Dynamo Processes

1
st
Asia-Pacific School on International Heliophysical Year, Kodaikanal, India 2007
Dibyendu Nandi
Content:
Lecture I: Magnetic Fields in the Universe, Basic MHD
Lecture II: Dynamo Theory, Formulation, Application to the Sun
Course Outline
Lecture I: Introduction to Magnetic Fields in the Universe
Galactic, Stellar and Planetary Magnetic Fields
The Suns Magnetic Field
Influence of Solar Magnetic Fields on the Heliosphere
Origin of Astrophysical Magnetic Fields: Dynamo as a Universal Process
Magnetohydrodynamics: Theoretical Concepts
Lecture II: Dynamo Theory Basic Formulation, Application to the Sun
Introduction to the Dynamo Problem
An Exercise: Deriving the Mean-Field Dynamo Equations
Specific Solutions of the Dynamo Equations
Applications to the Sun: Understanding the Solar Magnetic Cycle
Recent Developments: Simulations of the Solar Dynamo
Lecture I
(Monday, 17
th
December 2006)
Questions you should ask first?
What is a Dynamo?
A process that converts one form of energy into another. E.g., the
electric generator (magnetic + kinetic = electric). Here, we are dealing
with an astrophysical dynamo (electric + kinetic = magnetic field)
What is Magnetic Field?
A space in which a moving electric charge experiences a non-zero
force. A less stringent, but alternative definition is a space filled with
(continuous) magnetic lines of force
Why Study Dynamo Generation of Magnetic Fields?
Magnetic fields, in situations where they are dynamically
important, play governing roles in many processes such as structure
formation in the universe, gamma ray bursts, accretion disks, solar flares
and CMEs the strongest explosions in the solar system. Therefore it is
important to understand how these magnetic fields originate and behave
Magnetic Fields in the Universe: From Large to Small Scales
Astrophysical magnetic fields exist at various scales from those as
large as intergalactic space, to those comparably smaller on the size of
planets
Magnetic fields also exhibit a wide variety of temporal behavior; in
some astrophysical systems, they do not vary much on timescales
comparable to the lifetime of that system, while in some they vary
rapidly on very short timescales (e.g., the Sun)
Their origin and behavior is also different, in different systems;
however in general, if in any system the magnetic field varies on
timescales much shorter than the lifetime of the system, then a dynamo
is probably at the origin
We will now discuss magnetic fields in astrophysical systems, going
from the largest to the smallest scales
Cosmological Magnetic Fields
On timescales relevant for the
evolutionary history of the
universe, primordial magnetic
fields may have arisen from a
second-order coupling between
photons and electrons, mediated
by cosmological density
fluctuations (370,000 yrs after
Big Bang)
Such a process can give rise to
cosmic magnetic fields on the
order of 10
-18
G (1T=10
4
G)
at a 1 mega-parsec scale
Primordial fields can seed dynamo
action in astrophysical systems
Galactic Magnetic Fields
Galactic structure: Central
core (bulge), disk and halo
Magnetic fields theoretically
expected and observed too
Field strength ~ 10
-6
G, i.e.,
1/50,000 times that of Earths
This field is ordered and large
scale, permeating the disk
Thought to be produced by
dynamo action
Dynamo amplifies an initial
seed field produced via
Supernova explosions
and shock waves
Galactic Magnetic Fields
Blue ribbons show simulated magnetic fields and green arrows show
observed field direction, a good match is seen
Galactic magnetic fields shapes structures through coupling of
charged (and indirectly dust) particles, plays a role in star formation,
and acceleration and the dynamics of Cosmic ray particles
Stellar Magnetic Fields: General (Solar-like)
Within the class of solar-like stars itself, there is a rich diversity in
displayed magnetic activity, starting from cyclic variations, to steady
non-varying activity to almost no-activity
Nevertheless some general trends exist; e.g., the magnetic activity
level correlates very well with the Rossby number (ratio of rotational
period to convective turn over time and which is proportional to the
inverse square-root of the dynamo number); this implicates the dynamo
as the universal mechanism of field generation in these stars
Stellar Magnetic Fields: Extreme (Neutron Stars)
Collapsed remnant of a massive star (following Supernova explosion)
About 10 Km in radius, very dense, fast rotators (1ms30s)
Extremely strong magnetic fields ~ 10
12
G
Pulsars: Those neutron stars which emit pulses of radiation
Collapse, field amplification due to flux freezing (dynamo action not
required to explain these strong fields)
Planetary Magnetic Fields (Earth)
The Earths magnetic field is dipolar with strength 0.3 G
Has existed for at least 3 billion yrs, however, if it were not continually
generated, would have decayed in about 20,000 yrs
Reversed in sign many times, with average time-span of 200,000 yrs
These clues point to dynamo action, possibly in liquid outer core
Geomagnetic field acts as a protective shield
The Suns Magnetic Field: Sunspots
Appears darker than the surroundings
First telescopic observations by Galileo and Scheiner (early 1600s)
Hale (1908) discovered sunspots are strongly magnetized ~ 1000 G
The Suns Magnetic Field: The Solar Cycle
Number of sunspots observed on the Sun vary with time
Time variation is predominantly cyclic, mean period is 11 years
However, there are large amplitude fluctuations
The Suns Magnetic Field: The Butterfly Diagram
Equatorward migration of sunspots
Poleward migrations of weak surface radial field
Polar field reversal at time of sunspot maximum
Both have an average periodicity of 11 years
The Suns Influence on the Heliosphere and Earth
The Earth and the solar system is immersed in an environment the
heliosphere which is governed by Suns wind and magnetic output
The Suns Influence on the Heloisphere
Solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), the biggest explosions
in the solar system eject magnetized plasma and charged particles
These disrupt: Satellite operations & Telecommunications facilities
Electrical power grids, Northern oil pipelines
Air-traffic on polar routes
The Suns Influence on the Global Climate
The total solar radiative output (TSI), unfortunately known as the solar
constant until the 1970s, is coupled to the Suns magnetic output
Its the primary energy input into the global climate system; it varies!
This slow, long-term variation is known to affect global temperature
Maunder minimum a period of low solar activity (1645-1715 AD)
coincided with the Little Ice Age a period of global cooling
The Suns role in global climate change is still hotly debated
Origin of Astrophysical Magnetic Fields
Magnetic fields in astrophysical systems which vary on timescales
much shorter than the typical evolutionary timescale of the system
indicates the presence of dynamo action
Dynamo in a nutshell:
K.E. of Plasma Magnetic Field
(The most basic dynamo? )
Sources of Kinetic Energy:
Motions of ionized gases & Supernova explosions in galaxies
Motions within the convection zone of stars
Motions of ionized fluids within planetary cores
DYNAMO
An electron in a circular orbit!
Dynamo as an Universal Process: Mathematical Foundations
Magnetohydrodynamics: The subject that describes the origin and
dynamics of magnetic fields in a moving plasma material
Induction equation:
The induction equation follows from the Maxwells equations and the
generalized ohms law under the non-relativistic approximation
E = dB/dt
B = J
J = (E + V B)
Additional assumptions include:
Plasma is a continuum (system scale L >> ion gyro radius)
Plasma is a single fluid (L >> Debye length)
Plasma is in thermodynamic equilibrium
(timescale >> collision timescale, L >> mean-free path)
Theoretical Concepts in MHD: Flux-Freezing
Governing equation:
Magnetic Reynolds Number:
In Astrophysical systems, R
M
usually high, magnetic fields move with
plasma flux is frozen (Alfven 1942)
2
/
/
m
VB L VL
R
B L
= =
Theoretical Concepts in MHD: The Anti-Dynamo Theorem
Convective plasma motions may generate magnetic field by induction
(Larmor 1919)
The anti-dynamo theorem (Cowling 1934):
An axisymmetric magnetic field cannot be
maintained by a steady axisymmetric plasma flow
Rules out dynamo action in systems with certain symmetries in the
flow fields
Can dynamos exist?
Theoretical Concepts in MHD: Around the Anti-Dynamo Problem
Yes! There are ways around the anti-dynamo theorem
First positive breakthrough came in 1955, when Eugene Parker
postulated that helical turbulent motions can play a crucial role
in generating astrophysical magnetic fields through the -effect
This is possible because the -effect removes certain symmetry
constraints on the flow fields
The -effect can work only in rotating systems, where Coriolis force
exists and therefore results in non-zero helicity
Fortunately, most astrophysical systems rotate and also host sustain
convective turbulence!
Theoretical Concepts in MHD: The Mean-Field Alpha Effect
In a turbulent magnetized medium, the flow and field components can
be expressed as a sum of fluctuating and mean components
It turns out that the cross-product of the fluctuating components
(u` B`) generates a mean electromotive force (which after some
drastic truncations) can be expressed as:
Where is the turbulent diffusivity, is the mean-field alpha-effect,
u` is the fluctuating velocity and the correlation time of turbulence
It is essentially this alpha effect term related to the Coriolis force
that makes dynamo action possible by bypassing the anti-dynamo
theorem
Formulating the Dynamo Problem: The full set of MHD Equations
The complete set of equations relate to momentum, mass, energy
conservation and the induction equation for the magnetic field
Although a self-consistent approach requires the solution of the full
numerically, often the kinematic approach is more useful
Deriving the Axisymmetric Kinematic Dynamo Equtions
In the kinematic dynamo problem, we solve for the magnetic field with
a given velocity field, assuming to direct feedback on the flows
Axisymmetric Magnetic Fields:
Axisymmetric Velocity Fields:
Plug these into the Induction Equation:
And add the -effect term to derive the set of kinematic dynamo
equations for the toroidal and poloidal field components
Lecture II
(Tuesday, 18
th
December 2006)
Sunspots as Tracers of Solar Activity: Tilt & Orientation
First telescopic observations by Galileo and Scheiner (early 1600s)
Hale (1908) discovered sunspots are strongly magnetized ~ 1000 G
Sunspot pairs have systematic tilt, which increases with latitude
The polarity orientation is opposite in the two hemispheres
Sunspots as Tracers of Solar Activity: The Solar Cycle
Number of sunspots observed on the Sun vary with time
Time variation is predominantly cyclic, mean period is 11 years
However, there are large amplitude fluctuations
Sunspots as Tracers of Solar Activity: The Butterfly Diagram
Equatorward migration of sunspots
Poleward migrations of weak surface radial field
Polar field reversal at time of sunspot maximum
Both have an average periodicity of 11 years
Window to the Solar Interior: The Flow of Energy
Energy generated in the core (inner 25% of the Sun)
Transported by radiation in the Radiative Zone (inner 70%) through
multiple absorption and re-radiation
By convection in the Convection Zone (opaque, outer 30%); radiated
away from Photosphere (surface) as a black body
Window to the Solar Interior: Plasma Motions
Interior temperature exceeds a million degrees
Matter exists in the plasma state (highly ionized)
Convection zone has both small scale turbulent flows and large scale
structured flows, in other words we are dealing with
The dynamics of magnetized plasmas enter MHD!
Some Issues in MHD: The Governing Equation
Governing equation:
Magnetic Reynolds Number:
In Astrophysical systems, R
M
usually high, magnetic fields move with
plasma flux is frozen (Alfven, 1942)
Magnetoconvection (Chandrasekhar 1952, Weiss 1981) convective
region gets separated into non-magnetic and magnetic space the latter
constitutes flux tubes
2
/
/
m
VB L VL
R
B L
= =
Historical Development Toroidal Field & Sunspot Creation
Poloidal field Toroidal Field
Stability Magnetic Buoyancy (Parker 1955)

Internal <

External
Buoyant eruption, Coriolis force
imparts tilts

+ =
8
B
P P
2
I E
Historical Development Toroidal Field Generation Omega Effect
-effect in action: Faster rotating equator stretches an poloidal field
in the direction of rotation to create the toroidal fields
Where is the toroidal field generated?
Convection zone susceptible to buoyancy, ruled out (Parker 1975)
In the overshoot layer, at base of convection zone
(Spiegel & Weiss 1980; van Ballegooijen 1982)
Historical Development Poloidal Field Generation The MF -effect
Small scale helical convection Mean-Field -effect (Parker 1955)
Buoyantly rising toroidal field is twisted by helical turbulent
convection, creating loops in the poloidal plane
The small-scale loops diffuse to generate a large-scale poloidal field
Last Two Decade Flux Tube Dynamics and a Crisis in Dynamo Theory
Interaction of Coriolis force with buoyantly rising magnetic flux tubes
would force them poleward if B < 10
5
G (Choudhuri & Gilman 1987)
To match Joys law (tilt angles of sunspots) and other morphological
properties of solar active regions B ~ 10
5
G (DSilva & Choudhuri
1993, Fan, Fisher & DeLuca 1993)
Flux tubes with B < 10
5
G can be stored in the overshoot layer beneath
the base of the convection zone, only stronger flux tubes escape out
(Moreno-Insertis, Schssler & Ferriz-Mas 1992)
Strength of flux tubes at SCZ base 10
5
G
Equipartition field in convection zone 10
4
G
Small-scale helical convection will get quenched alternative ideas
for poloidal field generation necessary
The Modern Era: Revival of the Babcock-Leighton Idea
Babcock (1961) & Leighton (1969) idea decay of tilted bipolar
sunspots distinct from the MF -effect and is observed
+ old cycle
old cycle
The Modern Era: Large Scale Internal Flows from Helioseismology
Differential rotation in the interior determined from helioseismology,
strongest rotational shear at tachocline at the base of the SCZ
Poleward meridional circulation observed in the outer 15%, mass
conservation requires a counterflow possibly near base of the SCZ
Formulating the Axisymmetric Kinematic Dynamo Model
Axisymmetric Magnetic Fields:
Axisymmetric Velocity Fields:
Plug these into the Induction Equation:
to obtain..
The Dynamo Equations
Toroidal field evolution:
Poloidal field evolution:
Where the BL alpha effect is:
S B

=
( )
( )
1 1
2
. sin
2 2
sin
sin
A
v r A A S
P
t r
r

| |

+ = +
|

\
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
1
1
sin . ( )
sin
r
P
B
rv B v B
t r r
B r B B
r

(
+ +
(


| |
= +
|
\
Model Inputs
Observed differential rotation (inferred from helioseismology)
Meridional circulation profile that matches near surface observations
A depth dependent diffusivity profile
A functional form for the BL -effect (confined to near surface layers)
Magnetic buoyancy algorithm (transports fields exceeding threshold)
Solar Cycle Simulations
(Nandy & Choudhuri 2001, 2002; Nandy 2002, 2003; Nandy 2004a,b;
Wilmot-Smith, Nandy et al 2006; Yeates, Nandy & Mackay 2007)
Toroidal Field Evolution Poloidal Field Evolution
Solar Cycle Simulations
Observations Simulations
What Determines Solar Cycle Amplitude?
If the amplitude of the -effect is fixed:
Primary constraint: Critical threshold for buoyancy (B
c
)
Therefore peak toroidal field in the solar interior ~ B
c
~ 10
5
G
Modulation around that by diffusivity and meridional flow
What Determines Solar Cycle Period? Theoretical Simulations
The speed of the meridional circulation sets the sunspot cycle period
Diffusivity has a small effect
Note: Period is governed by slowest process in the dynamo chain
What Determines Solar Cycle Period? Observational Confirmation
Based on observed solar cycle properties from 1874-2003 AD
Cycle period is anti-correlated with drift velocity (cross-correlation
coefficient -0.5, confidence level 95%)
Confirms that the sunspot cycle is driven by meridional flow speed
This result was the subject of a NASA press release
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Drift Velocity (Degrees/year)
110
120
130
140
150
P
e
r
i
o
d

(
m
o
n
t
h
s
)
Fluctuations, Memory & Solar Cycle Predictions
Since magnetic buoyancy, meridional circulation and diffusion all play
a role in magnetic flux transport and the latter takes a finite time, it
introduces a memory in the solar cycle (Wilmot-Smith, Nandy, et al.
2006)
Inherent stochastic fluctuations in the dynamo output are natural due to
the turbulent nature of the solar convection zone
Nevertheless, the memory of these fluctuations will survive based on
the time-delay-dynamics related to magnetic flux transport; this
property can be used to make solar cycle predictions
However, recent attempts lead to conflicting and controversial result
(Dikpati et al. 2006, Choudhuri et al. 2007). Why?
Fluctuations, Memory & Solar Cycle Predictions
(Yeates, Nandy & Mackay 2007)
(Diffusion Dominated Flux Transport) (Advection Dominated Flux Transport)
Memory of fluctuations different in diffusive and advective regimes
Diffusive flux transport short-circuits advective flux transport
Therefore understanding flux transport key to predictions
What is the Suns Role in Global Warming?
Left: Global temperature anomaly courtesy of Mike Mann
(Original source: Mann et al. 2004, Nature, 430, 105)
Right: Solar forcing reconstruction (Nandy and Joy, work in progress)
Yes, the Suns activity did rise sharply between 1900-1950
However, the Sun does not seem to be responsible for the continuing
rise in the global temperature since the 1950s
Conclusions: Insights from Solar Dynamo Modeling
Using observed large-scale flows (kinematic regime), we can reproduce
the observed large-scale magnetic field evolution very well
So, perhaps we are getting some aspects of the physics right
Flux transport processes such as buoyancy, diffusion and meridional
circulation extremely important for the solar magnetic cycle
Magnetic buoyancy acts as a amplitude limiting factor for solar cycle
Meridional circulation sets the sunspot cycle period
Flux transport mediated time-delay dynamics introduces a memory
mechanism in the Sun, that may be used for predicting the strength of
future cycles
Development of solar activity predictions is important for satellite
operations, telecommunication facilities, planning of future space
missions and understanding the future role of the Sun in the context of
global climate change
Further Readings
Dynamo Models of the Solar Cycle by Paul Charbonneau, freely
available online at: http://solarphysics.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrsp-2005-2/
The Physics of Fluids and Plasmas: An Introduction for
Astrophysicists by Arnab Rai Choudhuri, Cambridge University Press
Also see research articles and reviews by Dibyendu Nandy at:
http://solar.physics.montana.edu/nandi/papers.html
Contact Information
Dibyendu Nandi
Department of Physics
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT 50717, USA
Phone: 1-406-994-4470
Fax: 1-406-994-4452
Email: nandi@mithra.physics.montana.edu