ThS.

on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H

Trang 1
TON CAO CP A2 I HC
Ti liu tham kho
1. Gio trnh Ton cao cp A2 Nguyn Ph Vinh HCN TP. HCM.
2. Ngn hng cu hi Ton cao cp HCN TP.HCM.
3. Ton cao cp A2 Cng Khanh NXBHQG TP. HCM.
4. Ton cao cp A2 Nguyn nh Tr NXB Gio dc.
5. Ton cao cp A2 Nguyn Vit ng NXB Gio dc.
6. Ton cao cp i s Tuyn tnh L S ng NXB Gio dc.
7. Bi tp Ton cao cp i s Tuyn tnh Hong Xun Snh NXB Gio dc.
8. i s tuyn tnh Bi Xun Hi (ch bin) HKHTN TP. HCM.

Chng 1. MA TRN NH THC H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH

1. MA TRN

1.1. nh ngha
a) Ma trn A cp m n trn l 1 h thng gm m.n s
( )
1, ; 1,
ij
a i m j n = = v c sp xp thnh bng:
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
... ... ... ...
...
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a a
A
a a a
| |
|
|
=
|
|
\
(gm m dng v n ct).
a
ij
l cc phn t ca A dng th i v ct th j.
Cp s (m, n) l kch thc ca A.
Khi m = 1, A = (a
11
a
12
a
1n
) l ma trn dng; n = 1,
11
1
...
m
a
A
a
| |
|
=
|
|
\
l ma trn ct; m = n = 1, A = (a
11
) (1 phn t).
Tp hp cc ma trn A l
,
( )
m n
M , cho gn ta vit
( )
ij m n
A a

= .

b) Hai ma trn A v B bng nhau, k hiu A = B khi v ch
khi chng cng kch thc v a
ij
= b
ij
.


VD 1.
1 1 0 1
0; 1; 2; 2; 3
2 2 3
x y
x y z u t
z t u

| | | |
= = = = = =
| |
\ \
.

c) Ma trn (0 )
ij m n
= gm tt c cc phn t u bng 0 l
ma trn khng.

d) Khi m = n: A l ma trn vung cp n, k hiu ( )
ij n
A a = .

Cc ma trn vung c bit:
ng cho cha a
11
, a
22
, , a
nn
l ng cho chnh ca
A, ng cho cn li l ng cho ph.
Ma trn vung c tt c cc phn t nm ngoi ng
cho chnh u bng 0 l ma trn cho.
Ma trn cho cp n gm tt c cc phn t trn ng
cho chnh u bng 1 l ma trn n v cp n, k hiu I
n
.
VD 2.
2
1 0
0 1
I
| |
=
|
\
,
3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
I
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.


Ma trn tam gic trn (di) cp n l ma trn c cc phn
t nm pha di (trn) ng cho chnh u bng 0.
VD 3.
1 0 2
0 1 1
0 0 0
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
l ma trn tam gic trn;

3 0 0
4 1 0
1 5 2
B
| |
|
=
|
|

\
l ma trn tam gic di.
Ma trn i xng cp n l ma trn c cc phn t i xng
qua ng cho chnh bng nhau (a
ij
= a
ji
).
Ma trn phn i xng cp n l ma trn c cc phn t i
xng qua ng cho chnh i nhau (a
ij
= a
ji
) v tt c cc
phn t trn ng cho chnh u bng 0.

VD 4.
3 4 1
4 1 0
1 0 2
A
| |
|
=
|
|

\
l ma trn i xng;

0 4 1
4 0 0
1 0 0
B
| |
|
=
|
|

\
l ma trn phn i xng.

1.2. Cc php ton trn ma trn
a) Php cng v tr
Cho ( )
ij m n
A a

= , ( )
ij m n
B b

= ta c:
( )
ij ij m n
A B a b

= .
VD 5.
1 0 2 2 0 2 1 0 4
2 3 4 5 3 1 7 0 3

| | | | | |
+ =
| | |

\ \ \
;

1 0 2 2 0 2 3 0 0
2 3 4 5 3 1 3 6 5

| | | | | |
=
| | |

\ \ \
.

Php cng ma trn c tnh giao hon v kt hp.
b) Nhn v hng
Cho ( )
ij m n
A a

= , ta c:
( )
ij m n
A a

= .
VD 6.
1 1 0 3 3 0
3
2 0 4 6 0 12

| | | |
=
| |

\ \
;

2 6 4 1 3 2
2
4 0 8 2 0 4
| | | |
=
| |

\ \
.
Php nhn v hng c tnh phn phi i vi php cng
ma trn.
Ma trn A l ma trn i ca A.
ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 2


c) Nhn hai ma trn
Cho ( )
ij m n
A a

= , ( )
jk n p
B b

= ta c:
( )
1
( ) , 1, ; 1,
n
ik m p ik ij jk
j
AB c c a b i m k p

=
= = = =

.
VD 7. Tnh a) ( )
1
1 2 3 2
5
| |
|
|
|

\
; b)
1 0 0 0
4 0 3 2
| || |
| |

\ \
;
c)
2 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 2
2 0 3
1 3 2
| |
| |
|

|
|

\
|

\
.
Php nhn ma trn c cc tnh cht:

1) (AB)C = A(BC);
2) A(B + C) = AB + AC;
3) (A + B)C = AC + BC;
4) (AB) = (A)B = A(B);
5)
n m
AI A I A = = , vi
,
( )
m n
A M .

VD 8. Tnh
a)
1 1 2 0 1 3 2 1 2 1
2 3 0 1 2 1 1 0 2 1
1 1 4 2 1 3 3 1 0 2
| | | | | | | |
| | | |

| | | |
| | | |

\ \ \ \
;


b)
1 0 1 1 2 1
2 2 0 0 3 1
3 0 3 2 1 0
| || |
| |

| |
| |

\ \
v

1 2 1 1 0 1
0 3 1 2 2 0
2 1 0 3 0 3
| | | |
| |

| |
| |

\ \
.

Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
c bit, khi ( )
ij n
A a = v
*
p ta c:
A
0
= I
n
; A
p
= A
p1
A (ly tha ma trn).

VD 9. a) Cho
1 1
0 1
A

| |
=
|
\
, tnh A
2009
;
b) Cho
2 0
1 2
B
| |
=
|
\
, tnh (I
2
B)
2009
.
VD 10. Cho A = (a
ij
) l ma trn vung cp 100 c cc phn
t dng th i l (1)
i
. Tm phn t a
36
ca A
2
.

d) Php chuyn v
Cho ( )
ij m n
A a

= , ma trn chuyn v ca A l:
( )
T
ji n m
A a

= (chuyn tt c dng thnh ct).


Tnh cht:
1) (A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
;
2) (A)
T
= A
T
;
3) (A
T
)
T
= A;
4) (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
;
5)
T
A A = A i xng;
6)
T
A A = A phn xng.

1.3. Php bin i s cp trn dng ca ma trn
a) nh ngha
Cho ( )
ij m n
A a

= ( 2) m . Cc php bin i s cp dng
e trn A l:

(e
1
): Hon v hai dng cho nhau
i k
d d
A A

.
(e
2
): Nhn 1 dng vi s 0 ,
i i
d d
A A

.
(e
3
): Thay 1 dng bi tng ca dng vi tch dng
khc
i i k
d d d
A A
+
.

Ch
1) Trong thc hnh ta thng lm
i i k
d d d
A B
+
.
2) Sau 1 s hu hn cc PBSC dng ta c ma trn
B tng ng vi A, k hiu B A .
3) Tng t, ta cng c cc php bin i s cp trn
ct ca ma trn.


VD 11. Cho
1 2 3
2 1 1
3 1 2
A
| |
|
=
|
|

\
v
1 2 3
0 1 7 / 5
0 0 0
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.
Chng t A B .

b) Ma trn s cp
Ma trn thu c t I
n
bi ng 1 php bin i s cp
dng (ct) l ma trn s cp.
VD 12.
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
| |
|
|
|
\
,
1 0 0
0 5 0
0 0 1
| |
|

|
|
\
v
1 0 0
2 1 0
0 0 1
| |
|
|
|
\
l cc ma
trn s cp.
1.4. Ma trn bc thang v ma trn bc thang rt gn

a) Ma trn bc thang
Hng c tt c cc phn t u bng 0 c gi l hng
bng 0.

Phn t khc 0 u tin tnh t tri sang ca 1 hng c
gi l phn t c s ca hng .

Ma trn bc thang l ma trn khc 0 cp m n ( , 2) m n
tha:
1) Cc hng bng 0 di cc hng khc 0;
2) Phn t c s ca 1 hng bt k nm bn phi
phn t c s ca hng trn n.






ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 3


VD 13.
+
1 0 2
0 0 3
0 0 0
| |
|
|
|
\
,
0 1 2 3
0 0 4 5
0 0 0 1
| |
|
|
|
\
v I
n
l cc ma trn bc thang;
+
0 2 7
0 3 4
0 0 5
| |
|
|
|
\
v
2 3 5
0 0 0
0 1 3
| |
|
|
|
\
khng l ma trn bc thang.

nh l
Mi ma trn u c th a v bc thang bng hu hn
php bin i s cp trn dng.
b) Ma trn bc thang rt gn

Ma trn bc thang rt gn l ma trn bc thang c phn t
c s ca mt dng bt k u bng 1 v l phn t khc 0
duy nht ca ct cha n.

VD 14.
I
n
,
1 3 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
| |
|
|
|
\
v
0 1 0 3
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0
| |
|
|
|
\
l cc ma trn bc
thang rt gn.



1.5. Ma trn kh nghch

a) nh ngha

Ma trn ( )
n
A M c gi l kh nghch nu tn ti
( )
n
B M sao cho AB = BA = I
n
.
Ma trn B l duy nht v c gi l ma trn nghch o
ca A, k hiu A
1
. Khi :
A
1
A = AA
1
= I
n
; (A
1
)
1
= A.

Nu B l ma trn nghch o ca A th A cng l ma trn
nghch o ca B.
VD 15.
2 5
1 3
A
| |
=
|
\
v
3 5
1 2
B

| |
=
|

\
l nghch o ca nhau v
AB = BA = I
2
.

Nhn xt
1) Nu ma trn vung A c 1 dng (hoc 1 ct)
bng 0 th khng kh nghch.
2) Mi ma trn s cp u kh nghch v ma trn
nghch o cng l ma trn s cp.
3) (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.



b) Tm ma trn nghch o bng php bin i s cp
dng

Cho ( )
n
A M , ta tm A
1
nh sau:
Bc 1.
Lp ma trn
( )
n
A I (ma trn chia khi) bng cch ghp I
n

vo bn phi A.
Bc 2.
Dng php bin i s cp dng a
( )
n
A I v dng
( )
A B ( A l ma trn bc thang dng rt gn).
1) Nu A c 1 dng (ct) bng 0 hoc
n
A I th A
khng kh nghch.

2) Nu
n
A I = th A kh nghch v A
1
= B.

VD 16. Tm ma trn nghch o (nu c) ca:
1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
A
| |
|

|
=
|
|
\
v
1 1 1
1 0 1
2 1 0
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.


2. NH THC


2.1. nh ngha

a) Ma trn con cp k

Cho ma trn vung
( )
( )
ij n
n
A a M = . Ma trn vung
cp k c lp t cc phn t nm trn giao k dng v k ct
ca A c gi l ma trn con cp k ca A.

Ma trn M
ij
cp n1 thu c t A bng cch b i dng
th i v ct th j l ma trn con ca A ng vi phn t a
ij
.

b) nh thc

nh thc cp n ca ma trn vung
( )
( )
ij n
n
A a M = ,
k hiu detA hay A , l 1 s thc c nh ngha:

1) A cp 1:
11 11
( ) det A a A a = = ;
2) A cp 2:
11 12
11 22 12 21
21 22
det
a a
A A a a a a
a a
| |
= =
|
\
;
3) A cp n: det A = a
11
A
11
+ a
12
A
12
+ + a
1n
A
1n
, trong
A
ij
= (1)
i+j
det(M
ij
) l phn b i s ca phn t a
ij
.






ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 4


Ch

11 12 13
21 22 23 11 22 33 12 23 31 21 32 13
31 32 33
a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a
= + +
31 22 13 12 21 33 23 32 11
a a a a a a a a a (quy tc 6 ng cho).
c bit.
det I
n
= 1, det 0
n
= 0.
VD 1. Tnh cc nh thc ca:
3 2
1 4
A

| |
=
|
\
,
1 2 1
3 2 1
2 1 1
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
v
1 0 2 0
4 1 2 1
3 1 0 2
2 3 3 5
C
| |
|

|
=
|
|
\
.
2.2. Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc
Cho ma trn vung
( )
( )
ij n
n
A a M = , ta c cc tnh
cht c bn sau:
Tnh cht 1
( )
det det
T
A A = .
VD 2.
1 3 2 1 2 1
2 2 1 3 2 1
1 1 1 2 1 1

;

1 3 2 1 0 0
0 2 1 3 2 0
0 0 1 2 1 1
= .


Tnh cht 2. Hon v hai dng (ct) cho nhau th nh thc
i du.
VD 3.
1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
1 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 2

= =

.
H qu
nh thc c t nht 2 dng (ct) ging nhau th bng 0.
VD 4.
3 3 1
2 2 1 0
1 1 7
= ;
2 3
2 5
2 5
1 0
1
x x x
y y
y y
= ;
2 5
2 5
2 5
1
1 0
1
y y
y y
y y
= .
Tnh cht 3. Nhn 1 dng (ct) vi s thc th nh thc
tng ln ln.
VD 5.
3 0 3 1 0 1
2 1 2 3 2 1 2
3 1 7 3 1 7

= ;
3 3
3 3
3 3
1 1
( 1) 1 1
1 1
x x x x x
x y y x y y
z z x z z
+
+ = +
+
.
H qu
1) nh thc c t nht 1 dng (ct) bng 0 th bng 0.
2) nh thc c 2 dng (ct) t l vi nhau th nh thc
bng 0.


Tnh cht 4
Nu nh thc c 1 dng (ct) m mi phn t l tng ca
2 s hng th c th tch thnh tng 2 nh thc.
VD 6.
3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
1 1
1 1
1 1
x x x x x x x x
x y y x y y y y
x z z x z z z z
+
+ = +

.
Tnh cht 5
nh thc s khng i nu ta cng vo 1 dng (ct) vi
ln dng (ct) khc.
VD 7. Tnh cc nh thc:
1 2 3
1 2 1
2 3 4
;
1 1
1 1
1 1
x
x
x
.
Ch
Php bin i
1 2 1
2
1 5 0 7
2 3 1 3
d d d

= l sai do dng 1
nhn vi s 2.

2.3. nh l Laplace
Cho ma trn vung
( )
( )
ij n
n
A a M = , ta c cc khai
trin det A sau:
a) Khai trin theo dng th i
1 1 2 2
1
det ...
, ( 1) det( )
i i i i in in
n
i j
ij ij ij ij
j
A a A a A a A
a A A M
+
=
= + + +
= =

.


b) Khai trin theo ct th j
1 1 2 2
1
det ...
, ( 1) det( )
j j j j nj nj
n
i j
ij ij ij ij
i
A a A a A a A
a A A M
+
=
= + + +
= =

.

VD 8. Tnh nh thc
1 0 0 2
2 1 1 2
1 2 2 3
3 0 2 1

bng cch khai trin theo dng 1; ct 2.

VD 9. p dng tnh cht v nh l Laplace, tnh nh thc:
1 1 1 2
2 1 1 3
1 2 1 2
3 3 2 1

.
Cc kt qu c bit:

1)
11 12 1 11
22 2 21 22
11 22
1 2
... 0 ... 0
0 ... ... 0
...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 ... ...
n
n
nn
nn n n nn
a a a a
a a a a
a a a
a a a a
= =
(dng tam gic).

ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 5


2) det(AB) = detA.detB (nh thc ca tch hai ma trn).
3) det . det
0
n
A B
A C
C
= , vi , , ( )
n
A B C M
(nh thc chia khi).
VD 10. a)
1 2 3 4
0 2 7 19 1 2 3 0
0 0 3 0 0 2 0 1
0 0 0 1

;
b)
1 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 4
2 0 3 2 1 3 2 0 3 2 1 3
1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 1
| | | |
| |
=
| |
| |

\ \
;

c)
1 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 4
2 0 3 2 1 3 0 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 1
T
| | | | | |
| | |
=
| | |
| | |

\ \ \

1 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 4
2 0 3 2 1 3 0 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 1

=

.

2.4. ng dng nh thc tm ma trn nghch o
a) nh l
Ma trn vung A kh nghch khi v ch khi det A khc 0.



b) Thut ton tm A
1


Bc 1
Tnh det A. Nu det A = 0 th kt lun A khng kh nghch,
ngc li lm tip bc 2.

Bc 2
Lp ma trn
( ) ( )
T T
ij ij
n n
A A A = (ma trn ph hp ca A).

Bc 3. Ma trn nghch o l:

1
1
.
det
T
A A
A

= .
VD 11. Tm ma trn nghch o (nu c) ca:
1 2 1
1 1 2
3 5 4
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
v
1 2 1
0 1 1
1 2 3
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.

Nhn xt

Nu 0 ac bd th:
1
1
a b c b
d c d a ac bd

| | | |
=
| |

\ \
.



2.5. Hng ca ma trn
a) nh thc con cp k
Cho ma trn
( )
ij
m n
A a

= . nh thc ca ma trn con cp

k ca A c gi l nh thc con cp k ca A.
nh l
Nu trong ma trn A tt c cc nh thc con cp k u
bng 0 th cc nh thc con cp k + 1 cng bng 0.

b) Hng ca ma trn
Hng ca ma trn A l cp cao nht ca nh thc con
khc 0 ca A, k hiu r(A). Ta c:
1 ( ) min{ , } r A m n .
Nu A l ma trn khng th ta quy c r(A) = 0.
c) Phng php tm hng ca ma trn
nh l
Hng ca ma trn bc thang (dng) bng s dng khc 0
ca ma trn .
Cho A l ma vung cp n, ( ) det 0 r A n A = .
Phng php
Bc 1. Dng PBSC dng a ma trn A v bc thang.
Bc 2. S dng khc 0 ca A sau bin i l r(A).
VD 12. Tm hng ca ma trn
2 1 1 3
0 1 0 0
0 1 2 0
0 1 1 4
A
| |
|

|
=
|
|

\
.


VD 13. Tm hng ca ma trn
1 3 4 2
2 5 1 4
3 8 5 6
A
| |
|
=
|
|

\
.

VD 14. Ty theo gi tr m, tm hng ca ma trn
1 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 2 2 1 1
m
A
m
| |
|

|
=
|
|

\
.





ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 6

3. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH

3.1. nh ngha
H phng trnh tuyn tnh gm n n v m phng trnh
c dng:
11 1 12 2 1 1
21 1 22 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
...
...
.................................................
...
n n
n n
m m mn n m
a x a x a x b
a x a x a x b
a x a x a x b
+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

(1).
t
( )
11 1
1
...
... ... ...
...
n
ij
m n
m mn
a a
A a
a a

| |
|
= =
|
|
\
(ma trn h s),

( )
1
1
... ...
T
m
m
b
B b b
b
| |
|
= =
|
|
\
(ma trn ct t do)
v ( )
1
1
... ...
T
n
n
x
X x x
x
| |
|
= =
|
|
\
l ma trn ct n.
Khi , h (1) tr thnh AX B = .

B s ( )
1
...
T
n
= c gi l nghim ca (1) nu
A B = .


VD 1. Cho h phng trnh:
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
2 3
2 4 4
2 4 3
2 7 5
x x x x
x x x
x x
+ + =

+ + =

a h v dng ma trn:
1
2
3
4
1 1 2 4 4
2 1 4 0 3
0 2 7 0 5
x
x
x
x
| |
| | | |
|
| |
|
=
| |
|
| |

|
\ \
\
.
Khi , (1; 1; 1; 1) l 1 nghim ca h.

3.2. nh l Crocneker Capelli

Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh AX = B. Xt ma trn m
rng
( )
11 12 1 1
1 2
...
... ... ... ... ...
...
n
m m mn m
a a a b
A A B
a a a b
| |
|
= =
|
|
\
.
H c nghim khi v ch khi
( )
( ) r A r A r = = .
Khi :
1) r = n: H phng trnh tuyn tnh c nghim duy nht;
2) r < n: H phng trnh tuyn tnh c v s nghim ph
thuc vo n r tham s.


3.3. Phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh
a) Phng php ma trn nghch o
Cho h pttt AX = B, A l ma trn vung cp n kh nghch.
Ta c
1
AX B X A B

= = .
VD 2. Gii h phng trnh
2 1
3 3
2 1
x y z
y z
x y z
+ =

+ =

+ + =

.
b) Phng php nh thc (Cramer)
Cho h pttt AX = B, A l ma trn vung cp n.
t
11 1 1
1
... ...
det ... ... ... ... ...
... ...
j n
n nj nn
a a a
A
a a a
= = ,

11 1
1
... ...
... ... ... ... ... , 1,
... ...
j n
j
n j nn
a b a
j n
a b a
= = (thay ct j trong A bi
ct t do).

Khi , ta c cc trng hp:
1) Nu 0 th h c nghim duy nht , 1,
j
j
x j n

= =

.
2) Nu 0, 1,
j
j n = = = th h c v s nghim (thay
tham s vo h v tnh trc tip).
3) Nu 0 = v 0, 1,
j
j n = th h v nghim.



VD 3. Gii h phng trnh sau bng nh thc:
2 1
3 3
2 1
x y z
y z
x y z
+ =

+ =

+ + =

.

VD 4. Ty theo tham s m, gii v bin lun h phng
trnh:
2
1 mx y z
x my z m
x y mz m
+ + =

+ + =

+ + =

.

c) Phng php Gauss
Bc 1. a ma trn m rng
( )
A B v dng bc thang
bi PBSC trn dng.
Bc 2. Gii ngc t dng cui cng ln trn.

Ch
Trong qu trnh thc hin bc 1, nu:
1) C 2 dng t l th xa i 1 dng;
2) C dng no bng 0 th xa dng ;
3) C 1 dng dng
( )
0 ... 0 , 0 b b th kt lun h v
nghim.
4) Gp h gii ngay c th khng cn phi a
( )
A B v
bc thang.



ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 7



VD 5. Gii h phng trnh:
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
6 2 5 2 4
2 12 6 18 5 5
3 18 8 23 6 2
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
+ + =

+ + =

+ + =

.

VD 6. Gii h phng trnh:
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
5 2 5 3 3
4 3 2 1
2 7 = 1
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
+ =

+ + =

.
3.4. H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
a) nh ngha
H pttt thun nht l h pttt c dng:
11 1 12 2 1
21 1 22 2 2
1 1 2 2
... 0
... 0
.............................................
... 0
n n
n n
m m mn n
a x a x a x
a x a x a x
AX
a x a x a x

+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

(2).
Nhn xt
Do
( )
( ) r A r A = nn h pttt thun nht lun c nghim.
Nghim (0; 0;; 0) c gi l nghim tm thng.


b) nh l
H (2) ch c nghim tm thng
( ) det 0 r A n A = .

c) Lin h vi h pttt tng qut
nh l
Xt h pttt tng qut AX = B (1) v h pttt thun nht
AX = (2).
Khi :
1) Hiu hai nghim bt k ca (1) l nghim ca (2);
2) Tng 1 nghim bt k ca (1) v 1 nghim bt k ca (2)
l nghim ca (1).


Chng 2. KHNG GIAN VECTOR

1. KHI NIM KHNG GIAN VECTOR


1.1. nh ngha
Khng gian vector V trn l cp (V, ) trang b hai
php ton

( , ) ( , )
V V V V V
x y x y y x

+

tha 8 tnh cht sau:
1) x + y = y + x;
2) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z);
3) ! : V x x x + = + = ;
4) ( ) : ( ) ( ) x V x x x x + = + = ;
5)
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) x x = ; 6) ( ) x y x y + = + ;
7)
1 2 1 2
( )x x x + = + ; 8) 1.x = x.
VD 1. Tp nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun
nht l khng gian vector.
Tp { } ( )
n
V A M = cc ma trn vung cp n l kgvt.
{ }
1 2
( , ,..., ) , 1,
n i
V u x x x x i n = = l kgvt Euclide
n
.
1.2. Khng gian con ca kgvt
Cho kgvt V, tp W V l kgvt con ca V nu (W, )
cng l mt kgvt.
Cho kgvt V, tp W V l kgvt con ca V nu:
( ) , , , x y W x y W + .
VD 2. Tp { } W = l kgvt con ca mi kgvt V.
Trong
n
, tp
{ }
1 1
( , 0,..., 0) W u x x = = l kgvt con.

2. S C LP TUYN TNH V PH THUC TUYN TNH

2.1. nh ngha
Trong kgvt V, cho n vector u
i
(i = 1, 2,, n).
Tng
1
,
n
i i i
i
u
=

c gi l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca
n vector u
i
.
H n vector {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} c gi l c lp tuyn tnh
nu c
1
n
i i
i
u
=
=

th 0, 1,
i
i n = = .
H n vector {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} khng l c lp tuyn tnh th
c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh.
VD 1. Trong
2
, h {u
1
= (1;1), u
2
= (2; 3)} l ltt.
Trong
n
, h {u
i
= (0; 0;; 1; 0;; 0)} (v tr th i l 1)
l ltt.
Trong
3
, h {u
1
=(1;3;2), u
2
=(2;0;1), u
3
=(0;6;5)} l pttt.
nh l
H n vector ph thuc tuyn tnh 1 vector l t hp
tuyn tnh ca n 1 vector cn li.
VD 2. Nu x
1
= 2x
2
3x
3
th h {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
} l ph thuc
tuyn tnh.
H qu
H c 1 vector khng th ph thuc tuyn tnh.
Nu c 1 b phn ca h ph thuc tuyn tnh th h ph
thuc tuyn tnh.

2.2. H vector trong
n

nh ngha
Trong
n
cho m vector
1 2
( , ,..., ), 1,
i i i in
u a a a i m = = .
Ta gi
( )
ij
m n
A a

= l ma trn dng ca m vector u

i
.

ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 8

3. C S S CHIU TA
nh l
Trong
n
, h { }
1 2
, ,...,
m
u u u c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch
khi r(A) = m (bng s phn t ca h).
Trong
n
, h { }
1 2
, ,...,
m
u u u ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v
ch khi r(A) < m.
VD 3. Xt s ltt hay pttt ca cc h:
B
1
= {(1;2;0), (1;5;3), (2;3;3)}, B
2
= {(1; 2; 0), (2; 1; 1)}.

H qu
Trong
n
, h c nhiu hn n vector th ph thuc tuyn
tnh.
Trong
n
, h n vector c lp tuyn tnh det 0 A .
3.1. C s ca kgvt

nh ngha
Trong kgvt V, h B = {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} c gi l mt c s
ca V nu h B ltt v mi vector ca V u biu din tuyn
tnh qua B.

VD 1.
Trong
n
, h
E = {e
1
= (1; 0;; 0), e
2
= (0; 1;; 0), , e
n
= (0;; 0; 1)}
l c s chnh tc.
Trong
2
, h B = {u
1
= (1;1), u
2
= (2; 3)} l c s.


3.2. S chiu ca kgvt

nh ngha
Kgvt V c gi l c n chiu, k hiu dimV = n, nu
trong V c t nht 1 h gm n vector ltt v mi h gm n+1
vector u pttt.

nh l
dimV = n khi v ch khi trong V tn ti 1 c s gm n
vector.

H qu
Trong
n
, mi h gm n vector ltt u l c s.
3.3. Ta
a) nh ngha
Trong kgvt V cho c s B = {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
}. Khi , mi
x V c biu din tuyn tnh duy nht x = x
1
u
1
++x
n
u
n
.
Ta ni x c ta i vi B l (x
1
,, x
n
).
K hiu [ ]
1
...
B
n
x
x
x
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.
c bit, ta ca vector x i vi c s chnh tc E l
[x]
E
= [x] (ta ct thng thng ca x).
VD 2. Trong
2
cho c s B = {u
1
= (2;1), u
2
= (1; 1)} v
x = (3;5). Tm [x]
B
.


b) i c s
Ma trn chuyn c s
Trong kgvt V cho 2 c s
B
1
= {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} v B
2
= {v
1
, v
2
,, v
n
}.
Ma trn [ ] [ ] [ ]
( )
1 1 1
1 2
...
n
B B B
v v v c gi l ma trn chuyn
c s t B
1
sang B
2
. K hiu
1 2
B B
P

.
c bit, nu E l c s chnh tc th:
[ ][ ] [ ] ( )
1
1 2
...
E B n
P u u u

= .

Cng thc i ta
[ ] [ ]
1 2
1 2
B B
B B
x P x

= .

VD 3. Trong
2
cho 2 c s B
1
= {u
1
= (1; 0), u
2
= (0;1)},
B
2
= {v
1
= (2;1), v
2
= (1; 1)} v [ ]
2
1
2
B
x
| |
=
|
\
.
a) Tm
1 2
B B
P

; b) Tm [ ]
1
B
x .
nh l
Trong kgvt
n
cho 3 c s B
1
, B
2
v B
3
. Khi :
1)
i i
B B n
P I

= (i = 1, 2, 3);
2)
1 3 1 2 2 3
.
B B B B B B
P P P

= ;
3)
( )
1 2 2 1
1
B B B B
P P


= .


H qu
( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
B B B E E B E B E B
P P P P P

= = .

VD 4. Gii li VD 3.

3.4. Khng gian con sinh bi 1 h vector

Trong kgvt V cho h m vector S = {u
1
,, u
m
}. Tp tt c
cc t hp tuyn tnh ca S c gi l khng gian con sinh
bi S trn . K hiu spanS hoc <S>.



Trong kgvt
n
, ta c:
{ }
1 2 1 1 2 2
, ,..., : ... ,
n
m m m i
u u u x x u u u = = + + + .

Khi :
1) dim<S> = r(S) (hng ma trn dng m vector ca S);
2) Nu dim<S> = r th mi h con gm r vector ltt ca S
u l c s ca spanS.

VD 5.
Trong
4
cho h vector
S = {u
1
=(2; 4;2;4), u
2
= (2;5;3; 1), u
3
= (1; 3; 4; 1)}.
Tm 1 c s v dimspanS.






ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 9
4. NH X TUYN TNH

4.1. nh ngha
nh x :
n m
f tha
( ) ( ) ( )
, ,
( ) ( )
n
f x y f x f y
x y
f x f x


+ = +

c gi l nh x tuyn tnh.
nh x :
n n
f tha
( ) ( ) ( )
, ,
( ) ( )
n
f x y f x f y
x y
f x f x


+ = +

c gi l php bin i tuyn tnh.
VD 1.
f(x
1
; x
2
; x
3
) = (x
1
x
2
+x
3
; 2x
1
+3x
2
) l AXTT t
3 2
.
f(x
1
; x
2
) = (x
1
x
2
; 2x
1
+ 3x
2
) l PBTT t
2 2
.

f(x
1
; x
2
) = (x
1
x
2
; 2 + 3x
2
) khng l PBTT t
2 2
.

Ch
iu kin
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f x y f x f y
f x f x
+ = +

( ) ( ) ( ) , ,
n
f x y f x f y x y + = + .
VD 2. Cc PBTT thng gp trong mt phng:
1) Php chiu vung gc xung trc Ox, Oy:
f(x; y) = (x; 0), f(x; y) = (0; y).
2) Php i xng qua Ox, Oy:
f(x; y) = (x;y), f(x; y) = (x; y).
3) Php quay gc quanh gc ta O:
f(x; y) = (xcos ysin; xsin + ycos).


4.2. Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
a) nh ngha
Cho AXTT :
n m
f v hai c s ln lt l
B
1
= {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} v B
2
= {v
1
, v
2
,, v
m
}.
Ma trn cp m n [ ] [ ] [ ]
( )
2 2 2
1 2
( ) ( ) ... ( )
n
B B B
f u f u f u c
gi l ma trn ca AXTT f trong cp c s B
1
, B
2
.
K hiu
2
1
[ ]
B
B
f hoc A.
C th, nu
( )
( )
( )
1 11 1 21 2 31 3 1
2 12 1 22 2 32 3 2
1 1 2 2 3 3
...
...
....................................................................
...
m m
m m
n n n n mn m
f u a v a v a v a v
f u a v a v a v a v
f u a v a v a v a v
= + + + +

= + + + +

= + + + +

th

2
1
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
...
...
[ ]
... ... ... ...
...
n
n B
B
m m mn
a a a
a a a
f
a a a
| |
|
|
=
|
|
\
.
Cho PBTT :
n n
f v c s B = {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
}.
Ma trn vung cp n [ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
1 2
( ) ( ) ... ( )
n
B B B
f u f u f u c
gi l ma trn ca PBTT f trong c s B.
K hiu [ ]
B
f hoc [f] hoc A.
Ch
Nu A l ma trn ca AXTT f trong cp c s B
1
, B
2
th
1 2 1 2
( , ,..., ) ( ... )
T
n n
f x x x A x x x = .


VD 3. a) Cho AXTT
f(x, y, z, t) = (3x + y z; x 2y + t; y + 3z 2t).
Tm
3
4
[ ]
E
E
f .
b) Cho AXTT f(x, y) = (3x; x 2y; 5y). Tm
3
2
[ ]
E
E
f .
c) Cho PBTT f(x, y, z) = (3x + y z; x 2y; y + 3z).
Tm
3
[ ]
E
f .
VD 4. Cho AXTT
2 3
: f c ma trn ca f trong hai
c s chnh tc E
2
v E
3
l
1 3
0 2
4 3
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.
Tm ma trn f trong hai c s B
1
= {u
1
= (1; 1), u
2
= (1; 2)}
v B
2
= {v
1
= (1; 0; 1), v
2
= (1; 1; 1), v
3
= (1; 0; 0)}.
b) Ma trn ng dng

nh ngha
Hai ma trn vung A, B cp n c gi l ng dng vi
nhau nu tn ti ma trn kh nghch P tha B = P
1
AP.

nh l
Nu AXTT :
n m
f c ma trn trong cc cp c s
( )
/
1 1
, B B ,
( )
/
2 2
, B B tng ng l A
1
, A
2
v
1 2
B B
P P

= ,
/ /
1 2
B B
P P

= th ( )
1
2 1
A P A P

= .
c bit, nu PBTT :
n n
f c ma trn trong hai
c s B
1
, B
2
ln lt l A, B v
1 2
B B
P P

= th B = P
1
AP.



VD 5.
Cho PBTT f(x, y) = (x + y; x 2y). Tm ma trn ca f
trong c s chnh tc E v trong B={u
1
=(2;1),u
2
=(1;1)}.

VD 6.
Cho AXTT f(x, y, z) = (x + y z; x y + z). Tm ma trn
ca f trong cp c s:
1 2 3
{ (1;1;0), (0;1;1), (1; 0;1)} B u u u = = = =
v
/ /
1 2
{ (2;1), (1;1)} B u u = = = .

c) Thut ton tm ma trn ca AXTT
Cho AXTT :
n m
f v hai c s ln lt l
B
1
= {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} v B
2
= {v
1
, v
2
,, v
m
}.

K hiu:
[ ][ ] [ ] ( )
1 2
...
m
S v v v = (ma trn ct cc vector ca B
2
),
[ ][ ] [ ] ( )
1 2
( ) ( ) ... ( )
n
Q f u f u f u = .

Dng PBSC dng a ma trn
( ) [ ]
( )
2
1
B
B
S Q I f .
VD 7. Tm li cc ma trn f trong VD 4 v VD 6.



ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 10
5. CHO HA MA TRN

5.1. Gi tr ring, vector ring ca PBTT
a) nh ngha
Cho PBTT :
n n
f c ma trn trong c s
B = {u
1
, u
2
,, u
n
} l A.

S c gi l gi tr ring ca A (hay f) nu:
, :
n
x x Ax x = .

Vector x c gi l vector ring ca A (hay f) ng vi
gi tr ring .
a thc P
A
() = det(A I) c gi l a thc c trng
ca A (hay f) v l nghim ca pt c trng P
A
() = 0.
Cch tm gi tr ring v vector ring:

Bc 1. Gii phng trnh c trng 0 A I = tm
gi tr ring .

Bc 2. Gii h phng trnh ( ) A I x = , nghim
khng tm thng l vector ring.
VD 1. Cho
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.
Tm gi tr ring v vector ring ca A.


VD 2. Cho
1 3 3
3 5 3
3 3 1
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.
Tm gi tr ring v vector ring ca B.

b) Tnh cht
Cc vector ring ng vi gi tr ring cng vi vector
khng to thnh 1 khng gian vector con ring E() ca
n
.
Cc vector ring ng vi gi tr ring khc nhau th c
lp tuyn tnh.
5.2. Cho ha ma trn

a) nh ngha

Cho PBTT :
n n
f , nu c mt c s sao cho ma
trn ca f l ma trn ng cho th ta ni f cho ha c.

Ma trn vung A l cho ha c nu n ng dng vi
ma trn ng cho D, ngha l P
1
AP = D.
Khi , ta ni P lm cho ha A.



VD 3. Cho
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
, xt ma trn:

1
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
P P

| | | |
| |
= =
| |
| |

\ \
.
Khi :
1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
P AP A P P

| | | |
| |
= =
| |
| |
\ \
.
b) iu kin cho ha c
nh l
Nu A c n gi tr ring i phn bit th A cho ha c.
A cho ha c khi v ch khi A c n gi tr ring k c
bi v s chiu ca tt c khng gian con ring bng s bi
ca gi tr ring tng ng.

c) Thut ton cho ha ma trn
Bc 1. Gii phng trnh c trng tm cc gi tr
ring ca A.
1) Nu A khng c gi tr ring no th A khng cho
ha c.



2) Gi s A c k gi tr ring phn bit
1
,
2
,,
k
vi s
bi tng ng n
1
, n
2
,, n
k
. Khi :
a) n
1
+ n
2
++ n
k
< n th A khng cho ha c.
b) n
1
+ n
2
++ n
k
= n th ta lm tip bc 2.

Bc 2. Vi mi
i
tnh r(A
i
I) = r
i
.
Khi dimE(
i
) = n r
i
.
1) Nu c mt
i
m dimE(
i
) < n
i
th A khng cho ha
c.
2) Nu dimE(
i
) = n
i
vi mi
i
th kt lun A cho ha
c. Ta lm tip bc 3.
Bc 3. Lp ma trn P c cc ct l cc vector c s ca
E(
i
). Khi , P
1
AP = D vi D l ma trn ng cho c
cc phn t trn ng cho chnh ln lt l
i
(xut hin
lin tip n
i
ln).
VD 4. Cho ha cc ma trn:
3 0
8 1
A
| |
=
|

\
,
1 0
6 1
B
| |
=
|

\
.
VD 5. Cho ha cc ma trn :
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
A
| |
|
=
|
|
\
,
1 3 3
3 5 3
3 3 1
B
| |
|
=
|
|
\
.









ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 11
Chng 3. DNG TON PHNG

1. KHI NIM DNG TON PHNG
1.1. Dng ton phng tng qut

nh ngha
Hm s n bin s x = (x
1
, x
2
,, x
n
)
:
n
Q cho bi biu thc
[ ] [ ]
1 1
( )
n n
T
ij i j
i j
Q x x A x a x x
= =
= =

(A l ma trn i xng)
c gi l dng ton phng trong
n
.

Ma trn A v r(A) c gi l ma trn v hng ca dng
ton phng Q.


VD 1. Tm dng ton phng Q(x) hai bin x
1
, x
2
.
Bit ma trn ca Q(x) l
1 1
1 2
A

| |
=
|

\
.


VD 2. Cho dng ton phng 3 bin
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3
( ) 2 3 6 Q x x x x x x x x = + + .
Tm ma trn A.



1.2. Dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng
nh ngha
Dng chnh tc l dng ton phng trong
n
ch cha
bnh phng ca cc bin
2
1
( )
n
ii i
i
Q x a x
=
=

.
Ma trn A ca dng chnh tc l ma trn ng cho.
VD 3. Tm dng chnh tc Q(x) hai bin x
1
, x
2
.
Bit ma trn ca Q(x) l
1 0
0 2
A
| |
=
|

\
.
VD 4. Cho dng chnh tc 3 bin
2 2 2
1 2 3
( ) 5 3 Q x x x x = .
Tm ma trn A.
1.3. Dng ton phng xc nh du

a) nh ngha
Dng ton phng Q(x) l xc nh dng nu:
( ) 0, ( )
n
Q x x x > .
Dng ton phng Q(x) l xc nh m nu:
( ) 0, ( )
n
Q x x x < .
Dng ton phng Q(x) l na xc nh dng (m) nu:
( ) 0, ( ( ) 0, )
n n
Q x x Q x x .
Dng ton phng Q(x) l khng xc nh nu n nhn c
gi tr dng ln m.


b) cc tiu chun xc nh du

nh l 1

Dng ton phng Q(x) ca
n
xc nh dng khi v
ch khi tt c cc h s dng chnh tc ca n u dng.

Dng ton phng Q(x) ca
n
xc nh m khi v ch
khi tt c cc h s dng chnh tc ca n u m.
nh l 2 (Sylvester)

Cho ma trn vung cp n
( )
ij
n
A a = . nh thc:
11 1
1
...
... ... ...
...
k
k
k kk
a a
D
a a
= (1 ) k n c gi l nh thc con
chnh ca A (A c n nh thc con chnh).
Dng ton phng Q(x) ca
n
xc nh dng khi v
ch khi tt c cc nh thc con chnh D
k
> 0.
Dng ton phng Q(x) ca
n
xc nh m khi v ch
khi cc nh thc con chnh cp chn dng, cp l m.


2. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC
Phng php chung
i bin
n
x bng bin
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1
:
n
y x P y y P x

= =
(P l ma trn vung khng suy bin, det 0 P ) sao cho
D = P
T
AP c dng cho. Khi :
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ( )
T T
Q x x A x y D y = = (dng chnh tc theo bin y).

2.1. Thut ton Lagrange
Cho dng ton phng
2
1 1 1 1
( ) 2
n n n
ij i j ii i ij i j
i j i i j n
Q x a x x a x a x x
= = = <
= = +

(a
ij
= a
ji
).

a) Trng hp 1 (c 1 h s a
ii
0)
Bc 1. Gi s
11
0 a , ta tch tt c cc s hng cha x
1

trong Q(x) v thm (bt) c dng:
( )
2
11 1 12 2 1 1 2 3
11
1
( ) ... ( , ,..., )
n n n
Q x a x a x a x Q x x x
a
= + + + + ,
1 2 3
( , ,..., )
n
Q x x x c n 1 bin.
i bin
1 11 1 12 2 1
...
n n
y a x a x a x = + + + ,
( )
2,
i i
y x i n = = .
i bin ngc ( )
1 1 12 2 1
11
1
...
n n
x y a y a y
a
= ,

( )
2,
i i
x y i n = = .
Vi bin mi th
2
1 1 2
11
1
( ) ( ,..., )
n
Q y y Q y y
a
= + .


ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 12


Bc 2. Tip tc lm nh bc 1 cho Q
1
(y
2
,, y
n
), sau 1
s hu hn bc th Q(x) c dng chnh tc.
b) Trng hp 2 (cc h s a
ii
= 0)
Gi s
12
0 a , ta i bin
1 1 2
2 1 2
( 3,..., )
i i
x y y
x y y
x y i n
= +

= =

. Khi ,
2 2
12 1 12 2
2 2 ... Q a y a y = + c h s ca
2
1
y l
12
0 a .
Tr li trng hp 1.
VD 1. a dng ton phng
2 2
2 3 1 2 1 3
4 2 4 Q x x x x x x = + + + v dng chnh tc. Tm P.
VD 2. a dng ton phng
1 2 1 3 2 3
2 2 6 Q x x x x x x = + v
dng chnh tc. Tm P.
2.2. Thut ton Jacobi
Cho dng ton phng ( ) Q x c ma trn
( )
ij
n
A a = tha
0, 1,
k
D k n . Vi j > i, ta t D
j1,i
l nh thc ca ma
trn c cc phn t nm trn giao ca cc dng 1, 2,, j1
v cc ct 1, 2, , i1, i+1,, j (b ct i) ca A.

i bin theo cng thc:
1 1 21 2 31 3 41 4 1
2 2 32 3 42 4 2
...
...
............................................................

n n
n n
n n
x y b y b y b y b y
x y b y b y b y
x y
= + + + + +

= + + + +

,


vi
1,
1
( 1)
j i i j
ji
j
D
b
D
+

= .

Khi ,
2 2 2 2 3 2
1 1 2 3
1 2 1
...
n
n
n
D D D
Q D y y y y
D D D

= + + + + .

VD 3. a dng ton phng
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 1 3
2 3 4 Q x x x x x x x = + + + + v dng chnh tc. Tm P.

2.3. Thut ton cho ha trc giao

a) nh ngha
Ma trn vung P c gi l ma trn trc giao nu:
P
T
= P
1
hay P
T
P = I
n
.
Nu c ma trn trc giao P lm cho ha ma trn A th ta
gi P cho ha trc giao ma trn A.

Ch
Nu
( )
ij
n
P a = l ma trn trc giao th :
2
1
1
n
ij
i
a
=
=

(tng bnh phng ct).

b) nh l
Mi dng ton phng Q(x) ca
n
u a c v
dng chnh tc
2 2 2
1 1 2 2
...
n n
Q y y y = + + + bng php i
bin [x] = P[y], vi P l ma trn lm cho ha trc giao A
v cc
i
l cc gi tr ring ca A.

c) Thut ton
Bc 1.
Tm cc gi tr ring
i
v vector ring
i
u (i = 1,,n).
Bc 2. Trc chun ha u
i
nh sau:
1) t

1 1
v u = ,
2 1
2 2 1
1 1
u v
v u v
v v
= ,


3 1 3 2
3 3 1 2
1 1 2 2
u v u v
v u v v
v v v v
= ,
(k hiu u v l tch v hng ca u v v).
2) Chun ha
i
i
i
v
w
v
= , vi
i
v l di vector v
i
.
Bc 3.
Ma trn P = ([w
1
] [w
2
] [w
n
]).

VD 4. a dng ton phng
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 1 3 2 3
6 6 5 4 2 2 Q x x x x x x x x x = + + v dng chnh
tc. Tm P. Cho bit A c
1 1
3, (1;1;1); u = =
2 2 3 3
6, ( 1; 1; 2); 8, ( 1;1;0) u u = = = = .

3. RT GN QUADRIC
2.4. Thut ton bin i s cp ma trn i xng
Bc 1. Bin i s cp dng
( )
A I v ng thi lp li
cc bin i cng kiu trn cc ct ca
( )
A I a A v
dng cho. Khi , I s tr thnh P
T
v
1
2
0 ... 0
0 ... 0
... ... ... ...
0 0 0
T
n
P AP

| |
|
|
=
|
|
\
.
Bc 2. i bin [x] = P[y] ta c
2 2 2
1 1 2 2
...
n n
Q y y y = + + + .
VD 5. a dng ton phng
1 2 1 3 2 3
2 4 6 Q x x x x x x = + v
dng chnh tc. Tm P.
3.1. ng bc hai trn mt phng ta Oxy
a) nh ngha
Trn mpOxy, ng bc hai l tp hp tt c cc im
M(x; y) c ta tha phng trnh:
Ax
2
+ 2Bxy + Cy
2
+ 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0 (1).
Trong , A
2
+ B
2
+ C
2
> 0.
Cc dng chnh tc ca ng bc hai:
1)
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = (ng elip);
2)
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
= (ng hyperbol);
3)
2
2 y px = (parabol);
4)
2 2
0 x y = (cp ng thng ct nhau);
ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 13


5)
2
y a = , a > 0 (cp ng thng song song);
6)
2
0 y = (cp ng thng trng nhau).
Cc ng bc hai c phng trnh dng 1), 2) v 3) c
gi l khng suy bin.

b) Nhn bit cc ng Conic
Cho (C) l ng bc hai c phng trnh (1).
t
A B D
Q B C E
D E F
| |
|
=
|
|
\
, khi :
(C) khng suy bin
( )
det 0 3 Q r Q = .
Cho (C) l ng bc hai khng suy bin (Conic) c
phng trnh (1).
t
A B
Q
B C
| |
=
|
\
, khi :
1) (C) l ng elip det 0 Q > ;
2) (C) l ng hyperbol det 0 Q < ;
3) (C) l ng parabol det 0 Q = ;
4) (C) l ng trn 0, 0 A C B = = .
c) Phng php lp phng trnh chnh tc ca ng
bc hai
Gi s ng bc hai (C) c phng trnh (1) trong Oxy.
Xt dng ton phng: Q(x, y) = Ax
2
+ 2Bxy + Cy
2

xc nh bi phn ng cp trong (1).


Bc 1. Chnh tc ha trc giao Q(x, y) nh php quay
thch hp trong h ta ang xt.
Bc 2. Tnh tin h ta mt cch thch hp phng
trnh (C) c dng chnh tc.
VD 1. Xc nh dng ca ng bc hai
(C): x
2
4xy + 4y
2
+ 4x 3y 7 = 0.
Ta c
( )
1 2 2
2 4 3/ 2 3
3/ 2 7
Q r Q
E
| |
|
= =
|
|

\

(C) khng suy bin.

1 2
det 0
2 4
Q Q

| |
= =
|

\
(C) l ng parabol.
VD 2. Lp phng trnh chnh tc ca
(C): 5x
2
+ 4xy + 8y
2
32x 56y + 80 = 0 trong Oxy.
Gii. Xt dng ton phng Q(x, y) = 5x
2
+ 4xy + 8y
2
.
Ta c
5 2
2 8
Q
| |
=
|
\

1 2
5 5
2 1
5 5
P
| |

|
|
=
|
|
\
l ma trn trc giao cho ha Q.
Quay quanh O mt gc sao cho
cos sin
sin cos
P


| |
=
|

\
,


ngha l ta i ta :
1 2
5 5
2 1
5 5
x x y
y x y

= +

.
Khi , (C) c phng trnh:
2 2
144 8
9 4 80 0
5 5
x y x y + + + =
2 2
8 1
9 4 36
5 5
x y
| | | |
+ + =
| |
\ \



2 2
8 1
5 5
1
4 9
x y
| | | |
+
| |
\ \
+ = .
Dng php tnh tin h ta :
8
5
1
5
X x
Y y

= +

th
2 2
( ) : 1
4 9
X Y
C + = (elip).



3.2. Mt bc hai trong khng gian ta Oxyz
a) nh ngha
Trong khng gian Oxyz, mt bc hai l tp hp tt c cc
im M(x; y; z) c ta tha phng trnh:
Ax
2
+ 2Bxy + 2Cxz + Dy
2
+ 2Eyz + Fz
2
+ 2Gx + 2Hy +
2Kz + L = 0(2).
Trong A, B, C, D, E, F khng ng thi bng 0.
Cc dng chnh tc ca mt bc hai:
1)
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
x y z
a b c
+ + = (mt elipxoit);
2)
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
x y z
a b c
+ = (hyperboloit 1 tng);
3)
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
x y z
a b c
+ = (hyperboloit 2 tng);

4)
2 2 2
2 2 2
0
x y z
a b c
+ = (nn eliptic);
5)
2 2
2 2
2
x y
z
a b
+ = (parabolit eliptic);
6)
2 2
2 2
2
x y
z
a b
= (parabolit hyperbolic yn nga);
7)
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ = (mt tr eliptic);
8)
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
= (mt tr hyperbolic);
9)
2
2 y px = (mt tr parabolic).


ThS. on Vng Nguyn Slide bi ging Ton A2H
Trang 14



b) Nhn bit cc mt bc hai
Cho (S) l mt bc hai c phng trnh (2).
t
A B C
Q B D E
C E F
| |
|
=
|
|
\
v
A B C G
B D E H
Q
C E F K
G H K L
| |
|
|
=
|
|
\
, ta c:
(S) khng suy bin
( )
det 0 4 Q r Q = . Khi :
1) (S) l mt elipxoit Q xc nh dng hoc xc nh
m.
2) (S) l mt parabolic det 0 Q = .
VD 3. Xc nh dng ca mt bc hai sau y ri lp
phng trnh chnh tc (S):
22x
2
+ 8xy + 28y
2
+ 15z
2
112x 184y 30z + 343 = 0.
Gii.
Ta c
22 4 0
4 28 0
0 0 15
Q
| |
|
=
|
|
\
v
22 4 0 56
4 28 0 92
0 0 15 15
56 92 15 343
Q
| |
|

|
=
|
|

\
.
Do
( )
4 r Q = nn (S) khng suy bin.

Theo nh l Sylvester, Q c
D
1
= 22 > 0; D
2
= 600 > 0; D
3
= 9000 > 0 nn Q xc nh
dng. Vy (S) l mt elipxoit.


Ta c:
1 2
0
5 5
22 4 0
2 1
4 28 0 0
5 5
0 0 15
0 0 1
Q P
| |

|
| | |
| |
= =
| |
|
|
\
|
|
\
l ma
trn trc giao cho ha Q.
i ta :
1 2
5 5
2 1
5 5
x x y
y x y
z z

= +

.
Khi , (S) c phng trnh:

2 2 2
480 40
30 20 15 30 343 0
5 5
x y z x y z + + + =
( )
2 2
2
8 1
1
5 5
1
2 3 4
x y
z
| | | |

| |

\ \
+ + = .
Dng php tnh tin h ta :
8
5
1
5
1
X x
Y y
Z z

th
2 2 2
( ) : 1
2 3 4
X Y Z
S + + = (mt elipxoit).


Ht.