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Todays Lecture:

Reservoir engineering

Reservoir Engineering (light)

Drive Mechanisms Pressure-Transient Analysis Recovery Factor Subsurface Phases Links and Literature

Drive Mechanisms

Drive Mechanisms

High Porosity Permeability HC saturation Source of reservoir energy !

What causes hydrocarbons in the reservoir to move to the wellbore ? Which forces should be supported or pushed back ?

Driving force(s) to create a pressure differential, causing HC to flow to the wellbore (natural or artifical)

Where and how should secondary recovery strategies be implemented?

Drive Mechanisms Gas cap drive Solution gas drive Water drive (Bottom-water, edge-water) Gravity drainage drive Combination Drive

Gas Cap Drive Only where a gas cap exists (or where one forms): RF ~20-45%; possibly assisted by gravity grive

Gas Cap Oil Zone Initial Conditions

Danger of depressurizing volatile phase (gas)

Gas Cap Oil Zone During Depletion

Solution Gas Drive

Gas comes out of solution as production causes reservoir pressure decline (cola-can analogy): Least efficient of the drive mechanisms, RF 520 %

Bottom Water Drive Need aquifer under pressure. Need favorable uniform water advance. RF ~50% but may be as high as 85% !

Oil Zone

Initial Conditions

Aquifer

Danger of producing volatile phase (gas) first

Danger of drawing the less viscous phase (water) to the wellbore (water coning, water tunneling)
Oil Zone

During Depletion

Edge Water Drive Gravity Drainage / Gravity Drive Present in all reservoirs but very low production rates.

Important only near reservoir depletion, in reservoirs with high structure, and low-viscosity oils

Combination Drive
5

Producing GOR trends by drive mechanism

Gas-to-oil ratio

Producing GOR mscf/stb

Gas Cap Oil Zone Aquifer

Dangers (and possibilities!) from all sides !

Solution gas drive

Gravity drive

Water drive

Gas Cap
Oil Zone
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

original oil in place

Reservoir Pressure Trends by drive mechanism

100 100

Reservoir Water Cut by drive mechanism

Water drive

Reservoir Pressure (% of Original)

80

Water Cut (% of Produced Fluid)

80

Water drive

60

60

Solution gas drive

40

40

Gravity drive
20

20

Gravity drive Solution gas drive

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

Gas cap drive

60 70

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

Gas Cap Expansion Drive

4 4

Solution Gas Drive

Ultimate Recovery Ranges by Drive Mechanism

3 3

Drive Mechanism Solution Gas Drive Gas Cap Drive Water Drive Gravity Drainage

Energy Source Evolved Solution Gas Expansion Gas Cap and evolved solution gas expansion Aquifer Expansion Gravity

Recovery (% OOIP) 5-30 20-40 35-75 5-30 ( incremental)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Water Drive
4 4

Gravity Drive

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Black = GOR

Blue = water cut

Red = pressure

Gas Cap Expansion Drive

4 4

Solution Gas Drive

Recommendations for perforations

Gas Cap Drive
Gas Cap Oil Zone Initial Conditions

Gravity Drive

10

20

30

40

50

60

70 5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Water Drive
4 4

Gravity Drive

As far away as posssible from the gas cap in gas cap reservoirs

As close to the OWC in a gravity drainage

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Black = GOR

Blue = water cut

Red = pressure

Recommendations for perforations

Water Drive

Reservoir engineering

Oil Zone

Drive Mechanisms Pressure-Transient Analysis Recovery Factor Subsurface Phases Links and Literature

Aquifer

As high up as possible in water-drive reservoirs

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

Undetermined outer radius

110 inner radius

5280 = 1 mile
DST 1 was performed over the perforated interval 12400 - 12517 MDRT in the Fulmar Fm.

Fig. 62: Halley 30/12b-8 test overview. Fig. 67: Interpretation of 30/11b-3 DST 1.

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

28 Open ? 85 Open ?

5280 = 1 mile

Parallel-boundary model for 30/12b-6 DST 1

Seismic and test data show fieldwide compartmentalization

30/12b-7 Dry hole. Not te sted

Reservoir engineering

Outer radius unknown due to short test durati on

ton Apple ha Alp

450

110 inner radi us

30/11b-1 No reservoir. Not te sted 30/11b-3 Short tes t gas condensate

580 0 psi

30/11b-4 DST saw only 8 -12 MMB OIP

open

490 0 psi
1550

leton App Beta

30/12b-6 Close II faults. 30/11b-5 poo r shows. Not teste d

28

85

a, Gamm Halley lta De

108 0 psi
open

y Halle Alpha
1100
1100

Drive Mechanisms Pressure-Transient Analysis Recovery Factor Subsurface Phases

960 psi

Mo nik ie

Au k Fau lt
N
5280 = 1 mile

Appleton / Halley Fault Compartmentalization from Seismic and Interpretation of PTA and RFT Data

Fault

open

Halley
1000

30/12b-4 Close Faults (3 0 deg) In comm . with Fulm ar ?

30/12b-2 U-shaped F bloc k

80
160

open

Fa ult

1000

V1

833 psi

open

Links and Literature

Fulmar
h (V2) ~ 300, Vol(V2) ~ 3.5 e8 ft3 A(V2) ~ 10,000 * 10000 ft2 Represented by 4 blocks of 2,500 side length each Spatial Relation to V1 unconstrained

200 1000

Be ta
970 psi

2200

Zo ne

30/12b-8 In pressu re comm. with 12b -4

30/12b-3 Dry hole. Not te sted

923 psi

F Fulmar

ield

Clyde Field
882 psi

open 450 Geometrical Representation

1550

Well

Major Pressure

Definition Recovery Factor Recovery Factor: Percentage of economically recoverable reservoir fluid, compared to Original Oil in Place (OOIP)

Study of 100 fractured reservoirs (by C&C Reservoirs)

FIELD NAME
HASSI MESSAOUD ELMWORTH-WAPITI TURNER VALLEY WATERTON RENQIU AHWAZ MANSURI AIN ZALAH BAI HASSAN KIRKUK KARACHAGANAK TENGIZ CANTARELL POZA RICA EKOFISK SAFAH IDD EL SHARGI NORTH DOME VERKHNEVILYUY ABQAIQ ANSCHUTZ RANCH EAST JONAH LOST HILLS

COUNTRY
ALGERIA CANADA CANADA CANADA CHINA IRAN IRAN IRAQ IRAQ IRAQ KAZAKHSTAN KAZAKHSTAN MEXICO MEXICO NORWAY OMAN QATAR RUSSIA SAUDI ARABIA USA USA USA USA USA USA

RSVR AGE
CAMBRIAN CRETACEOUS CARBONIFEROUS DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS PRECAMBRIAN CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS TERTIARY TERTIARY DEVONIAN-PERMIAN DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY CRETACEOUS CRETACEOUS CAMBRIAN JURASSIC JURASSIC CRETACEOUS TERTIARY TERTIARY CRETACEOUS PERMIAN

RSVR CLSS
FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE KARSTIC/FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP FRACTURED/KARSTIC ORGANIC BUILDUP FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP KARSTIC/FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE FRACTURED FORESLOPE CHALK FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE TIGHT SANDSTONE TIGHT SANDSTONE FRACTURED SILICEOUS SHALE FRACTURED MICROPOROUS CHERT TIGHT SANDSTONE KARSTIC/FRACTURED CARBONATE SAND

www.pore-cor.com.

POINT ARGUELLO WATTENBERG YATES

Study of 100 fractured reservoirs ( by C&C Reservoirs)

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Reservoir properties Lithology matrix heterogeneity fracture distribution fluid viscosity drive mechanism wettability

Reservoir management strategy Optimization of production rate EOR technique: Water flood, steam flood

Fractured reservoirs Little matrix porosity and permeability. Fractures provide both storage capacity and fluid-flow pathways

Fractured porous reservoirs Low matrix porosity and permeability. Matrix provides some storage capacity; fractures provide the fluid-flow pathways

Microporous reservoirs High matrix porosity and low matrix permeability

Macroporous reservoirs High matrix porosity and permeability. Matrix provides both storage capacity and fluid-flow pathways, while fractures merely enhance permeability

Enhanced oil recovery

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Fractured reservoirs

Fractured porous reservoirs ave. RF = 26%

Microporous reservoirs ave. RF = 24%

Macroporous reservoirs ave. RF = 34%

Which one are you going to buy?

ave. RF = 21 %

easily damaged by excessive production rates. Many perform well under unassisted primary recovery when managed properly

dependent upon lithology, wettability, and fracture intensity. The choice of proper EOR technique is essential for optimum exploitation

most sensitive to drive mechanism

Ultimate recovery efficiency in 450 mature clastic fields

Development strategies and reservoir management techniques play crucial roles in maximizing expected ultimate recoveries for given reservoir/fluid parameters.

Reservoir engineering

Five main fluid type/permeability clastic-reservoir classes, with characteristic ultimate recovery distributions and controls, are: (1) heavy oil/tar reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by well spacing/reservoir depth, reservoir connectivity and the application of tertiary recovery techniques; low-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, well spacing and application of waterflooding/miscible flooding, fraccing and horizontal drilling; intermediate-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by fluid viscosity variations, reservoir heterogeneity/architecture and application of waterflooding; high-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by natural drive strength/type and control of aquifer and gas-cap encroachment; and gas/condensate reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, aquifer encroachment and condensate drop-out.

Drive Mechanisms Pressure-Transient Analysis Recovery Factor Subsurface Phases Links and Literature

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Pressure

T1 P1 T2=Tv Gas Gas P1 T2=Tv P1 T3 P1 T1

Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Temperature

P1 T1 Gas Gas P2=Pv T1 P2=Pv T1 P3

Liquid

Liquid

Liquid

Liquid Gas

Gas Liquid

Liquid

Hg Hg Hg Hg

Hg Hg Hg Hg

Heating

Hg flows out so that p stays constant

P above Vapor Pressure

Pressure-Volume Diagram of a Pure Substance

Pressure-Temperature Diagram of a Pure Substance

Critical Point

Pc
Melting

Liquid

Pressure, p

Pressure, p

Pc
tL in e

Critical Point Liquid

Precipitation, Condensation

T7 T6 T5 = Tc

Solid

Freezing Evaporation

o in wP De

Po in

Bu b

Liquid + Vapor

Condensation ?

bl e

Vapor

T4 T3 T2 T1

Vapor
Sublimation

ine tL

Vc

Specific Volume, v

Temperature, T

Tc

10

Phase properties of the binary ethane ethane system

1400
100%

Chemical Composition of Hydrocarbons

Composition of Reservoir Fluids

8,21

1200

CA
80%

22,57 C7+ 56,4 C6 nC5 60% iC5 nC4 iC4 C3 73,19 57,6 20% C2 C1 N2 CO2 34,62

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

1000

800

int

Critical Point Ethane, CE

Dew Point Line

Lin e

CB
40%

86,12

92,46

Bu bb le

Po

600

400

Mixture A
b Bu b le

int Po

e Lin

G as

G as

W et

nd en

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000

5000

4500

4000

Typical reservoir temperatures

100%

4500

G as

co

100

200

300

400

500

vo la

Bl ac k

ry

til e

200

sa te

O il

oi l

Mixture B ne Li nt oi P ew

Critical Point Heptane, CH

0%

4000
80% C7+ C6 nC5 iC5 nC4 iC4 C3 C2 C1 N2 CO2

Typical reservoir temperatures Gas Condensate

100% 8,21

80% C7+ C6 nC5 iC5 nC4 iC4 C3 C2 C1 N2 CO2

3500

3500

Pressure, psia

3000 2500

Pressure, psia

60%

3000 2500

60%

92,46 40%

40%

73,19

2000
20%

2000
20%

1500

1500

1000 500 0 -300

Liquid Gas
0%

1000

Wet gas

0%

500 0

Gas Condensate
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

-300

Wet gas

Temperature, deg F

Temperature, deg F

11

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000

5000

4500

4000

Typical reservoir temperatures

100% 22,57 80% C7+ C6 nC5 iC5 nC4 iC4 C3 C2 C1 N2 CO2

4500

4000

Typical reservoir temperatures

100%

80% 56,4 C7+ C6 nC5 iC5 nC4 iC4 C3 C2 C1 N2 CO2

3500

3500

Pressure, psia

3000 2500

60%

Pressure, psia

3000 2500

60%

40%

40%

2000
20%

57,6

2000
20% 34,62

1500

1500

1000 500 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

0%

1000

0%

Volatile oil
900 1000 1100 1200

500 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Black oil
1100 1200

Temperature, deg F

Temperature, deg F

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

Behavior of fluids during depletion

5000

5000

4500

4000

Loci

Typical reservoir temperatures Gas Condensate

4500

w De

4000

Po

3500

Pressure, psia

Pressure, psia

3000 2500

3000 2500

2000

Black oil

2000

1500

1500

1000 500 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

1000 500 0 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Wet gas

Temperature, deg F

Bubb le

Poin t

Volatile oil

i nt

3500

Temperature, deg F

ci Lo

12

Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram

4000 4000

Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram

Single-phase oil reservoir Single-phase gas reservoir

3500

Gas condensate reservoir

B
t in Po % le bb Loci 80 Bu

3500

Gas condensate reservoir

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

3000

Critical Point

Reservoir Fluid

C
3000

B
Critical Point

A
Reservoir Fluid
path of reservoir fluid

2500

2500

t in Po % le bb Loci 80 Bu

2000

2000

path of produced fluid

Dew Poin t
%

Produced Fluid

40

20

10

1000

1000

500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Behavior of fluids during depletion

Behavior of fluids during depletion

Gas injection causes re-vaporization of gas condensate

4
C Pressure

Reservoir Fluid

Propane injection in oil can cause dramatic nonlinear viscosity reduction (CO2 is best)

Li

id qu

Liquid Volume

e m lu Vo

10

1500

1500

20

40

Dew Poin t Loci

Loci

4
C

Reservoir Fluid

Produced Fluid

Pressure

nt P oi ble Bub Line

nt P oi ble Bub Line

Produced Fluid

t Line Dew Poin

t Line Dew Poin

Adding gas (a solvent) to oil (about 40%) can cause asphaltene precipitation

Temperature

Gas evolving from oil due to pressure drop during depletion can cause wax precipitation

Hydrate may form from gas and water upon gas expansion (need antifreeze injection)

Temperature

13

Behavior of fluids during depletion

Difficulty and relevance of early reservoir fluid sampling !
5

4
Pressure C

pressure

Temperature

asphaltene precipitation
1

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

time

Last word

Geologist Plant Engineer

Reservoir Engineer Production Engineer

Hydrocarbon Basins

Geologist

14

Lectura 9:15-10:45 Lu Lectura 1 / 2 (Introduction; The petroleum system)

Practica 11:30-13:00 Lab 2 (Internet resources)

Lectura 15:15-16:45 Lectura 3 (Geochemistry: Origin of HC; organic matter, source rocks, accumulation. The "petroleum kitchen") Lectura 6 (The reservoir: Lithology, geometry, and facies. Reservoir characterization and management) Lectura 7 (Reservoir engineering: Drive mechanisms, phase behavior, production problems, scale formation etc.)

Ma

Lectura 4 (porosidad, permeabilidad)

Lab 4 (Porosity calculation)

Mi

Lectura 5 (Reservoir petrophysics: capillary pressure, pore-size distribution, bound water etc.) Lectura 9 (Logging concepts and tools; quantitative evaluation of lithology, fluids, and porosity) Lectura 10 (Exploration: Hydrocarbon classification of basins; play types)

Lab 5 (Bound water, capillarity exercise)

Ju

Lab 9 (Logging exercise)

Lectura 8 (Geophysics in exploration and reservoir management)

Vi

Lab 10 (Petro Mod)

Lectura 11 (Summary: Reserves and Resources, unconventional HC)

15