SHEET METAL DESIGN

Contents
1 2 3 4 Introduction Metals used in Sheet Metal Working Gauges Sheet Metal Forming Processes Piercing Blanking Fine Blanking Punching Trimming Nibbling Notching Drawing Spinning Bending Embossing Coining Comparison to other forming processes Die Manufacturing Progressive die with scrap strip and stamping Die operations and types Design calculations For Blanking and Piercing Draw Die Designing Bending Design Punching Design Die Construction Workshop Practice Safety Guide for Sheet Metal Workers

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

4.10 4.11 4.12 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Introduction 1. Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of

the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. 2. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses

are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. 3. Sheet metal is available as flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are

formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.

4.

The thickness of the sheet metal is called its gauge. The gauge of sheet

metal ranges from 30 gauge to about 8 gauge. The higher the gauge, the thinner the metal is. 5. There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such

as: Aluminium, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. Sheet metal has applications in car bodies, airplane wings, medical tables, roofs for building and many other things. 6. Sheet metal working involves manufacturing articles from sheet metal or thin sheets, which may be of black iron, galvanized iron, copper or stainless steel. 7. The articles made of sheet metals are lighter in weight, and are less expensive. With properly designed shapes and structures, sheet metal articles are replacing castings and forgings in several engineering applications. 8. Besides the articles such as funnels, hoppers, cans, pipes, elbows and boxes, sheet metal products are used for the purpose of covering machines and other structures in the form of safety guards or facade of attractive shapes. 9. Since sheet metal working involves forming shapes from flat metal sheets, the development and drawing of shape of the article in actual size on the sheet metal is the most important and prime operation of the work. The

knowledge of geometry, mensuration and properties of metals is therefore most essential. Nearly all patterns of articles come from the development of the surfaces of few geometrical models like cylinder, prism, cone and pyramid. A properly drawn pattern on the sheet metal saves time and money because if the pattern (or development of surface of the article) is wrong, then the blank cut from the sheet would just result into wastage of material, time and labour besides delay in production. 10. The sheet metal working also involves knowledge of various operations of joining metals like mechanical jointing or soldering and brazing etc. Metals used in Sheet Metal Working 1. A large variety of metals in the form of sheets and plates used in sheet metal working include black iron, galvanized iron, copper, brass, tin, aluminum, lead and zinc. 2. The metal sheets are designated either in terms of gauge numbers (such as Imperial or Legal Standard Wire gauge) or thickness in millimetres (along with width and length) given in standard metal reference tables. 3. The thickness of sheets vary inversely as their gauge number, higher the gauge number, smaller the thickness and vice-versa. For example, for gauge no. 20, thickness is 0.914 mm, for gauge number 10, the equivalent sheet thickness is 3.251 mm, for gauge no. 3, it is 6.401 mm, etc.

4. Cold rolled sheets (annealed) are usually available in thickness 0.8 mm to

3.25 mm, width 1000 mm and length 2000 mm.

5. Black Iron Sheet or uncoated sheet is the cheapest material used for sheet
metal work. Since these sheets carry no protection coatings on their surfaces, these are likely to corrode quickly. These are, therefore, used for marking those articles, which are later enameled or painted before use. Articles like pans, tanks, cabinet works, almirahs and furnitures are commonly made from black iron sheets.

6. Galvanized Iron Sheets or G.I. sheets are soft iron sheets carrying zinc
coating on their surface to resist corrosion and to add to the aesthetic of the sheet. Zinc coating in varying thickness is given according to the

severity of corrosive atmosphere to which the sheet metal product is likely to be subjected. Special care is, however, required in welding or brazing these sheets to avoid excessive damaging of the coating. G.I. sheets are used for making articles such as trunks, storage tanks for food grains, buckets and other containers for water storage, pans, roofing sheets etc.

7. Copper Sheets find application in making radiators of automobile engines,

heating appliances, equipment for chemical plants etc. These sheets are costlier than aforesaid black iron sheets and G.I. sheets but these have better resistance to corrosion. These can be easily worked upon, being highly ductile and soft. Brass Sheets are used for making variety of articles through cold working processes like pressing, drawing and spinning. These are often used for making kitchenwares and utensils. 8. Tin Sheets are the tin coated iron sheets and hence have silvery appearance. These offer good resistance against rusting and atmospheric corrosion. Articles made from tin sheets find application in food industry for making containers for edible oils and ghee, cans, and dairy equipment etc.

Gauge
The sheet metal gauge (sometimes spelled "gage") indicates the standard thickness of sheet metal for a specific material. As the gauge number increases, the material thickness decreases. Sheet metal thickness gauges for steel are based on a weight of 41.82 pounds per square foot per inch of thickness. This is known as the Manufacturers' Standard Gage for Sheet Steel. For other materials, such as aluminium and brass, the thicknesses will be different. Thus, a 10 gauge steel sheet which has a thickness of 0.1345 inches will weigh 41.82*0.1345 = 5.625 pounds per square foot. Examples: 16 ga CRS is 2.5 pounds per square foot. For 18 ga CRS the weight is 2.0 pounds per square foot and for 20 ga CRS the weight is 1.5 pounds per square foot.

Standard sheet metal gauges Gaug Steel e 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 0.2391 (6.0731) 0.2242 (5.6947) 0.2092 (5.3137) 0.1943 (4.9352) 0.1793 (4.5542) 0.1644 (4.1758) 0.1495 (3.7973) 0.1345 (3.4163) 0.1196 (3.0378) 0.1046 (2.6568) 0.0897 (2.2784) 0.0747 (1.8974) 0.0673 (1.7094) 0.0598 (1.5189) 0.0538 (1.3665) 0.0478 (1.2141) 0.0418 (1.0617) 0.0359 (0.9119) 0.0329 (0.8357) 0.0299 (0.7595) 0.0269 (0.6833) 0.0239 (0.6071) 0.0209 (0.5309) 0.0179 (0.4547) 0.0164 (0.4166) 0.0149 (0.3785) 0.0135 (0.3429) 0.0120 (0.3048) 0.0105 (0.3200) 0.0097 (0.2464) 0.0090 (0.2286) 0.0082 (0.2083) 0.0075 (0.1905) 0.0067 (0.1702) 0.0064 (0.1626) 0.0060 (0.1524)

Galvanized steel 0.1681 0.1532 0.1382 0.1233 0.1084 0.0934 0.0785 0.0710 0.0635 0.0575 0.0516 0.0456 0.0396 0.0366 0.0336 0.0306 0.0276 0.0247 0.0217 0.0202 0.0187 0.0172 0.0157 0.0142 -

Stainless steel 0.1875 0.1719 0.1563 0.1406 0.1250 0.1094 0.094 0.0781 0.07 0.0625 0.056 0.0500 0.044 0.0375 0.034 0.031 0.028 0.025 0.022 0.019 0.017 0.016 0.014 0.013 0.011 -

Aluminum 0.1443 0.1285 0.1144 0.1019 0.0907 0.0808 0.072 0.0641 0.057 0.0508 0.045 0.0403 0.036 0.0320 0.028 0.025 0.023 0.02 0.018 0.017 0.014 0.0126 0.0113 0.0100 0.0089 -

Zinc 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.100 0.125 -

SHEET METAL FORMING

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

PROCESSES PIERCING

1.

Piercing is a shearing process where a punch and die are used to create

a hole in sheet metal or a plate.

2.

The process and machinery are usually the same as that used in

blanking, except that the piece being punched out is scrap in the piercing process. 3. There are many specialized types of piercing: lancing, perforating,

notching, nibbling, shaving, cutoff, and dinking. 4. The amount of clearance between a punch and die for piercing is

governed by the thickness and strength of the work-piece material being pierced. 5. The punch-die clearance determines the load or pressure experienced at

the cutting edge of the tool, commonly known as point pressure. 6. Excessive point pressure can lead to accelerated wear and ultimately

failure. 7. Burr height is typically used as an index to measure tool wear, because it

is easy to measure during production

BLANKING
1. A blanking die produces a flat piece of material by cutting the desired

shape in one operation. 2. 3. The finish part is referred to as a blank. Generally a blanking die may only cut the outside contour of a part, often

used for parts with no internal features.

Three benefits to die blanking are:

1.

Accuracy: A properly sharpened die, with the correct amount of

clearance between the punch and die, will produce a part that holds close dimensional tolerances in relationship to the parts edges.

2.

Appearance: Since the part is blanked in one operation, the finish edges

of the part produces a uniform appearance as opposed to varying degrees of burnishing from multiple die cutting operations.

3.

Flatness: Due to the even compression of the blanking process, the end

result is a flat part that may retain a specific level of flatness for additional manufacturing operations. FINE BLANKING

1. 2.

Fine blanking is a fully automated precision metalworking process. It is a form of precision metal stamping in which extremely tight

tolerances can be held, and usually additional machining steps can be avoided post-production.

3.

Materials that can be fine blanked include carbon steels, alloy and

stainless steels, as well as soft non ferrous alloys like aluminum, brass or copper.

Typical fine blanking press cross section

Fine blanking presses are similar to other metal stamping presses, but they have a few critical additional parts. A typical compound fine blanking press includes a hardened die punch (male), the hardened blanking die (female), and a guide plate of similar shape/size to the blanking die. The guide plate is the

first applied to the material, impinging the material with a sharp protrusion or stinger around the perimeter of the die opening. Next a counter pressure is applied opposite the punch, and finally the die punch forces the material through the die opening. Since the guide plate holds the material so tightly, and since the counter pressure is applied, the material is cut in a manner more like extrusion than typical punching. Mechanical properties of the cut benefit similarly with a hardened layer at the cut edge from the cold working of the part. Because the material is so tightly held and controlled in this setup, part flatness remains very true, distortion is nearly eliminated, and edge burr is minimal. Clearances between the die and punch are generally around 1% of the cut material thickness, which typically varies between .5-13mm. Currently parts as thick as 19mm can be cut using fine blanking. Tolerances between .0003"-.002" are possible based on material thickness & tensile strength, and part layout. With standard compound fine blanking processes, multiple parts can often be completed in a single operation. Parts can be pierced, partially pierced, offset (up to 75), embossed, or coined, often in a single operation. Some combinations may require progressive fine blanking operations, in which multiple operations are performed at the same pressing station however.

Advantages
excellent dimensional control, accuracy, and repeatability through a excellent part flatness is retained. straight, superior finished edges to other metal stamping processes. smaller holes possible relative to thickness of material[6]. little need to machine details. multiple features can be added simultaneously in 1 operation[7]. more economical for large production runs than traditional operations production run.

when additional machining cost and time are factored in (between 1000-20000 parts minimum, depending on secondary machining operations).

Disadvantages

slightly higher tooling cost when compared to traditional punching

operations. slightly slower than traditional punching operations.

Broaching Broaching is the process of removing material through the use of multiple cutting teeth, with each tooth cutting behind the other. A broaching die is often used to remove material from parts that are too thick for shaving. Bulging A bulging die expands the closed end of tube through the use of two types of bulging dies. Similar to the way a chefs hat bulges out at the top from the cylindrical band around the chefs head. Bulging fluid dies: Uses water or oil as a vehicle to expand the part. Bulging rubber dies: Uses a rubber pad or block under pressure to move the wall of a workpiece.

PUNCHING
1.

Punching in metal fabrication is the process of using a machine to press a

shape through a sheet of metal and into a die to create the desired shape in the metal.
2.

This is most commonly done by use of a turret, a computer numerical

controlled machine that houses tools and their corresponding dies in a revolving indexed turret. These machines use hydraulic, pneumatic, or electrical power to press the shape with enough force to shear the metal. 3. The shape is formed by pressing the material against a die with a huge force. The shear forces generated between the material and die separate the material into the desired shape. 4. The desired shape is not obtained, however, as burred edges and rough surfaces are formed. These edges and surfaces must be further processed until the desired shape is achieved. 5. The punch force required to punch a piece of sheet metal can be

estimated from the following equation:

F = 0.7tL(UTS)[citation needed] Where t is the sheet metal thickness, L is the total length sheared (perimeter of shape), and UTS is the ultimate tensile strength of the material. 6. Die and punch shapes affect the punching process. The punch force

increases during the process as the entire thickness of the material is sheared at once.

7.

A beveled punch helps in the shearing of thicker materials. Beveling

reduces the force at the beginning of the stroke. However, beveling a punch will disort the punched shape because of lateral forces that develop. 8. Compound dies allow multiple shaping to occur. Using compound dies

will generally slow down the process and are typically more expensive than other dies. 9. Progressive dies may be used in high production operations. Different

punching operations and dies are used at different stages of the operation on the same machine. 10. Other processes such as stamping, blanking, perforating, parting,

drawing, notching, lancing and bending operations are all related to punching.

11. A punch press is a type of machine press used for forming and cutting
material.

12. The punch press can be small and manually operated and hold one
simple Die set, or be very large, CNC operated, and hold a much larger and complex die set.

13. A Die set consists of a set of (male) punches and (female) dies which,
when pressed together, may form a hole in a workpiece or may deform the workpiece in some desired manner. 14. The punches and dies are removable with the punch being temporarily

attached to the end of a ram during the punching process. The ram moves up and down in a vertically linear motion.

15. Commonly machines are large metal framed equipment having two types
of machine frames. A C type frame or a 'portal' type frame.

16. The C type commonly has the hydraulic ram at the top foremost part to
enable the punching process to be carried out, whereas the portal frame is much akin to a complete circle with the ram being centred within the frame to stop frame deflection or distortion. 17. All punch press machines have a table or bed with brushes or rollers

mounted in the tables to allow the sheet metal workpiece to traverse with low friction. Brushes are commonly used in production environments where minimal scratching to the workpiece is required, such as brushed aluminium or high polished materials. 18. The main bed of most machines is called the 'Y' Axis with the 'X' Axis

being at right angles to that and allowed to traverse under CNC control. Dependent on the size of the machine, the beds and the sheet metal workpiece weight, then the motors required to move these axis tables can vary in size and power. Older styles of machines used DC motors to move, however with advances in technology, today's machine mostly use AC brush less motors for drives. 19. The process of operation begins with the CNC controller commanding the

drives to move a particular axis to a desired position.

20. Once in position, the control initiates the punching sequence and pushes
the ram to Bottom Dead Centre and returns it to Top Dead Centre. The Origins of BDC and TDC go back to older machines where this was a pitman type press with a Pneumatic or Hydraulic operated clutch system.

21. On today's machines BDC/TDC does not actually exist but is commonly
used as a term to derive the top and bottom of a stroke of the ram. The Punch enters the Sheet metal, and pushes it through the die, obtaining the required shape of the punch and die set. This will form a slug of metal that is collected underneath the die and ejected to a scrap container. The whole punching process on modern machines is extremely fast compared to older pitman style machines and thus gives rise to increased production volumes.

22.

The sequence takes approximately 0.5 milli seconds to complete

( variant from machine to machine and manufacturer)and signals to the control the next movement command allowed after the ram has reached the top of its stroke. 23. As a metal forming process, the punch press is used for the highest

volume production. Cycle times are often measured in sheet yield as a percentage of waste to parts required ratios per sheet processed. 24. As most programming is done by skilled CAD/CAM operators parts within

the sheet workpiece are commonly nested. Machine setters are mostly used to set up tooling and programming but thereafter once the machine is running an operator of low skill can oversee its continued operation. Often one operator will monitor several punch presses simultaneously making this one of the lowest cost metal manufacturing processes. 25. Punch presses are usually referred to by their tonnage. In a production

environment a 20 ton press is mostly the prevalent machine used today. The tonnage needed to cut and form the material is well known so sizing tooling for a specific job is a fairly straightforward task. 26. Most punch presses today are hydraulically powered, however there

remains a legacy of older machines which are mechanically driven rams, meaning the power to the ram is provided by a heavy, constantly-rotating flywheel. The flywheel drives the ram using a Pitman arm. In the 19th century, the flywheels were powered by leather drive belts attached to line shafting, which in turn ran to a steam plant. In the modern workplace, the flywheel is powered by a large electric motor. 27. Mechanical punch presses fall into two distinct types, depending on the

type of clutch or braking system with which they are equipped. Generally older presses are "full revolution" presses that require a full revolution of the flywheel for them to come to a stop. This is because the braking mechanism depends on a set of raised keys or "dogs" to fall into matching slots to stop the flywheel. A full revolution clutch can only bring the flywheel to a stop at the same location- top dead center. Newer presses are often "part revolution" presses equipped with braking systems identical to the brakes on commercial trucks. When air is applied, a band-type brake expands and allows the flywheel

to revolve. When the stopping mechanism is applied the air is bled, causing the clutch or braking system to close, stopping the flywheel in any part of its rotation. 28. Hydraulic punch presses, which power the ram with a hydraulic cylinder

rather than a flywheel, and are either valve controlled or valve and feedback controlled. Valve controlled machines usually allow a one stroke operation allowing the ram to stroke up and down when commanded. 29. Controlled feedback systems allow the ram to be proportionally

controlled to within fixed points as commanded. This allows greater control over the stroke of the ram, and increases punching rates as the ram no longer has to complete the traditional full stroke up and down but can operate within a very short window of stroke.

Trimming & Shaving: 1. 2.

Trimming dies cut away excess or unwanted irregular features from a

part, they are usually the last Shaving: The shaving operation removes a small amount of material from the

edges of the part to improve the edges finish or part accuracy operation performed. 3. The shaving process is a finish operation where a small amount of metal

is sheared away from an already blanked part. Its main purpose is to obtain better dimensional accuracy, but secondary purposes include squaring the edge and smoothing the edge. 4. Blanked parts can be shaved to an accuracy of up to 0.025 mm (0.001 in)

Nibbling:
The nibbling process cuts a contour by producing a series of overlapping slits or notches.

This allows for complex shapes to be formed in sheet metal up to 6 mm (0.25 in) thick using simple tools. The process is often used on parts that do not have quantities that can justify a dedicated blanking die. The edge smoothness is determined by the shape of the cutting die and the amount the cuts overlap; naturally the more the cuts overlap the cleaner the edge.

Notching
The notching process removes material from the edge of the workpiece. A notching machine is shown in the below fig.

The machine shown above will create 90 degree notches in sheet metal. This makes it possible to create profiles that can then be bent into three dimensional shapes (like boxes). Lay the work on the table. The guides can be used to help orient the part as desired. Pulling on the actuating lever will cut a notch in the work.

Drawing:
1. The drawing operation is very similar to the forming operation except

that the drawing operation undergoes severe plastic deformation and the material of the part extends around the sides.

2.

A metal cup with a detailed feature at the bottom is an example of the

difference between formed and drawn. The bottom of the cup was formed while the sides were drawn.

Spinning
1.

Spinning is used to make axis-symmetric parts by applying a work piece Spinning is used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, and

to a rotating mandrel with the help of rollers or rigid tools. 2. satellite dishes, for example.

3.

Metal spinning, or spin forming, is a metal working process by which a

disc or tube of metal is rotated at high speed and formed into an axially symmetric part using tools.

4.

Metal spinning is often performed by hand to produce decorative items,

or using machine tools, such as CNC lathe, when tight tolerances are required. Metal may be formed into a die to shape the outside diameter or onto a mandrel to size the inner diameter.

5.

Metal spinning ranges from an artisan's specialty to the most

advantageous way to form round metal parts for commercial applications. Artisans use the process to produce architectural detail, specialty lighting, decorative household goods and urns. Commercial applications include rocket nose cones, cookware, gas cylinders, brass instrument bells, and public waste receptacles.

6.

Virtually any ductile metal may be formed, from aluminum or stainless

steel, to high-strength, high-temperature alloys. The diameter and depth of formed parts are limited only by the size of the equipment available. Metal spinning by hand
1.

Metal Spinning is a process by which circles of metal are shaped over

mandrels (also called forms) while mounted on a spinning lathe by the application of levered force with various tools. 2. It is performed rotating at high speeds on a manual spinning lathe.

3.

The flat metal disc is spun against the mandrel and a series of sweeping

motions then evenly transforms the disc around the mandrel into the desired shape. It takes a very skilled workman to correctly shape and finish a hand spun piece. Safety considerations When spinning metal by hand, care must be taken to not touch the spinning metal with one's hands until the metal edge has been "turned over" (rolled to a rounded edge so that the bare edge of the metal stock is protected). This is mentioned specifically because wood turners are accustomed to touching the spinning wood in the lathes (once it reaches relative smoothness) to monitor their progress. This practice is very dangerous in metal spinning. Lexan/Clear plastic lathe shields and guards are recommended.

Metal spinning tools

The basic hand metal spinning tool is called a Spoon , though many other tools (be they commercially produced, ad hoc, or improvised) can be used to effect varied results. Spinning tools can be made of hardened steel for using with aluminium or solid brass for spinning stainless steel/mild steel.

Mandrels The mandrel/chuck can be made from wood, steel alloys, or synthetic materials. The choice of material is dictated by the hardness of the material to be spun and by how many times the tool is expected to be used.

Cut-off tools Cutting of the metal is done by hand held cutters, often foot long hollow bars with tool steel shaped/sharpened files attached. This is dangerous and should only be done by skilled tradesmen. In CNC applications, traditional carbide or tool steel cut-off tools are used.[1]

Rotating tools Some metal spinning tools are allowed to spin on bearings during the forming process. This reduces friction and heating of the tool, extending tool life and

improving surface finish. Rotating tools may also be coated with thin film of ceramic to prolong tool life. Rotating tools are commonly used during CNC metal spinning operations. Commercially, rollers mounted on the end of levers are generally used to form the material down to the mandrel in both hand spinning and CNC metal spinning. Rollers vary in diameter and thickness depending the intended use. The wider the roller the smoother the surface of the spinning; the thinner rollers can be used to form smaller radii.[1]

Lathes Woodworking lathes are often used, although a wilson lathe is the most common manual spinning lathe for spinning metal by hand. The mandrel having been formed from wood on the lathe or steel chuck machined on a CNC lathe previous to mounting on the metal stock. All stock sizing is done prior to the spinning.

BENDING
Bending is a common technique to process sheet metal. It is usually done by hand on a box and pan brake, or industrially on a brake press or machine brake. Typical products that are made like this are boxes such as electrical enclosures, rectangular ductwork, and some firearm parts such as the receiver of the AKM AK-47 variant.

Press Brake
Usually Bending has to overcome both tensile stresses as well as compressive stresses. When Bending is done, the residual stresses make it re bend or spring back towards its original position, so we have to overbend the sheet metal keeping in mind the residual stresses.

The bending

operation is the act of

bending blanks at a predetermined angle. An example would be an "L" bracket which is a straight piece of metal bent at a 90 angle. The main difference between a forming operation and a bending operation is the bending operation creates a straight line bend (such as a corner in a box) as where a form operation may create a curved bend (such as the bottom of a drinks can).

EMBOSSING
1.

Embossing is the process of creating a three-dimensional image or It is typically accomplished with a combination of heat and pressure on

design in paper and other ductile materials.

2.

the paper.

3.

This is achieved by using a metal die (female) usually made of brass and

a counter die (male) that fit together and actually squeeze the fibers of the substrate.
4.

This pressure and a combination of heat actually "irons" while raising the

level of the image higher than the substrate to make it smooth. In printing this is accomplished on a letterpress. The most common machines are the Kluge Letterpress and the Heidelberg Letterpress. 5. The term "impressing" enables one to distinguish an image lowered into the surface of a material, in distinction to an image raised out of the surface of a material.
6.

The embossing process can be applied to textiles as non-wovens to get In printing it is used as an accent process and can be used in conjunction It also can be used with foil stamping which when embossed with foil is All of these processes use a die and counter die. Most types of paper and Embossing involves a separate stage in the production process, after any

better finished products as sanitary napkins, diapers, tissue paper and others.
7.

with ink called colour register embossing or with no ink called blind embossing.
8.

known as combination stamping or combo stamping. 9. 10. boards can be embossed and there are no restrictions on size. varnishing and laminating. This process costs as much as printing.

Notary use: A notary public frequently uses embossing to mark legal papers, either in the form of an adhesive seal, or using a clamp-like embossing device used to certify (a signature on a document, contract, etc.) or cause to become certified through a notary public or bill. Postage stamps: Embossing has been used regularly on postage stamps. Notable early examples include some of the earliest stamps of Italy, Natal, and Switzerland, as well as the early high values of Britain. Modern stamps still sometimes use embossing as a design element. Rubber stamp embossing / Heat embossing: Rubber stamp embossing is another form of embossing popular in scrap booking and card making. A rubber stamp is used to apply adhesive (often a slow-drying, sticky ink called pigment ink) to paper in a desired pattern. Embossing powder is dusted onto the paper and then blown away, so that it adheres only to the stamped surface. The powder is then subjected to heat, which causes it to melt and cover the stamped area. When the heat is removed, the liquified powder fuses into a palpable smooth raised surface in the shape of the stamped pattern. Embossing powders are available in transparent, translucent, opaque, metallic, and glitter colors for a variety of artistic effects. 11. A variation on heat embossing stamped images is triple embossing. An

area of paper is covered with pigment ink and embossing powder sprinkled all over it and heated until molten. This is repeated so that there are a minimum of 3 layers of heated powder. While this triple layer of powder is still hot, a rubber stamp can be pressed into it to leave an indented design. Embossing also refers to an image processing technique which the color at a given location of the filtered image corresponds to rate of color change at that location in the original image. Applying an embossing filter to an image often results in an image resembling a paper or metal embossing of the original image, hence the name.

COINING

1.

Coining is similar to forming with the main difference being that a coining

die may form completely different features on either face of the blank, these features being transferred from the face of the punch or die respectively. 2. The coining die and punch flow the metal by squeezing the blank within a confined area, instead of bending the blank. For example: an Olympic medal that was formed from a coining die may have a flat surface on the back and a raised feature on the front. If the medal was formed (or embossed), the surface on the back would be the reverse image of the front.

Compound operations 1.
cycle. 2. Compound die: A type of die that has the die block (matrix) mounted on Compound dies perform multiple operations on the part. The compound

operation is the act of implementing more than one operation during the press

a punch plate with perforators in the upper die with the inner punch mounted in the lower 3. set. An inverted type of blanking die that punches upwards, leaving the

part sitting on the lower punch (after being shed from the upper matrix on the press return stroke) instead of blanking the part through. 4. A compound die allows the cutting of internal and external part features

on a single press stroke.

Comparison to other forming techniques

1. Other methods of forming round metal parts include hydroforming, Hydro-forming and stamping generally have a higher fixed cost, but a Forging or casting have a comparable fixed cost, but generally a higher As machinery for commercial applications has improved, parts are being stamping and forging or casting.
2.

lower variable cost than metal spinning.

3.

variable cost. 4. spun with thicker materials in excess of 1" thick steel.

5.

Conventional spinning also wastes a considerably smaller amount of

material than other methods.

Advantages
These are several benefits of spinning and shear forming. Several operations can be performed in one set-up.

Work pieces may have re-entrant profiles and the profile in relation to Forming parameters and part geometry can be altered quickly, at less Tooling and production costs are also comparatively low. Spin forming is easily automated and an effective production method for

the center line virtually unrestricted. cost than traditional metal forming techniques.

prototypes as well as high production runs.

Die (manufacturing)
A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut, shape and form a wide variety of products and components. Like molds and templates, dies are generally customized and uniquely matched to the product they are used to create. Products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology.

Die forming

Progressive die with scrap strip and stampings 1. 2.

Forming dies are typically made by tool and die makers and put into

production after mounting into a press. The die is a metal block that is used for forming materials like sheet

metal and plastic. For the vacuum forming of plastic sheet only a single form is used, typically to form transparent plastic containers (called blister packs) for merchandise.

3. 4.

Vacuum forming is considered a simple molding thermoforming

process but uses the same principles as die forming. For the forming of sheet metal, such as automobile body parts, two

parts may be used, one, called the punch, performs the stretching, bending, and/or blanking operation, while another part, called the die block, securely clamps the workpiece and provides similar, stretching, bending, and/or blanking operation. 5. The workpiece may pass through several stages using different tools or

operations to obtain the final form. 6. In the case of an automotive component there will usually be a shearing

operation after the main forming is done and then additional crimping or rolling operations to ensure that all sharp edges are hidden and to add rigidity to the panel.

Die components Die block Punch plate Blank punch Pierce punch Stripper plate Pilot Dowel Pin

Back gage Finger stop

Die operations and types

Die operations are often named after the specific type of die that performs the operation. For example a bending operation is performed by a bending die. Operations are not limited to one specific die as some dies may incorporate multiple operation types.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS For Blanking and Piercing Clearances: Clearances are one of the main factors controlling a shearing process. The clearance per side is given by C=0.0032. t . Where t= thickness and = material shear stress, MPa Clearance as percentage of stock thickness Material Soft aluminum<1 mm Soft aluminum>1mm Hard aluminum Soft copper alloys Hard copper alloys Low carbon steel Hard steel Round 2 3 4 to 6 2 4 2 3 Other contours 3 5 5 to 8 3 5 to 6 3 5

Silicon steel Stainless steel

3 4 to 6

4 to 5 5 to 8

Angular Clearance Angular clearance or draft in a shearing operation depends on the material, thickness and shape of the stock used. Its value ranges from 0.25 to 2 deg per side.

Stripper Force: As the punching is completed the stock tends to grip the punch as the punch moves upward which makes the use of a stripper necessary to separate the punch from the job. The force required for the same is called stripper force

F(s) =K. L. t Where F(s) = stripping force, kN L t K = perimeter of cut, mm = material thickness =stripping constant =.0103 for low carbon steels with t<1.5mm with cut at the edge. =.0145 for same material but for other cuts =.0207 for low carbon steels, t>1.5mm =.0241 for harder materials Punching Force: As the name indicates it is the force of the punch needed to cut the blank or pierce a sheet

F(p) = L . t . F(p)= punching force, N =Shear strength MPa

For holes with diameter d<t F(p)=D.t. s/3D/t Where, D= diameter of punch,mm s = tensile strength in Mpa.

Shear Force on the punch: Sometimes a component is required to be sheared on a smaller capacity punching then a shear is ground or cut on the face of the die or that of punch to distribute the cutting action over a period of time . This is done to relieve the shear of the punch or the die face so that it contacts the stock for some time period rather than instantaneously. The relation used for calculating maximum shear stress is

F(sh)=L.t. (p/t1)

Where, p= penetration of punch in fractions t1=shear on punch or die, mm

Draw Die Design

Corner Radius on Punch: Customery taken as 4t to 10 t and ideally taken as equal to punch radius.

Draw Radius:

Larger radius causes the metal to be released early by the blank holder and thus lead to edge wrinkling. Too small a radius causes the thinning and tearing of the side walls of the cups, generally, Draw radius=4.t normal =6 to 8 t when the blank holder is used.

Clearences: An allowance in the range of 7 to 20% of the blank thickness is provided, depending on the cup material and cup dimensions. Clearences in drawing in terms of blank thickness Blank thickness (mm) Up to 0.40 0.41 to 1.25 1.30 to 3.0 Above 3.01 1.07 to 1.09 1.08 to 1.10 1.10 to 1.12 1.12 to 1.14 1.08 to 1.10 1.09 to 1.12 1.12 to 1.14 1.15 to 1.20 1.04 to 1.05 1.05 to 1.06 1.07 to 1.09 1.08 to 1.11 First draw Second draw Sizing draw

Blank Size: The calculation could be based on volume, surface area or by layout. Some useful relations in calculating the blank diameter for cylindrical shell for relatively thin materials are given by: D=(d2+4dh) D=(d2+4dh-0.5r) D=(d2+4dh-r) D=((d-2r)2+4d(h-r)+2r(d-0.7r)) when d 20r when 15r d20r when 10rd15r when d<10r

Where r = corner radius of the punch, mm

h = height of the shell, mm d = outer diameter of the shell, mm D = blank diameter, mm

An additional trim allowance could be provided of 3 mm per 25mm of cup diameters.

Drawing Force: Drawing force for cylindrical shapes can be given by the below empirical equation

P= dts[(D/d)-C] Where P= drawing force, N t= thickness of the blank material, mm s= yield strength of the metal, MPa C= constant to cover friction and bending, its value is 0.6 to 0.7. For other shapes the above formula gives an approximation which can be used as a guide.

Blank Holding Force: This force required depends on the wrinkling tendency of the cup which is very difficult to determine and hence it is obtained more by trial and error. The maximum limit is generally one-third of the drawing force.

Ironing force, In ironing the objective is to reduce the wall thickness of the cup, and hence no blank is required because the punch is fitted closely inside the cup. Neglecting

the friction and shape of the die, the ironing force can be estimated by the following equation.

F= d1t1savloge(t0/t1) Where F = ironing force, N d1 = mean diameter of the shell after ironing t1 = thickness of shell after ironing t0= thickness of the shell before ironing sav = average of tensile strength before and after ironing.

Percent Reduction: There is a limit upto which a material can be strained. The amount of straining or drawability is represented by the percentage reduction which is expressed in terms of the diameter of the blank and the shell. It is convenient to use outer diameter as the cup is normally specified by outer diameter. The percentage reduction P is given by P=100[1-(d/D)] However, practically it is limited upto 40. Height to dia ratio No. of draws Percent reduction First draw Second draw Up to 0.75 0.75 to 1.50 1.50 to 3.00 3.00 to 4.50 1 2 3 4 40 40 40 40 25 25 25 15 15 10 Third draw Fourth draw

Maximum reductions possible in single draw

Materials Almunium alloys Copper Brass, Bronze Low carbon steel Stainless steel Zinc

Percent reduction 45 45 50 45 50 40

Air Vent: An air vent is normally provided on the punch to reduce the possibility of formation of vaccum in the cups when it is stripped from the punch. The size of the air vent depends on the punch diameter

Punch diameter (mm) Up to 50 50 to 100 100 to 200 Over 200 Drawing Speed :

Air vent diameter (mm) 4.5 6.0 7.5 10.0

The speed with which the punch moves through the blank during drawing is termed as the drawing speed. This is very important parameter in drawing because the higher speeds are sometimes detrimental. Particularly harder and less ductile materials are likely to be excessively thinned out due to excessive drawing speeds. Material Aluminium Brass Drawing speed (m/s) 0.90 1.0

Copper Steel Zinc

0.75 0.28 0.75

Bending:
Bending refers to the operation of deforming a flat sheet around a straight axis where the neutral plane lies. The nomenclature normally used in bending is shown in fig. In a bent specimen, since neutral axis remains constant, it is the required length. Beyond the bend lines, the material is not affected. Hence to calculate the length required, it is necessary to find out the bend allowance which is the arc length of the neutral axis between the bend lines.

Bend allowance, B=(R+Kt) Where = bend angle, radians R = inside radius of the bend, mm K = location of the neutral axis from bottom surface = 0.33 when R< 2 t = 0.50 when R>2 t t = sheet thickness, mm

Area under tension Bend allowance

Area under compression

Bend Allowance Overview Bend allowance is a term which describes how much material is needed between two panels to accommodate a given bend. Bend allowance, while being oftentimes tricky to determine for all cases, is fairly easy to predict and calculate for many standardcircumstances. Determining bend allowance is commonly referred to as Bend Development or simply Development.

Often bend allowances are calculated for a sheet metal part and used to make costly tooling or production parts that require a lot of labor to produce. A scrap tool or production run can be very costly, much more so that a test piece. So if you are ever not sure of your developed flat length, make a test piece (laser, turret or sheared piece) to confirm your development. One of the easiest ways to make a test piece is to shear a piece to an exact length, and then form it using the exact process that will be used to create the part. After the part is formed, the part is measured and compared to the expected lengths and the bend allowance is adjusted as needed. Often times, when hard tools are produced, laser cutblanks are used to validate the forming tools and part development before the cutting tools are completed. No rule will apply to every case. While most bend developments can be predicted with ease and will develop correctly, there is no perfectly scientific method for predicting bend allowance due to the many factors like tooling conditions, actual vs. planned thickness, forming method and the given part tolerance. Many companies will develop their bend allowances based on standard formulas, standard forming practices and historical trial and error.

General Principles The Neutral Axis does not change. When developing a flat blank length, there is a length of the part that does not change. This length is called the neutral axis. Material on the inside of the neutral axis will compress, while material on the outside will stretch. Based on the material thickness, form radius and forming methods, the ratio of compression to tension in the part will change. A part that is bent over a very sharp radius, when compared to the thickness, will stretch more on the outside, which means that the neutral axis will lie closer to the inside of the bend. A part that is gradually bent will have less outside stretch, which means that the neutral axis will lie closer to the center of the part.

Compression/Tension Ratio Depends Mostly On Geometry. K-factor Effectively 50%T Max / .25%T Min Where the neutral axis is situated in a bend is commonly called the K-Factor as it is signified as K in the development formulas. Since the inside compression can not exceed the outside tension, the k-factor can never exceed .50 in practical use. This means that the neutral axis cannot migrate past the midpoint of the material (i.e. towards the outside). A reasonable assumption is that the k-factor cannot be less than.25.

The neutral axis migrates based on the compression to tension relationship of the given

bend. 3. Different Bend Types & K-Factors

Wrapped Hem (.29 k factor)

Machine Bend with Set (.33 k factor)

Machine Bend With No Set (.38 k-factor)

Bend Allowance Overview V-Bend Or Brake Tool (.42 k-factor)

Rotary Benders (.43 k-factor)

Gradual Bends / Large Radii (.50 k-factor) Bend Allowance Overview

4. Related Formulas Radian Formula When a developed length is calculated in radians, the equation is extremely simplified because the radian is the actual arc length, so no additional translation into angles is needed as in the standard formula below. In fact, the standard formula is the radian formula plus a built in angle conversion from radian measure to (base 360) degrees, shown in the Common Formula.

Common Formula Since is more common to develop a part based on degrees instead of radians, the bend allowance formula commonly incorporates the degrees to radians conversion. Recalling that 360 Degrees = 2Radians, then 1 Degree = 2Radians / 360 To convert the radian formula to work with degrees, we make the substitution 2/360

5. Special Cases Single Hit Z-Bend When a z-bend is hit in one hit, the middle panel will stretch more than expected. This is because the middle panel is trapped between two v-forms. A typical example might be on a .312 deep zee bend with .060 material, which might elongate .010.

Wrapped hems Wrapped hem developments should be treated with caution. While they will generally develop with a .29 k-factor, they are at minimum made with a two hit process and

subject to a bit more variation. If the part has a reasonable tolerance, then the risk is minimized. Often times, a wrapped hem is used as a safety edge or a cosmetic feature. Additionally, a wrapped hem will see significant backside thinning which

usually influences the leg length. Most parts are designed to a nominal outside thickness and not this backside thinned out thickness, so this must be accounted for in the developed length. Shallow z-bends When a shallow bend is used, the neutral axis of one bend blends into another one and does not completely stay within the form arc. This often means that the developed length is only slightly longer than the flat length.

Gusseted Bends When a part has a gusset in a formed flange, the gusseted area will generally form high as the gusset drives material beyond the expected development.

Punch Design: The choice of the type of the punch and its design depends on the shape and size of the pierced or blanked contour and the work material. Large cutting perimeters require punches which are inherently rigid and can be mounted

directly. Smalller size holes require punches which may have to be supported during the operation, and therefore need to have other mechanisms to join th punch holder. The punches can be broadly classified as: plain punches, pedestal punches, and punches mounted on punch plate. Plain Punches: These are made of solid tool steel block and are directly mounted to the punch holder. These punches are joined to the holder by means of dowels and screws. These must be large enough to provide the necessary space for dowels and screws as well as the necessary strength to withstand the punching force. The length and width of these punches should be greater than the height of the punch. Sometime it may become necessary to have a height of the punch greater than either length or width. This is when the punch is excessivly long and the work performed is heavy or unbalanced.

Pedestal punches: The proportions of the pedestal punches are also similar to that of plain punches. The length and width of the base should be larger than or equal to the height of the punch. The flange thickness and the fillet radius are to be liberally provided to withstand the larger forces coming on the punch. The fillet radius provided in a pedestal punch reduces the stress concentration, but to strengthen the joining of the punch to the base.

Punches Mounted in Punch Plates: A simple method of asembling a plain punch in punch plate is that the punch with the uniiform cross-section is fastened to the punch holder by means of the screws through the punch itself. The punch plates has the necessary holes for locating the punch properly. Clearence holes are provided in the punch plate for the positioning of the squared or sharp cornered punches. Perforator type Punches: Punches whose cutting face diameter is less than 25mm are termed as perforators. The punches need not be round, but the inscribed circle of the punch

should have a diameter less than 25 mm. As a rule, all the perforators are mounted in a punch plate. If the cutting face is round, then assemblig the punch in any orientation is possible. But for the punches with other contours some means of preventing the rotation of the punch is necessary. Some popular methods of preventing the punch rotation are by means of the spring loaded ball, and the use of dowel slot of the size of 3 mm in the head of the punch.

Quill punches: For piercing very small holes less than 6 mm, it is desirable to provide extra support to the punch shank by means of a closely fitting quill. Quilled punches are more expensive if made individually because of the close fitting required between the quill and the punch sizes. Therefore they are mass produces in various standard sizes.

Back-up plate Hardened back-up plates are normally required to be kept between smaller perforator punches and the punch holder. Because of the smaller area of the perforators, they have the tendency to dig into the softer punch holder in the absence of a back-up plate. The back-up plate is about 6 mm thick.

Slug Ejection: Sometimes, the slug that is punched, clinges to the punch face and comes along with it during the return stroke. Normally, the die is supposed to restrain the slug from moving along with the punch, because of the spring back. But in slugs of very small sizes such as those from thin sheets, the spring back being too small, the slug is likely to be drawn along by the punch. Hence, means are to be provided for the ejection of the slug, particularly in small perforator punches.

Die Construction Screws and Dowels: Dowels are used for alignment of dies while as the screws keep the intact.the head of the cap screw should be kept in arecessed hole to eliminate any projection. The recess should be deeper than the head depth by about 3 mm to account for the resharpening of the die. For proper alignment of components only two dowels are required. If the component is too small, the dowels would only weaken it and the construction would not offer much resistance to any lateral deflection which may be caused by the unbalanced side thrust. When the height of the component is deonted as H is greater than 4 times the dowel diameter,d, it is good practice to relieve the dowel holes. The relieveing would help in the finishing of the dowel hole Die Block: The die block size essentially depends on the workpiece size and stock thickness and sometimes on blank contour. Die block thickness for mild steel workpiece Stock thickness (mm) Up to 1.5 1.5 to 3.0 3.0 to 4.5 4.5 to 6.0 Over 6.0 Die block thickness (mm) 20 to 25 25 to 30 30 to 35 35 to 40 40 to 50

Die blank thickness based on blanking perimeter Blanking perimeter (mm) Up to 75 76 to 250 Over 250 Die block thickness (mm) 20 25 30

For softer materials such as non-ferrous alloys, die blocks can be made thinner and similarily for higher shear strength material they can be made thicker. A more scientific method is based on the experimental results obtained from a series of die die tests for breakage under impact loading. The results of which are given in the below table. First the die thickness is to be selected from this table which is based on stock thickness and its shear strength. Die block sizes: Workpiece thickness (mm) Die thickness for 1Mpa of shear strength (mm) 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 0.05 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.32

The values gvien in above table are for smaller blanks with cutting perimeters of less than 50 mm. for those with larger perimeters, a correction factor given in below table is to be applied to the thickness obtained from above table Expansion factors for die thickness Cutting perimeter, (mm) Up to 50 51 to 75 76 to 150 Expansion factor 1.00 1.25 1.50

151 to 300 301 to 500

1.75 2.00

If the die is properly supported in a die shoe, the thickness can be reduced to a proportion of as much as 50%. A grinding allowance of 3 to 5 mm is to be added to the die thickness to account for the necessary die sharpenings during the life of the die.

WORKSHOP PRACTICE Aluminium Sheets have now very extensive use in a variety of industries, from building industry to dairy and milk product industry. Aluminium sheets are used for roofing, doors andwindow frames, kitchen cabinets, kitchenwares, containers, milk and dairy industry, electrical appliances and aeroplane bodies. Stainless Steel Sheets provide very high resistance to corrosion. These now have superseded brass and aluminium for kitchenwares, dairy equipment, food processing plants, and chemical plants. Lead Sheets are highly malleable, soft and have good resistance to acidic corrosion. These are weak in strength and hence are mostly used as liners for containers of acid tanks and other structures. Zinc Sheets are used for roofing purpose e.g. CGI sheets or corrugated galvanized iron sheets. Zinc is also used in making die cast products besides being mostly used for coating purposes. Now we have a clear idea of the types of metals used. But this is not sufficient, we need to have the knowledge of the various kinds of tools for converting these materials into useful products. Here we can correlate lot many examples discussed earlier. Hand Tools Common tools used for sheet metal working include: Standard Scale Trammels Circumference Rule

 Prick Punch Straight Edge Centre Punch Steels Square Hand Snip or Shear Scriber Stakes Semi-circular Protractor Hammers Dividers Hollowing Block Some of these tools are shown below:

Standard steel for is measuring laying

Scale made of used for dimensions and out profiles or development of

patterns on the sheet metal. Circumference Rule provides direct linear measurements of the circumference for the given characters. Straight Edge is a flat graduated steel bar with one longitudinal edge bevelled. It is available in different lengths, upto one metre or more and is used for scribing long straight lines Flat Steel Square, is a L-shapped piece of hardened steel flat with graduation on both the arms which are at right angle to each other. It is used for marking lines in perpendicular direction to any base line.Scriber a long wire or rod of steel with its one end pointed sharp and hardened for scratching lines during the process of laying out profiles on the metal sheets.Semi-circular Protractor resembles with a semi-circular protractor used commonly in geometrical drawings. It is made of steel mid is used for marking acid measuring angles. Dividers are used for marking circles and arcs.Trammels are used for marking large circles or arcs, which are beyond the scope of dividers. Prick punch is used for indentation marks. The included angle of punch is 300. Centre punch is used for marking centres for holes to be drilled.The included angle of a centre porch is kept 900 Hand Snips or Shears are used for cutting sheet metal to the required shape and size. When size is large, a snip is called Shear. The snips may be Straight Snips, Bent Snips and Slitting shears. The straight snips have straight jaws and are used for cutting along a straight line. The bent snips have curved blades and are used for cutting along curved lines. The slitting shears have their lower jaws off-set to allow the metal to pass. The cutoff strip of sheet creates no problem or abstraction to hand. The shears are used for cutting long and continuous cuts. Stakes are the gadgets used for bending, seaming or forming operations carried out on sheet metal. Some commonly used stakes by a tinsmith are shown m Fig. 8 1(b).

The stakes work as both the supporting tool & the forming tool. Bick iron or beak hoin slake ts a general purpose tool for straight bending, corner seam closing, rivetting, etc, 0easing stake with horn has a tapering square horn with grooved slots at one end mid round horn at the other end. The slots are used for wiring and heading operations of a horizontal sharp edge and is used for making straight, shape bends, Square stake ire available in different shapes. A hollow mandril stake is used for rivetting, seaming and forming operations. Round hard stake is used for forming or shaping curved surfaces A double seaming stake with four heads comprises a horizontal bar with a hole at one end in which any of the four heads may be fitted for carrying out operations of seaming, and rivetting. Hammers used in tin smithy work are of various types in terms of shape, size and weight. They have round or square heads to suit forming of round or square shapes Soft faced hammers are used to avoid damage to sheet metal. A wooden mallet is an soft hammer. A bumping hammer used for raising curved shapes and a bossing mallet are two typical hammers used in tin smithy work. Different types of stakes used for bending sheet metals Hollowing blocks (or Swages) are made of hard wood and are made to have curved forms or surfaces on its top face.It is conveniently used for any hollowing process in which sheet metal is stretched particularly over a large part of the middle area of the blank. The purpose of rising is to shrink or reduce the circumference of the blank, in such a way that the metal is worked up or raised to required form. Soldering Irons or Soldering Coppers consist of a forged tapered piece of copper bit joined to air iron rod and a wooden handle mid are available in various shapes and sizes The soldering iron is heated electrically or by some other external means such as gas stove, smith furnace or even oxy-acetylene flame. Sheet Metal Joints Common types of joints used in sheet metalwork are shown below (a) Lap Joint (d) Rivetted Joint (b) Flush Joint (e) Grooved Joint (c) Edge Over Joint (f) Double grooved Joint

Some of the common types of Sheet Metal Joints (a) Lap joint, the most common type of general use (b) Flush joint used where one face of the article is required to be level or flush. (c) Edge over joint used for readily fixing bottoms (d) Rivetted joint where in overlap is kept about six to eight times of the diameter of rivet (e) Grooved joint wherein one edge of the sheet is folded down and the other up. (f) Double grooved joint (inside type) is used to avoid projections on the outer surface of the job. It holds together firmly the edges of round or straight-sided jobs.

Laying out some typical forms Development or Pattern layout involves laying the full size pattern of the product to be made on the metal sheet which, when cut according to the laid pattern and folded suitably, gives the required product. In general, laying out involves making of square, rectangular, cylindrical and radial shapes (or the combinations of these) for making articles of various configurations. Margins or Allowances (in the form of additional size) in the dimensions of the pattern are kept for taking care of lapping, folding, making edges or seams. For example, wire edges need extra metal of 2.5 to 3 times the thickness of sheet. The three common methods followed for laying out patterns are menstruated below :

a) Parallel line method involves development of surfaces or layouts using parallel lines particularly in ewe of cylindrical land prismatic pares. b) Radial line method of development of surfaces is used for components that have slanting surfaces like that of cone sand pyramids. c) Triangulation method is used for developing surfaces of the transition or intermediate pieces joining pipes to of with a often two used for different

the bottom end chute or hopper square top edge.

SAFETY GUIDE FOR SHEET METAL WORKERS There are certain things in your job that can lead to fatigue, discomfort, or pain when you do them repeatedly or without breaks. These include: Exerting force to perform a task or to use a tool. Working in positions such as bending, kneeling, stooping, twisting, and overhead reaching. Using awkward hand, wrist, elbow, or shoulder postures. Remaining in the same position for a long time with little or no movement. Continuous pressure from a hard surface or edge on any part of the body. Working in very hot or very cold temperatures produced by climate, equipment, or machines.

 Sitting on, standing on, or holding equipment or tools that vibrate. In addition, stressful work situations can increase muscle tension and reduce awareness of proper work technique. Most common injuries: Back, Wrists and Hands, Knees, Neck and Shoulders

Prepare Yourself for Work

Just as a runner prepares for a race event by warming up, prepare for work by warming up and stretching. Warm up by walking, marching in place, or moving your arms in circles. Once your muscles are warm:

Stretch S-L-O-W-L-Y and hold each stretch 3-5 seconds. Stretch a few minutes before and during your workday.

Caution: Check with your doctor before exercising. If you feel discomfort while exercising, stop immediately!

While you are off work, keep yourself physically ready for returning to work, whether its the next day or later.

Be Aware
If you experience symptoms, you must change the way you work or the tools you use. If you dont change, your symptoms may get worse and may keep you from working at all. You may have a problem if you have any of these symptoms:

Constant fatigue Cold hands Swelling Numbness Tingling Back Hands Talk with your supervisor about your symptoms right away. Work with your supervisor to identify the cause of the problem. Follow your companys ergonomics program and its Injury and Illness Always look for better ways to do your job.

Where?

If you develop any symptoms:

Prevention Program.