD VOLTAGE Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a slight forward bias -Electrons in the conduction band of the n region are directly opposite to the e mpty states in the valence band of the p region. So a finite probability that some electrons tunnel directly into the empty state s resulting in forward-bias tunneling current.

AT MAXIMUM TUNNELING CURENT Simplified energy-band diagraam and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a forward bias producing maximum tunneling current. -The maximum number of electrons in the n region are opposite to the maximum num ber of empty states in the p region. -Hence tunneling current is maximum. TUNNEL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT This is the equivalent circuit of tunnel diode when biased in negative resistanc e region. At higher frequencies the series R and L can be ignored. Hence equivalent circuit can be reduced to parallel combination of junction capa citance and negative resistance. VARACTOR DIODE A varactor diode is best explained as a variable capacitor. Think of the depleti on region as a variable dielectric. The diode is placed in reverse bias. The dielectric is ted by reverse bias voltage changes. Junction capacitance is present in all reverse biased diodes because of the depl etion region. Junction capacitance is optimized in a varactor diode and is used for high frequ encies and switching applications. Varactor diodes are often used for electronic tuning applications in FM radios a nd televisions. adjus

They are also called voltage-variable capacitance diodes. A Junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under changing reverse bias is known as VARACTOR DIODE A varactor diode is specially constructed to have high resistance under reverse bias. Capacitance for varactor diode are Pico farad. (10-12 ) range CT = .A / Wd CT =Total Capacitance of the junction . = Permittivity of the semiconductor material A = Cross sectional area of the junction WD= Width of the depletion layer Curve between Reverse bias voltage Vr across varactor diode and total junction c apacitance Ct and Ct can be changed by changing Vr. Application for Varactor diode Use of varactor diode in a tuned circuit. Capacitance of the varactor in paralle l with the inductor.(LC circuit)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Three terminals anode -P-layer cathode -N-layer (opposite end) gate -P-layer near the cathode Three junctions -four layers Connect power such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode -no cu rrent will flow A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true ele ctronic switch. it can change alternating current and at the same time can control the a mount of power fed to the load. SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor. CONSTRUCTION When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor the resulting three pn junc tion device is called a SCR. ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combine d in one unit to form pnpn device. three terminals are taken : one from the outer p-type material called anode a second from the outer n-type material called cathode K and the third from the ba se of transistor called Gate. GSCR is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. the gate anode and c athode of SCR correspond to the grid plate and cathode of thyratron SCR is called thyristor

WORKING PRINCIPLE Load is connected in series with anode the anode is always kept at positive pote ntial w.r.t cathode. WHEN GATE IS OPEN No voltage applied to the gate, j2 is reverse biased while j1 and j3 are FB . J1 and J3 is just in npn transistor with base open .no current flows through the load RL and SCR is cut off. if the applied voltage is gradually increased a stage is reached when RB junction J 2 breakdown .the SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be ON state. the applied voltage at whic h SCR conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Break over Voltage.

WHEN GATE IS POSITIVE W.R.T CATHODE.

The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying sm all positive potential to the gate.J3 is FB and J2 is RB the electron from n type ma terial start moving across J3 towards left holes from p type toward right. electrons from j3 are att racted across junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. as soon as gate current flows anode current increases. the increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at J2 breakdo wn and SCR starts conducting heavily. the gate looses all control if the gate voltage is re moved anode current does not decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the appli ed voltage to zero. BREAKOVER VOLTAGE It is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR starts conducting heavily i.e turned on PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE( PRV) It is the maximum reverse voltage applied to an SCR without conducting in the re verse direction HOLDING CURRENT It is the maximum anode current gate being open at which SCR is turned off from on conditions. FORWARD CURRENT RATING It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destru ction CIRCUIT FUSING RATING It is the product of of square of forward surge current and the time of duration of the surge

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

FORWARD CHARCTERISTICS When anode is +ve w.r.t cathode the curve between V & I is called Forward characteristics. OABC is the forward characteristics of the SCR at Ig =0. if the supplied voltage is increased from zero point A is reached .SCR starts conducting voltage across SCR suddenly drops (dotted curve AB) most of supply voltage appears across RL REVERSE CHARCTERISTICS When anode is ve w.r.t.cathode the curve b/w V&I is known as reverse characterist ics reverse voltage come across SCR when it is operated with ac supply reverse volta ge is increased anode current remains small avalanche breakdown occurs and SCR starts conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage SCR as a switch SCR Half and Full wave rectifier Application SCR as a static contactor SCR for power control SCR for speed control of d.c.shunt motor Over light detector

UJT unijunction transistor (UJT) A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has on ly one junction. The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached a t its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase resistance. There are two types of unijunction transistor: . The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentia lly a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somew here along its length, defining the device parameter .. The 2N2646 is the most common ly used version of the UJT.The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a cl ose cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and h as an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but p erform a similar function. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two base s. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffu sion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in t he base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the porti on of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resista nce means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is in jected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is wh at makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.

Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1970s and early 1980s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just o ne active device. Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 t imer IC became more commonly used. In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of th e most important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fac t, a DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current co ntrol.

DIAC Diode A.C. switch A Diac is two terminal , three layer bi directional device which can be switched from its off state for either polarity of applied voltage. Construction: The diac can be constructed in either npn or pnp form.The two leads are connecte d to pregions of silicon separated by an n region. the structure of diac is similar to that of a transistor differences are There is no terminal attached to the base layer The three regions are nearly identical in size. the doping concentrations are id entical to give the device symmetrical properties. Operation When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of Diac only a small leakage current Ibo will flow through the device as the applied voltage is incre ased , the leakage current will continue to flow until the voltage reaches breakover voltage Vbo at this point avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and the device exhibit s negative resistance i.e current through the device increases with the decreasing values o f applied voltage the voltage across the device then drops to breakback voltage Vw

V-I CHARECTERISTICS OF A DIAC

For applied positive voltage less than + Vbo and Negative voltage less than -Vbo , a small leakage current flows thrugh the device. Under such conditions the diac bl ocks flow of current and behaves as an open circuit. the voltage +Vbo and -Vbo are the breakd own voltages and usually have range of 30 to 50 volts. When the positive or negative applied voltage is equal to or greater than tha br eakdown voltage Diac begins to conduct and voltage drop across it becomes a few volts co nduction then continues until the device current drops below its holding current breakover vol tage and holding current values are identical for the forward and reverse regions of operation. Diacs are used for triggering of triacs in adjustable phase control of a c mains power. Applications are light dimming heat control universal motor speed control TRIAC Triacs are three terminal devices that are used to switch large a.c. currents wi th a small trigger signal. Triacs are commonly used in dimmer switches, motor speed control circuit s and equipment that automatically controls mains powered equipment including remote c ontrol. The triac has many advantages over a relay, which could also be used to control main s equipment; the triac is cheap, it has no moving parts making it reliable and it operates ve ry quickly.

The three terminals on a triac are called Main Terminal 1. MT2 (MT1), Main Terminal 2. (MT2) and Gate. (G). To turn on

the triac there needs to be a small current IGT flowing through the gate, this current will only flow when the voltage between G G and MT1 is at least VGT. The signal that turns on the triac is called the trigger signal. Once the triac is turned on it will stay MT1 on even if there is no gate current until the current flowing between MT2 and MT1 fall below the hold current IH. The triac is always turned fully on or fully off. When the triac is on there is virtually no pd between MT2 and MT1 so the power dissipated in the triac is low so it does not g et hot or waste electrical power. When the triac is off no current flows between MT2 and MT1 so the power dissipated in the triac is low so it does not get hot or waste electrical power. This means that triacs can be small and are very efficient. Triacs can be used in d.c. circuits in which case when the triac is triggered it will stay on until power is removed from the triac. It is easy to calculate the value of gate resistor needed to turn on a triac using the gate characteristics and ohms law. The maximum value of resistor can be found from the voltage across the resistor (VS -VGT) divided by the gate current IGT. So, R = (VS -VGT)/ IGT VS R 0v In a.c. circuits the triac needs to be repeatedly triggered because the triac tu rns off when the a.c. current goes from positive to negative or negative to positive as the current be come momentarily zero. The triac is used in mains circuits to control the amount of power by only turning the triac on for part of the wave a bit like in pulse width modulation. This can be done by varying the value of the gate resistor so that the triac does not turn on until the a.c signal reaches a particular voltage. The problem with this

first dimmer is that there is a very high voltage across the variable resistor and it will get hot as there is a lot of power to dissipate (P=V2/R). To get round the problem of needing a high power components the variable resisto r is usually connected between MT2 and G so current will only flow through the resistor to tr igger the triac(fig 4), once the triac is on the voltage at MT2 falls to zero so no curren t flows through the

resistor. The other problem with these circuits is that the minimum power is hal f the maximum this is because the highest voltage, which will give the latest trigger point, o ccurs half way through each half wave. Using a capacitor can solve this problem, the resistor i s adjusted so that the charging time allows the trigger to happen at any point in the half cycle (f ig 5). Figure 4 Figure 5 PHOTO DIODE A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.[1] The common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fib er connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed f or use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction . A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient ener gy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron and a (positively charged electron hole). If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field o f the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. P-N PHOTODIODE: The simple p-n diode is illustrated in fig (3-1). The diode junction is reversebiased, causing mobile holes (electrons) from the p (n) region toward the n (p) region leaves be hind the immobile negative acceptor ions (positive donor ions), which, in turn, establish an electric field distribution in the vicinity of the junction called depletion region, as shown i n fig (3-1-b). Because there are no free charges, the resistance in this region is high, so tha t the voltage drop across the diode mostly occurs across the junction. When an incident photon is a bsorbed in the depletion region after passing through the p-layer, it raises an electron from t he valance to the conduction band the electron is now free to move, and a hole is left in the a va lance band. In this

way, free charge carrier pairs, commonly called photocurrents, are created by ph oton absorption. These moving carriers then cause current flow through the external circuit. fig(3-1) (a) p-n diode . (b) Electric field distribution across the diode In order to generate the electron-hole pair, the incident photon must have energ y larger than that of the band gap Eg between the valance and the conduction bands, that is, h w0 > Eg. In terms of the cutoff wavelength .c, we have .c = 1.24 / Eg With Eg measured in electron volts, the cutoff wavelength is about 1.06m for sili con and 1.6 m for germanium, where their band-gap energies are 1.1 and .67 eV, respectively. Just as in the case of the external photoelectric effect, not all wavelengths lower than .c can generate photocarrier, as the absorption of photons in the p and n regions is increased a t the shorter wavelengths. After photocarrier are generated in the p and n region, most of the free carriers will diffused randomly through the diode and recombine before reaching the deple tion junction. The quantum efficiency . for the semiconductor junction diode can then be defined as the number of electron-hole pairs per incident photon. Two main factors limit the response time of a photodiode:

1-the transit time of the photocarriers through the depletion region 2-the diffusion time of photocarriers (generated in the depletion region) throug h the diffusion region. Carrier diffusion is inherently a slow process. In order to have a high-speed ph otodiode, the carriers should be generated in the depletion region in the high field intensity area or close to it so that the diffusion times are less than the carrier transit times. This can be accomplished by increasing the bias voltage, but practical constraints limits the applied bias v oltage. Photovoltaic mode When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells in fact, a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiod e. Photoconductive mode In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the respon se time at the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, whi ch decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias indu ces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction whil e the photocurrent remains virtually the same. For a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).[2] Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more ele ctronic [citation needed] noise.The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the Johnson Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates. Other modes of operation Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be mu ltiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which inc reases the effective responsivity of the device. Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransis tor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so

that light can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain (or hfe). Note that while phototransistors have a higher responsivi ty for light they [citation needed] are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.Phototran sistors also have significantly longer response times. Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity ( Responsivity The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to inc ident photons and thus a unitless quantity. Dark current The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by backgr ound radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an op tical communication system. Noise-equivalent power (NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity (D) is th e inverse of ) is the detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photodetector, . The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode. When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters c ontribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power requir ed for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error ratio. APPLICATIONS P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such a s photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc player s, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than ph otodiodes, although in principle either could be used. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in scienc e and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immun oassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead , if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such a s photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc player s, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than ph otodiodes, although in principle either could be used. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in scienc e and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immun oassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introdu ced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with ver y high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of

photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding t o the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often sm all in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its ra diation pattern.[3] LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources includi ng lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switchin g, and greater

durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relativel y expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp s ources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for av iation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indica tors) as well as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switchin g speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communic ations technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many comm ercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances. SYMBOL OF LED WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED

DIODE I-V CURVE

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that us es the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly. They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, tele vision, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in c onsumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telepho nes. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, [citation needed] lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes.The y are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and sin ce they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low elect rical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled w ith liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to prod uce images in colour or monochrome Advantages of LCD . Low power is required . Good contrast . Low cost Disadvantages of LCD . Speed of operation is slow . LCD occupy a large area . LCD life span is quite small, when used on d.c. Therefore, they are used with a. c. suppliers. Applications of LCD

Used as numerical counters for counting production items. Analog quantities can also be displayed as a number on a suitable device. (e.g.) Digital multimeter. Used for solid state video displays. Used for image sensing circuits. Used for numerical display in pocket calculators.