Introduction Welding and cutting processes Fusion welding Thermal cutting Allied welding processes Methods of joining materials Cutting and gouging Heat sources Safe operation of equipment Gas supply Acetylene generating plants Safety—Oxy-acetylene welding and cutting Gas cylinders Oxygen cylinders Regulators Hoses Working area Protective equipment Protective clothing Safety—Arc welding and cutting Power sources Cables Hoses Leads Electrode holders General safety precautions and fire prevention measures First aid Fire procedures General Fire drills and precautions Fire points Classification of fires Firefighting equipment Hose reels Fire extinguishers Water-filled Carbon dioxide (CO,) Halon extinguishers Dry powder Foam Extinguisher trolley units Manual lifting techniques Terminology Welds and joints Types of weld Types of joint 10 10 10 W 12 13 14 16 16 16 RRBBINGS BREESE BF RRRRRG ww SS nn 5 1. Contents ‘Terms used in welding and cutting Weld symbols ‘Symbols indicating weld position Weld symbols for types of joint Use of weld symbols Welding positions Weld imperfections Parent metal preparation Surface condition Edge preparation Assembly methods Joint set-up Use of fixtures, positioners and manipulators Pre-heating Post-heating—Temperature measurement Distortion during welding Causes of distortion Factors affecting distortion Control of distortion Permissible methods of correcting distortion Visual examination of welds Oxy-acetylene welding Equipment Assembly of equipment Leak testing Closing down procedure Filler rods Welding flux The welding flame General procedure Welding methods Welding procedure Preparation and welding conditions for mild steel Example procedures Fusion without filler metal— Flat position—EP/OA/1 Depositing straight runs— Flat position—EP/OA/2 _” Stopping and re-starting Building up the crater-—EP/OA/3 Re-starting—EP/OA/4 Deposition runs— Vertical upwards—EP/OA/5 Tack welds Pege 45 49 49 51 55 56 56 59 59 59 60 60 61 63 64 65 65 65 66 68 69 ral ra 73 75 75 76 79 81 82 83 84 85 88 88 89 30 90 90 a1 927. 18. Page Comer joint—Flat position— EP/ONE 92 Close square T fillet joint— Flat position—EP/OA/7 Lap joint—single fillet weld— Flat position—EP/OA/8 a Lap joint—single fillet wetd— Flat position—EP/OA/9 95 Single vee butt joint— Flat position—EP/OA/10 96 Single edge butt joint— Flat position—EP/OA/11 97 Corner joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/OA/12 98 Close square—T fillet joint— Horizontal-vertical position— EP/OA/13 99 Open square butt joint—Horizontal- vertical position—EP/OA/14 100 ‘Square edge butt joint—Horizontal- vertical position—EP/OA/15 101 Comer joint—Vertical position— EP/OA/16 102 Close square T joint—Vertical position—EP/OA/17 103 Close square T joint—Vertical position—EP/OA/18 103 Open square butt joint—Vertical position—EP/OA/19 104 Open square butt joint—Vertical position—£P/0A/20 105 Pipewelding 108 Mild steel! butt joints (Rolled/rotated)}—Pipes in the horizontal position—EP/OA/21 107 Bronze (braze) welding 108 Bronze welding a tube to a plate joint—EP/OA/22 108 Repair of ferrous castings 110 Cutting and gouging Wt Gas cutting and gouging 112 Equipment 112 Oxy-fuel gas equipment 113 Nozzles 114 Cutter guides 116 Hand-operated cuttingmachines 117 Selection of appropriate fuel gas 118 Control of distortion 119 Cutting and gouging defects 122 General procedure 124 Example procedures 125 Lighting the blowpipe—EP/CG/1_ 125, Contents Page Freehand cutting—Blowpipe control—EP/CG/2 126 Methods of starting and blowpipe control—EP/CG/3 127 Cutting sections up to S0mm— Straightline, square-edge cutting—EP/CG/4 128 Bevel cutting—Flat position— EP/CG/5 129 Bevel cutting—30° incline— EP/CG/6 130 Circle cutting—Smalt—EP/CG/7 131 Circle cutting—Large—EP/CG/8 131 Contour cutting in vertical position—EP/CG/9 132 Freehand and guide-assisted cutting—EP/CG/10 and 11132 Freehand and guide-assisted cutting—EP/CG/12 132 Preparation of mild steel pipe {or tube) flanges, branches and other fittings 133 Pipe cutting—EP/CG/13 134 Pipe-end preparation—EP/CG/14 134 The use of manually and electrically driven cutting machines 134 Manually driven cutting machines 135 Electrically driven cutting machines 135 Making templates for machine cutting 137 Portable machines 138 Straight-line cutting—EP/CG/15 139 Bevel-edge cutting—EP/CG/16 140 Circle cutting—EP/CG/17 140 Circle cutting—Small—EP/CG/18 140 Circle cutting—Large—EP/CG/19 141 Profile cutting—EP/CG/20 141 Stack cutting by the oxy-fuel gas process 141 Powder cutting process 142 Powder cutting—EP/CG/21 143 Oxy-fuel gas gouging process 144 Materials suitable for gouging 144 Progressive gouging 144 Spot or intermittent gouging 145 Simulated defect 145 Deep gouging 146 Removing defective welds by gas gouging 148 Preparation of plate edges for welding 147 Gas gouging cracks and other defects in iron and steel castings and weld preparation 148 Back gouging welds 148 Progressive gouging—EP/CG/22 14919. 20. Page Spot gouging —EP/CG/23 149 Positional gouging 150 Arc cutting and gouging 151 Airarc process 151 Freehand air-arc cutting —EP/CG/24 152 Freehand ait-arc gouging— EP/CG/25 183 Oxygen-are process 154 Freehand oxygen-arc cutting— EP/CG/26 155 Freehand oxygen-arc gouging— EP/CG/27 156 Metal-arc cutting—EP/CG/28 157 Metal-are gouging—EP/CG/29 158 Carbon-arc process 159 Carbon-arc cutting—EP/CG/30 159 Manual metal-are welding 160 Equipment 160 Power sources 160 Alternating current equipment 160 Direct current equipment 161 ‘Assembly of equipment 162 Electrodes 163 Classification of electrodes 164 Iron powder electrodes 164 Storage of electrodes 165 Drying electrodes 165 General procedure 166 The welding arc 167 Example procedures 167 Striking the arc—EP/MMA/1 167 Breaking the arc 168 Are length—EP/MMA/2 169 Slag 170 Effects of current and travel on deposition —EP/MMA/3 170 Weaving—EP/MMA/4 172 Building up the crater—EP/MMA/S 172 Re-starting runs—EP/MMA/6 «172 Tack welds 173 Pitch of tack welds 173 Corner joint—Flat position— EP/MMA/7 173 Comer joint—Flat position— EP/MMA/8 174 Sealing run 174 Sealing run—Flat position — EP/MMA/9 174 Single V butt joint—Flat position — EP/MMA/10 175 Single V.butt joint—Flat position — EP/MMA/11 176 Contents Page Reinforcement—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/MMA/12 Corner joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/MMA/13 Corer joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/MMA/14 T joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/MMA/15, Multi-run fillet weld—Horizontal- vertical position—EP/MMA/16 Single V butt joint—Horizontal- vertical position —EP/MMA/17 Single V butt joint—Horizontal- vertical position —EP/MMA/18 Vertical position Reinforcement—Vertical position— EP/MMA/19 Comer joint—Vertical position — EP/MMA/20 Tjoint—Vertical position— EP/MMA/21 Tjoint—Vertical position— EP/MMA/22 Single V butt joint— Vertical position—EP/MMA/23 Deposition runs in the vertical downwards position Lap joint—Vertical downwards position—EP/MMA/24 Butt joints Single V butt joint—Vertical downwards position— EP/MMA/25 Deep penetration welding ‘Square edge butt joint—Flat position—EP/MMA/26 Pipe welding Butt welds without backing— EP/MMA/27 Butt joint—Segmentally welded— EP/MMA/28 Repair of castings Grey cast iron ‘Welding procedure for repair of castings 21. Metal-arc gas shielded welding General Power supply unit Wire feeder unit Flexible lead assembly ‘Welding gun or torch Gas supply system 177 178 178 179 180 181 182 183 183 184 185, 185 186 187 187 188 188 189 190 190 191 192 192 193 195 195 195 196 197 197 198Page Assembly of equipment 199 Electrical connections 199 Gas connections 200 Water connections 200 Electrode wire 201 Wire feed mechanism 201 Fitting electrode wire 201 Operating the equipment 202 General procedure 203 Clearing a ‘Burn-back’ 204 Closing-down procedure 204 Operating ranges 205 Welding conditions 207 Example procedures 208 Establishing correct welding conditions 208 Control of arc length—Spray transfer—EP/M/1 208 Control of current—Spray transfer— EP/M/2 209 Setting-up for dip transfer welding—EP/M/3 210 Setting-up for pulsed are welding—EP/M/4 2u1 Pulse transfer—Vertical position—EP/M/5 212 Dip transfer—Vertical position— EP/M/6 212 Corner joint—Spray transfer— Flat position—EP/M/7 213 Comer joint—Pulse transfer— Flat position—EP/M/8 214 Comer joint—Dip transfer— Flat position—EP/M/9 214 T joint—Spray transfer— Flat position —EP/M/10 215 T joint—Dip transfer— Flat position—EP/M/11 216 Lap joint—Dip transfer— Flat position—EP/M/12 217 Close square butt joint— Spray transfer—Flat position — EP/M/13 218 Open square butt joint— Dip transfer—Flat position — EP/M/14 219 Butt joint—Spray transter— Flat position—EP/M/15 220 Corner joint—Pulse transfer— Horizontal-vertical position — EP/M/16 221 ‘Comer joint—Dip transfer. Horizontal-vertical position — EP/M/17 222 Contents T joint—Spray transfer— Horizontal-vertical position— EP/M/18 T joint—Dip transfer— Horizontal-vertical position— EP/M/19 Page 223 224 Single V butt joint—Pulse transfer— Horizontal-vertical position— EP/M/20 Open square butt joint—Dip transfer—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/M/21 Single V butt joint—Dip or pulse transfer—Horizontal-vertical position —EP/M/22 225 226 227 Lap joint, 10 mm plate—Spray and dip transfer—Horizontal-vertical position —£P/M/23 Comer joint—Pulse transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/24 Comer joint—Dip transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/25 T joint—Pulse transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/26 T joint—Dip transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/27 Open square butt joint — Pulse transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/28 Open square butt joint— Dip transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/29 Butt joint—Dip transfer— Vertical position—EP/M/30 Welding stainless stee! Preparation for welding Typical welding conditions Pipe welding Butt weld in pipe, 6 mm wall thickness—EP/M/31 Mild steel! pipe—segmentally welded—EP/M/32 22. Tungsten-arc gas shielded welding Equipment Power supply unit Arc initiation system ‘Suppressor Crater eliminator Welding torch Gas nozzles Shielding gas Gas supply system 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 240 240 242 243 243 243 245 245 245 245 246 247 247Page Assembly of equipment 248 Electrical conditions 249 Electrodes 250 Preparation of electrode ends 250 Filler wires 251 Handling and storage—rod and wire 251 Parent metal preparation 252 Surface conditions 252 General procedure 253 Welding conditions 254 Example procedures 255 Fusion without filler metal— Flat position —EP/T/1 255 Fusion with filler metal— 257 Fusion with filler metal— Flat position—EP/T/3 258 Fusion with filler metal— Vertical position—EP/T/4 259 Fusion with filler metal— Vertical position—EP/T/5 260 Backing bars 264 Tack welds 262 Tack welding procedure 262 Corner joint—Flat position— EP/T/6 263 Corer joint—Flat position— EP/T/7 264 Close square butt joint— Flat position—EP/T/8 265 Faults in butt welds 266 Close square butt joint— Flat position—EP/T/9 268 Tjoint—Flat position—EP/1/10 267 Tjoint—Flat position—EP/T/11_ 267 Lap joint—Flat position—EP/T/12 268 Lap joint—Flat position—EP/T/13 269 Depositing straight runs in the horizontal-vertical position 270 Corner joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/T/14. 270 Comer joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/T/15, 2n Single V butt joint— Horizontal-vertical position — EP/T/16 272 T joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/T/17 273 T joint—Horizontal-vertical position—EP/T/18 274 Close corner weld without filler-— Vertical position—EP/T/19 275 Close corner weld with filler— Vertical position—EP/T/20 276 Contents Close square butt weld— Vertical position—EP/T/21 Butt joint—Vertical position— EP/T/22, T joint—Vertical position— EP/T/23, T joint—Vertical position— EP/T/24 Pipe welding Gas backing Preparation for welding pipe butt joints Termination of weld run Tacking butt joints prior to welding—EP/1/25 Page 277 278 279 280 281 281 282 282 283 Butt joint—Rolled during welding— Aluminium pipe—EP/T/26 284 Butt joint—Rolled during welding-— Stainless steel pipe—EP/T/27 Butt joint—Segmentally welded— Aluminium pipe—€P/T/28 23. Phase tests 285 286 288NN Welding and cutting processes Fusion welding Are Gas Electro-slag -Thermit—Electron-beam Laser welding welding welding welding welding welding I Metal-are — Carbon-are—Plasma-arc Tungsten-arcArc-spot_-—Aro-stud_ Atomic-hydrogen welding welding welding gas shielded welding —welding welding welding Manual Automatic Submerged-arc Metal-arc metal-arc_—metal-arc_~— welding gas shielded welding welding welding Thermal cutting | 1 Ongen Ongar are Plasma-arc ae ecw beam ‘Spark-erosion cutting cutting cutting cutting cutting Powder Oxygen Carbon-arc_ — Metal-are Air-arc cuting cutting lancing cutting cutting cutting and and and gouging Thermic boring gouging The fusion welding and thermal cutting processes dealt with in the training for Craftsman Welders are shown in italics 10Welding and cutting processes Allied welding processes pi Welding with pressure Braze welding Brazing ar bronze welding) Resistance Di Fame Furnace Induction Salt-bath brazing brazing brazing = brazing — brazing —_brazing Flux-dip brazing Resistance Pressure Explosive Forge welding welding welding welding ‘ | Oxy-acetylene Friction HF Cold Blacksmith Hammer Roll pressure welding pressure premmuwe welding welding welding welding weiing T | Resistance Flash Spot ‘Seam Projection Percussion HE butt welding welding welding woking welding weiding resistance , welding Buc-seam welding Stitch Multiple-spot_Series-spot_—-aaller-spot welding welding welding woking The above chart lists other methods of industrial importance for joining metals. Of these processes, ‘braze welding is the only one dealt with in the training for Craftsman Welders. Other joining methods of industrial importance inckude soldering, usually with lead-tin alloy solders, and adhesive bonding using a synthetic resin which solidifies by polymerizati WElectrode suppl filler ‘Arc welding Force across ™ ciectrodes Water-cooled copper-alloy electrodes Resistance welding filler Welding and cutting processes Methods of joining materials Methods of joi means or adhe: categories: 9 other than by mecnanica bonding, fall into four 1. Fusion welding The edges or surfaces of the parts to be joined are fused, with or without the addition of molten filler metal and without the application of pressure. eg. arc welding, gas welding. 2. Resistance welding The edges or surfaces of the parts to be joined are fused locally, usually under pressure but without the addition of filler metal. eg. spot welding, flash welding. 3. Forge or pressure welding The edges or surfaces of the parts are joined together by force or pressure, usually with the application of heat but without any melting of the metal being joined. eg. blacksmith welding, friction welding. 4. Soldering and brazing The edges or surfaces of the parts to be joined are brought into contact, heated but not melted, and molten filler metal added. The filler metal fills the space between the adjacent parts. 12Stee! plate Cutting oxygen stream Oxygen cutting Current air supply Air-are gouging Welding and cutting processes Cutting and gouging The following processes are used for cutting and gouging material to size and shape and for the preparation of edges for welding. 1. (a) Oxygen cutting ‘The material is cut by a jet of oxygen after it has, been raised to ignition temperature by heat from a gas flame, eg. oxygen with acetylene or propane. () Powder cutting A suitable powder is injected into the cutting (oxygen) stream to assist the cutting action. 2. Are cutting ‘The material is cut by melting, using the heat of anarc. 3. Gouging This is the forming of a groove in metal by means of thermal cutting. Used for the back grooving of welds and removing defective metal. 13Welding and cutting processes Approximate arc temperatures 6000-10000°C Electrode (tungsten rod or bare cored or coated wire} LE) Workpiece WLM Electric-arc welding Resistance to passage of current at J contacting surfaces causes fusion under pressure — iii SP aaa. . Resistance welding Filament, Focus coil Concentrated electron beam Workpiece Vacuum chamber Electron-beam welding 14 Heat sources Four sources of heat area used in welding and cutting processes—electrical, high energy beam, chemical and mechanical (eg. frictional). 1. Electrical The electric arc is a source of concentrated heat. The temperature of the arc depends upon the nature of the electrodes and the arc current. In resistance welding processes, heat is produced by the electrical resistance at the contacting surfaces of the material. 2. (a) High energy beam In electron-beam welding and cutting, heat is produced by a beam of electrons. The focussing of the electron beam on to the workpiece is done within a vacuum chamber.Welding and cutting processes High voltage {b) Light radiation transformer, Tube contains In Laser welding the energy of light is tok gas mixture concentrated to become a heat source. tind as° mirror Optical resonator , formed by mirrors Focusing lens at each end Concentrated laser beam (Laser welding Workpiece. 3. Chemical em Flame welding and cutting processes use fuel Thermit mixture gases to burn with oxygen. Most commonly used fuel gases are acetylene for wekfing and cutting and propane for pre- heating and cutting, Heating Pouring| mixture | gate Workpiece (section of — joint) Temporary i Y ag 7 bn Thermit welding, chemical reaction occurs a “ ——- between aluminium powder and iron oxide Thermit welding powder to produce heat. 4. Mechanical In the friction welding process two rubbing surfaces are pressed together by a force. Friction creates heat energy until the welding temperature is reached. In ultrasonic welding, mechanical vibrations of the contacting parts clamped together cause a weld to be made. Welded junction at point of friction In explosive welding, an explosive charge is and pressure used to force two parts together with sufficient siction welding impact to cause heating and bonding of the surfaces. 15,