Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

2
nhn nh

thu
image representation and modeling

Chng ny gii thiu qu trnh thu nhn nh cng nh cc thit b dng trong h thng x l nh. Tip theo l qu trnh ly mu v lng t ho nh. ng thi cng gii thiu mt s phng php biu din nh, cc kiu tp v cu trc ca chng dng trong lu tr nh nh .IMG, .PCX,TIFF,.... Cui cng, trnh by nguyn tc ti hin nh gm cc k thut Bayer Dithering, Rylander Pattern Matrix.... 2.1 cc thit b thu nhn nh v k thut phn tch mu 2.1.1 Thit b thu nhn nh Mt h thng x l nh c th trang b km theo cc h thng thng tin a l - GIS (Geographical Information System) hay h MORPHO(gi khong7 n 8 triu USD) hoc c th l h thng my tnh c. Cc thit b thu nh thng thng gm my quay (camera) cng vi b chuyn i tng t s AD(Analog to Digital) hoc my qut (scanner) chuyn dng. Cc thit b thu nhn nh ny c th cho nh trng en B/W (Black & White) vi mt t 400 n 1600 dpi (dot per inch) hoc nh mu 600 dpi. Vi nh B/W mc mu z l 0 hoc 1. Vi nh a cp xm, mc xm bin thin t 0 n 255. nh mu, mi im nh lu tr trong 3 bytes v do ta c 2 8x3 = 2
24

mu (c 16, 7 triu mu).

Khi dng scanner, mt dng photodiot s qut ngang nh (qut theo hng) v cho nh vi phn gii ngang kh tt. u ra ca Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 10

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

scanner l nh ma trn s m ta quen gi l bn nh (nh Bitmap). B s ho (digitalizer) s to nh vector c hng. Trong x l nh bng my tnh, ta khng th khng ni n thit b monitor (mn hnh) hin nh. Monitor c nhiu loi khc nhau: - CGA : 640 x 320 x 16 mu, - EGA : 640 x 350 x 16 mu, - VGA : 640 x 480 x 16 mu, - SVGA: 1024 x 768 x 256 mu. Vi nh mu, c nhiu cch t hp mu khc nhau. Theo l thuyt mu do Thomas a ra t nm 1802, mi mu u c th t hp t 3 mu c bn: Red (), Green (lc) v Blue (l). Thit b ra nh c th l my in en trng, my in mu hay my v (ploter). My v cng c nhiu loi: loi dng bt, loi phun mc. Nhn chung, cc h thng thu nhn nh thc hin 2 qu trnh: - Cm bin: bin i nng lng quang hc (nh sng) thnh nng lng in. Tng hp nng lng in thnh nh.

2.1.2 Biu din mu nh sng mu l t hp ca nh sng n sc. Mt ngi ch c th cm nhn c vi chc mu, song li c th phn bit c ti hng ngn mu. C 3 thuc tnh ch yu trong cm nhn mu: - Brightness: sc mu, cn gi l chi. - Hue : sc lng, cn gi l sc thi mu. - Saturation: bo ho Vi ngun sng n sc, hue tng ng vi bc sng . bo ho thay i nhanh nu ta thm lng nh sng trng. Hnh 2.1 m t mi lin quan gia cc i lng trn v 3 mu ch yu R, G v B. Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 11

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

Vi mt im W* c nh, cc k hiu G, R, B ch v tr tng i ca cc ph mu , lc v l. Do s tn sc nh sng (ng vi khai trin Fourier) m ta nhn r mu. Theo Maxwell, trong vng mc mt c 3 loi t bo hnh nn cm th 3 mu c bn ng vi 3 ph hp th S1(), S2() v S3().

White

- Mt mu bt k s l mt im
greys Hue W* trn vng

lines of

trn.

- Nu White v Black l nh
S

R nhau th ng trn l ln nht v R l im bo ho. - S thay i theo bn knh B

Saturation - H thay i theo gc - W* l sc mu

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 12

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

Black Hnh 2.1. H to mu RGB min = 380 nm; max = 780 nm. S1() S2() S3()

100 80 60 40 20 0
650 blue Hnh 2.2 Cc ng cong cm nhn S1, S2 v S3. Theo l thuyt 3 mu, phn b ph nng lng ca mt ngun sng mu k hiu l C() v t hp mu theo nguyn tc 3 mu c th m t bng hnh 2.3 di y: 400 500 600

yellow green

1(C)

s1(x)c()d

s2(x)c()d

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 13

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

2(C)

c()

s3(x)c()d 3(C)

Hnh 2.3. Nguyn tc t hp mu.

m ax

Do , i(C) = (2.1)

m in

Si()c()d

vi i = 1, 2, 3.

i(C) gi l p ng ph (spectral responses).

Phng trnh 2.1 gi l phng trnh biu din mu. Nu C1() v C2() l hai phn b ph nng lng to nn cc p ng ph 1(C1) v 2(C2) m i(C1) = i(C2), vi i =1, 2, 3 th hai mu C1 v C2 l nh nhau (snh c). 2.1.3 Tng hp mu v snh mu Mt trong cc vn c bn ca l thuyt biu din mu l s dng mt tp cc ngun sng (mu) biu din mu. Theo l thuyt 3 mu ca Thomas, ngi ta hn ch s mu cn 3 mu c bn: , lc v l. Gi s rng ba ngun sng c bn c phn phi ph nng lng l pk( ) vi k =1, 2, 3 v:
min

max

pk( )d = 1

snh mt mu C(), gi s rng 3 mu c bn c t hp theo t l k(), k =1, 2, 3, nh vy:

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 14

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

k =1

k()pk( ) s cho C(). Thay gi tr ny vo phng trnh 2.1 ta

min

c:
m ax

i(C) =

m in

S
3

()[

k =1

k()pk( )] d =
min

k =1

k()

max

pk( )Si()d

k =1

k()a i,k

vi a i,k =

max

pk( )Si()d

Nh vy, c th tng hp mu theo php cng: mu X = 1 + 2 xanh + 3 l vi 1, 2 v 3 l cc h s tng hp. Phng php ny hay c dng trong cc nh dn dng. L thuyt tng hp mu trn cho php a ra mt s lut snh mu sau: i) mi mu c th snh bi nhiu nht 3 mu. ii) ngun sng ca mt mu tng hp bng tng ngun sng cc mu thnh phn. iii) nu mu C1 snh c vi mu C1' v C2 snh c vi mu C2' th: - 1 C1+ 2 C2 = 1C1'+ 2 C2' : lut cng mu - nu C1+ C2 = C1'+ C2' v C2 = C2' th C1 = C2'. iv) lut bc cu: nu C1 = C2 v C2 = C3 th C1 = C3. du = trn c ngha l snh c. 2.1.4 H to mu T chc quc t v chun ho mu CIE(Commision Internationale d'Eclairage) a ra mt s cc chun biu din mu. Cc h ny c cc chun ring. y ch cp n chun mu CIE-RGB (h to dng 3 mu c bn). Nh nu trn, mt mu l t hp ca cc mu c bn theo mt t l no y. Nh vy, mt pixel nh mu k hiu Px c vit:

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 15

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

red Px = green blue

Ngi ta dng h to ba mu R-G-B(tng ng vi h to x-y-z) biu din mu nh sau:

Blue (l) (0,0,1) l (0,0,1) Tm xanh

Tm (1,0,1) (0,0,0) en (lc)

(1,1,1) vng m (0,1,0) lc Green

(1,0,0) Red ()

(1,1,0) vng

Trong cch biu din ny ta c cng thc: + lc + l =1. Cng thc ny gi l cng thc Maxell. Trong hnh v trn, tam gic to bi ba ng t on gi l tam gic Maxell. Ta cng c th chuyn t h to 3 mu v h to x-y-z.

2.2 Ly mu v lng t ho (Image Sampling and quantization)

Yu cu c bn nht trong x l nh bng my tnh l a nh v dng biu din s thch hp, ngha l nh phi c biu din bi mt ma Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 16

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

trn hu hn tng ng vi vic ly munh trn mt li ri rc v mi pixel c lng ho bi mt s hu hn bit. nh s c lng ho c th c x l hay chuyn qua bc bin i s tng t - DA(Digital to Analog) ti hin trn thit b hin nh. 2.2.1 Qut nh (Image scanning) Phng php chung ly mu l qut nh theo hng v m ho tng hng. V nguyn tc, mt i tng, phim hay giy trong sut s c chiu sng lin tc to nn mt nh in t trn tm cm quang. Tu theo cc loi camera m tm cm quang ny l cht quang dn hay quang truyn. H thng camera ng s dng phng php scan-outdigitalizer; cn h thng camera CCD(Charge Coup;ed Device) cho nh ma trn.

Hin

f(x,y) Ly Mu u(m,n) nh vo

Lng fi(x,y) ho

My u(m,n) tnh

Bin i D->

Hnh 2.4. Ly mu v lng ho Camera CCD thc s l thit b mu ho tn hiu 2 chiu v gi l phng php sefl-scanning matrix. Nguyn tc ca 2 phng php c minh ho qua hnh 2-6 trang bn. L thuyt mu ho 2 chiu - nh vi di gii hn (Band limited Images)

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 17

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

Mt hm f(x,y) gi l di gii hn nu khai trin Fourier F(1, 2) ca n l 0 bn ngoi min bao (hnh 2.5). F(1, 2) = 0 vi y0 (2.2) Qu trnh s ho nh c th hiu nh m hnh tn hiu di gii hn. Mt nh di gii hn f(x,y) tho mn phng trnh 2.2 v c ly mu u trn mt li hnh ch nht vi bc nhy x, y c th khi phc li khng c sai st da trn cc gi tr mu f(mx,ny). Theo l thuyt ly mu trong x tn hiu, nu tn s ly mu theo x, y ln hn 2 ln di gii hn x0, y0 hay tng ng vi: Vi x0 v y0 l di gii hn theo x v y ca nh. 1 > x0 , 2 >

1 = xs > 2 x 0, x

1 y

= ys > 2 y0

th c th khi phc c. T s ny do Nyquist xut v mang tn t s Nyquist. F(1, 2) 10

2 20

1 x0 -y0 2 1

10

--y0

Hnh 2.5. Khai trin Fourier ca hm di gii hn.

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 18

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

b) Phng php Self-scanning array

camera

Chiu sng
(illumination) object/phim (i tng chiu sng) a) Phng php s ho Scan-out ch

B Chuyn Mch
iu khin

Lng ho)

(Sw itch &logic

u(m,n)

control)

Hnh 2.6. Phng php ly mu & lng ho nh Hn na, vic khi phc li nh c th ni suy theo cng thc:

f(x,y) =

m, n=

f ( m , ny)( x

sin( xxs x) sin( yys n) )( ) ( xxs m) ) ( yys m)

(2.3)

Trong thc t, nhiu ngu nhin lun c mt trong tn hiu nh. Do , l thuyt ly mu trn phi c m rng vi mt s k

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 19

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

thut khc nh: li khng vung, li bt gic. n gin khi trnh by, nhng k thut ny khng nu y. c gi c quan tm xin tham kho ti liu[1]. 2.2.2 Lng ho nh (Image Quantization) 2.2.2.1 Khi nim v nguyn tc lng ho nh Lng ho nh l bc k tip ca vic lymu, nhm thc hin mt nh x t mt bin lin tc u sang mt bin ri rc u* vi cc gi tr thuc tp hu hn {r1, r2, . . ., rL}. nh x ny thng l mt hm bc thang (hnh 2.7) tun theo nguyn tc sau: Cho {tk, k=1, 2, . . . L+1} l mt tp cc bc dch chuyn hay mc quyt nh; t1 l gi tr nh nht v tL+1 l gi tr ln nht ca u. Cch n gin nht l dng lng ho u. Theo phng php ny, gi s u ra ca mt b cm bin nh nhn gi tr t 0 n 10.0. Nu mu l lng ho u trn 256 mc, th bc dch chuyn tk v mc xy dng li rk c tnh bi: tk = 2,..., 256 i lng q = tk - tk-1 = rk - rk-1 l hng s vi cc gi tr k v gi l khong lng ho. Trong phn ny, ta ch xem xt cc b lng ho khng b nh (zero memory quantizer), c ngha l u ra ch ph thuc duy nht l u vo. Cc b lng ho kiu ny rt c ch trong k thut m ho nh nh m ho iu xung PCM (Pulse Code Modulation), PCM vi phn, chuyn m, v...v. Ch rng, nh x lng ho ny khng thun nghch, ngha l vi mt u ra cho, u vo l khng duy nht. V vy, ngi ta nghin cu b xung nhiu k thut khc nhau cc tiu ho bin dng, tng hiu qu. Mt k thut ph dng l trung bnh Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 20

10( k 1) 256

vi k =1, 2,...,257;

r k = tk -

5 256

vi k =1,

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

bnh phng cc tiu (do Lloyd-max xut) chng ta s m t di y. u* u u ra B

lng ho u*

u
li lng ho

Hnh 2.7. M hnh b lng ho. 2.2.2.2 K thut lng ho trung bnh bnh phng cc tiu K thut ny nhm cc tiu ho sai s trung bnh bnh phng i vi mt s mc lng ho cho. Cho u l mt bin thc ngu nhin vi hm mt lin tc Pu(u). Mong mun y l tm c mc quyt nh tk v mc khi phc li rk vi mt b lng ho L mc sao cho sai s trung bnh bnh phng l nh nht. tL 1 ( u u*) 2 Pu( u)du Gi = E[(u - u*) ] = t1 Nhim v l tm min ca .
2

(2.4)

Vit li (2.4) ta c:

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 21

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

=
(2.5)

i =1

ti +1 ( u ri ) 2 Pu( u)du t1

i=0, 1,. . ., L-1

tnh rk, ta cn gii h phng trnh (nhn c khi ly vi phn 2.5): (tk -rk-1)2Pu(tk) - (tk - rk) 2Pu(tk) = 0
tk +1

tk

(u - rk)Pu(u)du

=0

Lu rng tk tk-1, do gi tr ca tk v rk cho bi: tk = (rk - rk-1)/2 (2.6) tk +1 upu( u)du tk tk +1 pu( u)du tk k = 1, 2, . . . L

rk =

k = 0, 1, . . ., L-1

(2.7) Thng thng h phng trnh (2.6), (2.7) l khng tuyn tnh. Kt qu trn chng t rng mc dch chuyn ti u nm trn na ng ca cc mc xkhi phc li. Cc mc khi phc li ti u nm ti trng tm ca phn b mt gia cc mc dch chuyn. Gii h phng trnh (2.6) & (2.7) ta thu c cc cn t1 v tL+1. Trong thc t, ngi ta hay p dng phng php Newton gii phng trnh trn. Khi s mc lng ho ln, ngi ta dng phng php xp x mt xc sut nh mt hm hng khn ngoan (picewise) pu(u) = pu(vi) vi vi = (ti + ti+1); ti u < ti+1. Thay gi tr mi ca p u(u) vo 2.5 v tnh cc tiu ho, ta c li gii xp x cho mc quyt nh ti+1[1]:

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 22

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

ti+1

tk +1 A [ pu( u)] 1/ 3 du t1

ti +1

t1

[ p ( u)]
u ti

1/ 3

du

(2.8) vi A = tL+1 - t1 v rk = (k/L)A, k=1,2,...,L. T ta d dng tnh c gi tr ca sai s . (*) Cc hm mt thng dng l hm Gauss v hm Laplace. Hm Gauss c dng: Pu(u) (2.9) Hm (2.10) trong : Laplace c dng: Pu(u) = /2 * exp(-u-) = 1
2 2

exp(

( u ) 2 2 2

l k vng ton hc 2 l hip bin vi bin ngu nhin u i vi hm Gauss.

Hip bin Laplace c tnh bi 2 =2/. Trng hp c bit, nu phn b l u th h phng trnh (2.6) & (2.7) l tuyn tnh v s cho ta cc khong u nhau gia cc mc dch chuyn v mc khi phc li. Do vy, php lng ho ny c tn l lng ho tuyn tnh. Gi s hm mt cho bi cng thc: u ti+1 pu(u) = T phng trnh (2.7) ta c: 0 khc i 1/(tL+1 - t1) nu ti

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 23

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

rk = (2.11) do tk = (tk+1 - tk)/2 tk = tk-1 = tk+1 - tk = const = q.

t2 k + 1 t2 k) tk + 1 tk = 2( tk + 1 tk) 2

Cui cng ta c q = (tL+1 -t1)/L; tk = tk-1 + q; rk = tk - q/2 (2.12) Nh vy, mi mc dch chuyn v mc khi phc li u cch u. Sai s ca php lng ho l u - u* s phn phi u trn khong (q/2 , q/2). Sai s trung bnh bnh phng s l:
q/2

1 q2 u 2 du = = q q/2 12
(2.13)* Lng ho u nh trn kh thun tin cho ci t. Tuy nhin, trong thc t ta cn gp nhiu loi phn b khng u ca cc bin ngu nhin. c gi quan tm n cc bin i ny cng nh so snh kt qu gia mt s phng php xin tham kho ti liu [1]. 2.3 mt s phng php biu din nh (image representation) Sau bc s ho, nh s c lu tr hay chuyn sang giai on phn tch. Trc khi cp n vn lu tr nh, ta cn xem xt nh s c biu din ra sao trong b nh my tnh. Phn trn cng ni n cc m hnh ton hc biu din nh. Nu lu tr trc tip nh th theo kiu bn nh, dung lng s kh ln, tn km m nhiu khi khng hiu qu theo quan im ng dng. Thng ngi ta khng biu din ton b nh th m tp trung c t cc c trng ca nh nh: bin nh (Boundary) hay cc vng nh (Region). Cc k thut pht hin bin hay phn vng nh s c gii thiu k trong chng 5 v 6. Di y gii thiu mt s phng php biu din. Thng ngi ta dng: Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 24

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

- Biu din m lot di (Run - Length Code). - Biu din m xch (Chaine Code). - Biu din m t phn (Quad Tree Code). Ngoi ra cng dng m hnh thng k . 2.3.1 M lot di Phng php ny hay dng biu din cho vng nh hay nh nh phn. Mt vng nh R c th biu din n gin nh mt ma trn nh phn: u(m,n) = 1 nu (m,n) R 0 nu khng Vi cch biu din trn, mt vng nh hay nh nh phn c xem nh gm cc chui 0 hay 1 an xen. Cc chui ny gi l mt mch (run). Theo phng php ny, mi mch s c biu din bi a ch bt u ca mch v chiu di mch theo dng: (<hng,ct>, chiu di). 0 0 din 1 2 (1,1) 1, (1,3) 2 (2,0) 4, (3,1) 2 1 2 3 4 nh c biu

Hnh 2.8. nh nh phn v cc biu din m lot di tng ng. Nhiu dng bin th khc nhau khc nhau ca phng php ny s cp chi tit trong Chng 8 (8.2.1). 2.3.2 M xch Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 25

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

M xch thng c dng biu din bin ca nh. Thay v lu tr ton b nh, ngi ta lu tr dy cc im nh nh A, B,..., M (hnh 2.9). Theo phng php ny, 8 hng ca vct ni 2 im bin lin tc c m ho. Khi nh c biu din qua im nh bt u A cng vi chui cc t m. iu ny c minh ho trong hnh 2-9 di y. Mt bin th ca phng php ny l tng s hng. Vi bin cng cn nhiu phng php khc (Chng 5).

2 3
1 E 0 F

7 B 6 J K 3 C 0 D

1 2

G 5

4J2
I 4

7
Hnh 2-9. H ng cc im bin v m tng

ng. A 111 110 000 001 000 110 101 110 101 010 100 010 2.3.3 M t phn Theo phng php m t phn, mt vng ca coi nh bao kn bi mt mt hnh ch nht. Vng ny c chia lm 4 vng con (quadrant). Nu mt vng con gm ton im en (1) hay ton im trng(0) th khng cn chia tip. Trong trng hp ngc li, vng con gm c en

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 26

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

v trng gi l vng xm li tip tc c chia lm 4 vng con tip. Qu trnh chia dng li khi khng th chia tip c na, c ngha l vng con ch cha thun nht im en hay trng. Nh vy, cy biu din gm mt chui cc k hiu b(black), w (white) v g(grey) km theo k hiu m ho 4 vng con. Biu din theo phng php ny u vit hn so vi cc phng php trn, nht l so vi m lot di. Tuy nhin, tnh ton s o cc hnh nh chu vi, m men l kh kh. 2.4 Cc nh dng nh c bn trong x l nh nh thu c sau qu trnh s ho c nhiu loi khc nhau, ph thuc vo k thut s ho nh. Nh ni phn trn , ta chia lm 2 loi: nh en trng v nh mu. nh thu nhn c c th lu tr trn tp phc v cho cc bc x l tip theo. Di y s trnh by mt s nh dng nh thng dng hay dng trong qu trnh x l nh hin nay. 2.4.1 nh dng nh IMG nh IMG l nh en trng. Phn u ca nh IMG c 16 bytes cha cc thng tin cn thit : + 6 bytes u: dng nh du nh dng nh IMG. Gi tr ca 6 bytes ny vit di dng Hexa: 0x0001 0x0008 0x0001. + 2 bytes tip theo: cha di mu tin. l di ca dy cc bytes k lin nhau m dy ny s c lp li mt s ln no . S ln lp ny s c lu trong byte m. Nhiu dy ging nhau c lu trong mt byte. l cch lu tr nn s c cp chi tit trong chng 8. + 4 bytes tip: m t kch c pixel + 2 bytes tip : s pixel trn mt dng nh + 2 bytes cui: s dng nh trong nh. Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 27

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

nh IMG c nn theo tng dng. Mi dng bao gm cc gi(pack). Cc dng ging nhau cng c nn thnh mt gi. C 4 loi gi sau:

Loi 1: Gi cc dng ging nhau Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x00 0x00 0xFF Count. Ba byte

u cho bit s cc dy ging nhau; byte cui cho bit s cc dng ging nhau.

Loi 2: Gi cc dy ging nhau Quy cch gi tin ny nh sau: 0x00 Count. Byte th hai cho bit

s cc dy tp.

ging nhau c nn trong gi. di ca dy ghi u

Loi 3: Dy cc pixel khng ging nhau, khng lp li v khng nn c. Qui cch nh sau: 0x80 Count. Byte th hai cho bit di dy

cc pixel khng ging nhau khng nn c.

Loi 4: Dy cc pixel ging nhau Tu theo cc bit cao ca byte u c bt hay tt. Nu bit cao

c bt (gi tr 1) th y l gi nn cc bytes ch gm bit 0, s cc byte c nn c tnh bi 7 bit thp cn li. Nu bit cao tt (gi tr 0) th y l gi nn cc byte gm ton bit 1. S cc byte c nn c tnh bi 7 bit thp cn li. Cc gi tin ca file IMG phong ph nh vy l do nh IMG l nh en trng, do vy ch cn 1 bit cho 1 pixel thay v 4 hoc 8 nh ni trn. Ton b nh ch c nhng im sng v ti tng ng vi gi tr 1 hoc gi tr 0. T l nn ca kiu nh dng ny l kh cao. 2.4.2 nh dng nh PCX

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 28

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

nh dng nh PCX l mt trong nhng nh dng nh c in nht. N s dng phng php m lot di RLE (Run-Length-Encoded) nn d liu nh. Qu trnh nn v gii nn c thc hin trn tng dng nh. Thc t, phng php gii nn PCX km hiu qu hn so vi kiu IMG. Tp PCX gm 3 phn: u tp (header), d liunh (image data) v bng mu m rng(xem hnh 2.10). Header ca tp PCX c kch thc c nh gm 128 byte v c phn b nh sau: + 1 byte : ch ra kiu nh dng. Nu l kiu PCX/PCC n lun c gi tr l 0Ah. + 1 byte: ch ra version s dng nn nh, c th c cc gi tr sau: - 0: version 2.5. - 2: version 2.8 vi bng mu. - 3: version 2.8 hay 3.0 khng c bng mu. - 5: version 3.0 c bng mu. + 1 byte: ch ra phng php m ho. Nu l 0 th m ho theo phng php BYTE PACKED, nu khng l phng php RLE. + 1 byte: s bit cho mt im nh plane. + 1 word: to gc tri trn ca nh. Vi kiu PCX n c gi tr l (0,0); cn PCC th khc (0,0). + 1 word: to gc phi di. + 1 word: kch thc b rng v b cao nh. + 1 word: s im nh. + 1 word: phn gii mn hnh. + 1 word. + 48 byte: chia thnh 16 nhm, mi nhm 3 byte. Mi nhm ny cha thng tin v mt thanh ghi mu. Nh vy ta c 16 thanh ghi mu. + 1 byte: khng dng n v lun t l 0. Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 29

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

+1 byte: s bit plane m nh s dng. Vi nh 16 mu, gi tr ny l 4, vi nh 256 mu (1 pixel/8 bit) th s bit plane li l 1. + 1 byte: s bytes cho mt dng qut nh. + 1 word: kiu bng mu. + 58 byte: khng dng. Tm li, nh dng nh PCX thng c dng lu tr nh v thao tc n gin, cho php nn v gii nn nhanh. Tuy nhin v cu trc ca n c nh, nn trong mt s trng hp n lm tng kch thc lu tr. V cng v nhc im ny m mt s ng dng li s dng mt kiu nh dng khc mm do hn: nh dng TIFF (Targed Image File Format) s m t di y. 2.4.3 nh dng nh TIFF Kiu nh dng TIFF c thit k lm nh bt cc vn lin quan n vic m rng tp nh c nh. V cu trc, n cng gm 3 phn chnh: - Phn Header (IFH): c trong tt c cc tp TIFF v gm 8 byte: + 1 word: ch ra kiu to tp trn my tnh PC hay Macintosh. Hai loi ny khc nhau rt ln th t cc byte lu tr trong cc s di 2 hay 4 byte. Nu trng ny c gi tr l 4D4Dh th l nh cho my Macintosh; nu l 4949h l ca my PC. + 1 word: version. T ny lun c gi tr l 42. C th coi l c trng ca file TIFF v n khng thay i.

Header 128 bytes

D liu nh nn

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 30

Bng mu m rng

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

Hnh 2.10. Cu trc tp nh dng PCX. + 2 word: gi tr Offset theo byte tnh t u file ti cu trc IFD(Image File Directory) l cu trc th hai ca file. Th t cc byte y ph thuc vo du hiu trng u tin. - Phn th 2 (IFD): N khng ngay sau cu trc IFH m v tr ca n c xc nh bi trng Offset trong u tp. C th c mt hay nhiu IFD cng tn ti trong file (nu file c nhiu hn 1 nh). Mt IFD gm: + 2 byte: cha cc DE (Directory Entry). + 12 byte l cc DE xp lin tip. Mi DE chim 12 byte. + 4 byte : cha Offset tr ti IFD tip theo. Nu y l IFD cui cng th trng ny c gi tr l 0. - Cu trc phn d liu th 3: cc DE. Cc DE c di c nh gm 12 byte v chia lm 4 phn: + 2 byte: Ch ra du hiu m tp nh c xy dng. + 2 byte: kiu d liu ca tham s nh. C 5 kiu tham s c bn: a) 1: BYTE (1 byte). b) 2: ASCII (1 byte). c) 3: SHORT (2 byte). d) 4: LONG (4 byte). e) 5: RATIONAL (8 byte).

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 31

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

+ 4 byte: trng di (b m) cha s lng ch mc ca kiu d liu ch ra . N khng phi l tng s byte cn thit lu tr. c s liu ny ta cn nhn s ch mc vi kiu d liu dng. + 4 byte: l Offset ti im bt u d liu thc lin quan ti du hiu, tc l d liu lin quan vi DE khng phi lu tr vt l cng vi n nm mt v tr no trong file. D liu cha trong tp thng c t chc thnh cc nhm dng (ct) qut ca d liu nh. Cch t chc ny lm gim b nh cn thit cho vic c tp. Vic gii nn c thc hin theo bn kiu khc nhau c lu tr trong byte du hiu nn. Nh ni trn, file nh TIFF l dng gii quyt vn kh m rng ca file PCX. Tuy nhin, vi cng mt nh th vic dng file PCX chim t khng gian nh hn. 2.4.4 nh dng nh GIF(Graphics Interchanger Format) Cch lu tr kiu PCX c li v khng gian lu tr: vi nh en trng kch thc tp c th nh hn bn gc t 5 n7 ln. Vi nh 16 mu, kch thc nh nh hn nh gc 2-3 ln, c trng hp c th xp x nh gc. Tuy nhin, vi nh 256 mu th n bc l r kh nng nn rt km. iu ny c th l gii nh sau: khi s mu tng ln, cc lot di xut hin t hn v v th, lu tr theo kiu PCX khng cn li na. Hn na, nu ta mun lu tr nhiu i tng trn mt tp nh nh kiu nh dng TIFF, i hi c mt nh dng khc thch hp. nh dng nh GIF do hng ComputServer Incorporated (M) xut ln u tin vo nm 1990. Vi ng dng GIF, nhng vng mc m cc nh dng khc gp phi khi s mu trong nh tng ln khng cn na. Khi s mu cng tng th u th ca nh dng GIF cng ni tri. Nhng u th ny c c l do GIF tip cn cc thut ton nn LZW(Lempel-Ziv-Welch). Bn cht ca k thut nn LZW l da vo s Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 32

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

lp li ca mt nhm im ch khng phi lot di ging nhau. Do vy, d liu cng ln th s lp li cng nhiu (xem chng 8). Dng nh GIF cho cht lng cao, phn gii ho cng t cao, cho php hin th trn hu ht cc phn cng ho. nh dng tng qut ca nh GIF nh sau:

Ch k ca nh note B m t hin th Header (7 byte) Bn mu tng th Global Palette M t mt i tng ca nh Image (10 byte) - Du phn cch

GIF GIF

Header

Palete of Imge 1(nu c) - B m t nh of Image 1 - Bn mu cc b t lin kt nh GIF terminator Phn u cui nh GIF(terminator) - Ch k ca nh GIF c gi tr l GIF87a. N gm 6 k t, 3 k t u ch ra kiu nh dng, 3 k t sau ch ra version ca nh. - B hnh hin th: cha m t cc thng s cho ton b nh GIF: D liu .................. ';' ' ,' k Data

Phn m t ny lp n ln nu nh cha n i tng.

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 33

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

+ rng hnh raster theo pixel: 2 byte; + cao hnh raster theo pixel: 2 byte; + Cc thng tin v bn mu, hnh hin th,... + Thng tin mu nn: 1 byte; + Phn cha dng: 1 byte.

Bn mu tng th: m t b mu ti u i hi khi bit M = 1. Khi b mu tng th c th hin, n s xc lp ngay b m t hnh hin th. S lng thc th bn mu ly theo b m t hnh hin th trn v bng 2 m, vi m l lng bit trn mt pixel khi mi thc th cha ng 3 byte (biu din cng mu ca ba mu c bn Red-Green-Blue). Cu trc ca khi ny nh sau:

Bit mu Red mu Green mu Blue mu Red mu Green mu Blue .......... .

Th th byte 1 2 3 4 5 6 ............ ..

gi gi gi gi gi gi

tr tr tr tr tr tr

mu mu mu mu mu mu

M t theo index 0 xanh lc theo index 0 xanh l theo index 0 theo index 1 xanh lc theo index1 xanh l theo index 0

- B m t nh: nh ngha v tr thc t v phn m rng ca nh trong phm vi khng gian nh c trong phn m t hnh hin th. Nu nh biu din theo nh x bn mu cc b th c nh nh\gha phi c thit lp. Mi b m t nh c ch ra bi k t kt ni nh. K t ny ch c dng khi nh dng GIF c t 2 nh tr ln. Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 34

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

K t ny c gi tr 0x2c (k t du phy). Khi k t ny c c qua, b m t nh s c kch hot. B m t nh gm 10 byte v c cu trc nh sau:

Cc bit

Th th byte

M t

00101100 cn tri nh cn trn nh rng

1 2,3 4,5 6,7 8,9 10

K t lin kt nh () Pixel bt u nh tnh t tri hnh hin th Pixel cui nh bt u tnh t nh trn hnh hin th chiu rng nh tnh theo pixel chiu cao nh tnh theo pixel Khi bit M = 0 : s dng bn mu tng th M = 1 : s dng bn mu cc b I = 0 : nh dng nh theo th t lin tc I = 1 : nh dng nh theo th t xen k pixel +1: s bit/pixel ca nh ny.

nh cao nh MI000pixel

- Bn mu cc b: bn mu cc b ch c chn khi bit M ca byte th 10 l 1. Khi bn mu c chn, bn mu s chiu theo b m t nh m ly vo cho ng. Ti phn cui nh, bn mu s ly li phn xc lp sau b m t hnh hin th. Lu l trng pixel ca byte th 10 ch c dng khi bn mu c ch

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 35

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

nh. Cc tham s ny khng nhng ch cho bit kch thc nh theo pixel m cn ch ra s thc th bn mu ca n. - D liu nh: chui cc gi tr c th t ca cc pixel mu to nn nh. Cc pixel c xp lin tc trn mt dng nh, t tri qua phi. Cc dng nh c vit t trn xung di. - Phn kt thc nh: cung cp tnh ng b cho u cui ca nh GIF. Cui ca nh s xc nh bi k t ; (0x3b). nh dng GIF c rt nhiu u im v c cng nhn l chun lu tr nh mu thc t (chun ISO 10918-1). N c mi trnh duyt Web (Web Browser) h tr vi nhiu ng dng hin i. Cng vi n c chun JPEG (Joint Photograph Expert Group). GIF dng cho cc nh ho (Graphic), cn JPEG dng cho nh chp (Photographic). 2.5 Cc k thut ti hin nh (in nh) Cc k thut dng in nh c th chia lm hai nhm: k thut chp nh (photography hardcopy) v k thut in nh (printer hardcopy). y chnh l cc k thut dng in nh trong sch, bo nh v tp ch. 2.5.1 K thut chp nh (photography hardcopy techniques) Phng php sao chp nh l phng php n gin gi thnh thp, cht lng cao. Sau bc chp l k thut phng ti (darkroom) nhm tng cng nh nh mong mun. Th d nh : phng i nh, thu nh nh ,..., tu theo ng dng. K thut chp nh mn hnh mu l kh n gin. N gm mt s bc nh sau: 1) t camera trong phng ti, cch mn hnh khong 10 feet (1 feet =0,3048 m). 2) M ng knh lm phng mt cong mn hnh do vy nh s dn u hn.

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 36

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

3) Tt phm phn chiu (brightness) v phm tng phn (constrast) ca mn hnh to nn r cho nh. Cc mu chi, cng cao trn nh s gim i. 4) t tc ng knh t 1/8 n 1/2 giy. Vi ng knh tc 1/4 giy, bt u vi f v dng f/8. 2.5.2 K thut in nh (Printer Hardcopy techniques) Trc khi i su vo k thut in nh, ta xem xt cc nh c th hin trn sch, bo nh v tp ch nh th no. Nhn chung, ngi ta dng k thut na cng (halftone). Theo k thut ny, mt nh to nn bi mt chui cc im in trn giy. Thc cht, mi pixel gm mt hnh vung trng bao quanh mt chm en (black dot). Do vy, nu chm en cng ln nh s cng xm mu. Mu xm c th coi nh chm en chim na vng trng. Vng trng l vng gm mt chm cc cc pixel gm rt t hoc khng c chm en. Do s cm nhn ca mt ngi, s thay i cng chm en trong cc phn t nh trng to nn m phng ca mt nh lin tc. Nh vy, mt ngi cm nhn l mt nh m mu bin i t en qua xm ri n trng. Tng s cng duy nht hin din s xc nh cc kch thc khc nhau ca chm en. Thng bo nh to nh na cng vi phn gii t 60 n 80 dpi, sch c th in n 150 dpi. Tuy nhin, cc my in ca my tnh khng c kh nng sp xp cc chm en ca cc kch thc khc nhau ca nh. Do , ngi ta phi dng mt s k thut bin i Phn ngng (Thresholding) K thut ny t ngng hin th cc tng mu lin tc Cc im trong nh c so snh vi ngng nh trc. Gi tr ca ngng s quyt nh im c c hin th hay khng. Do vy nh kt qu s Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 37 nh : phn ngng, chn mu, dithering. Chng ta ln lt xem xt di y.

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

mt i mt s chi tit. C nhiu k thut chn ngng p dng cho cc i tng khc nhau: - Hin th 2 mu: dng cho nh en trng c 256 mc xm. Bn cht ca phng php ny l chn ngng da trn lc mc xm ca nh; n gin c th ly ngng vi gi tr l 127. V nh vy: u(m,n) = 1 cho hin (en) nu u(m,n) < 127 0 (hay hin trng) nu ngc li Nhn chung k thut ny kh chp nhn v nh mt kh nhiu chi tit. - K thut hin 4 mu: khc phc nhc im ca cch hin 2 mu, ngi ta qui nh cch hin 4 mu nh sau: Mu Mn hnh mu 0 en 1 2 xanh 3 vng Ta c th hnh dung cch phn ngng 4 mu theo s sau: Mu 3 Mc xm 255 0 64 128 192 0 1 2 trng xm nht xm m en Mn hnh monochrome(n sc)

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 38

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

Dng ngng ngu nhin 4 mu: theo phng php ny, ta chia khng gian mc xm thnh cc min hin th v nh s l 0, 1, 2 v 3. Tip sau, nh ngha cc min m cc cp hin th (bt, tt) tng ng vi: (0,1), (1,2) v (2,3). Khc vi ngng c nh, y ngng c reo ngu nhin . Qu trnh thc hin c m t trong thut ton :

for each pixel I(x,y) do Begin if I(x,y) < 85 then Begin . Khi to 1 s ngu nhin r trong khong [0,84] . if I(x,y) >r then mu =1 else mu =0 End else if I(x,y)<170 then Begin . Khi to 1 s ngu nhin r trong khong [85,169] . if I(x,y) >r then mu =1 else mu =0 End Else Begin . Khi to mt s ngu nhin r trong khong [170,255] . if I(x,y) >r then mu =1 else mu =0 End end K thut chn theo mu (patterning) K thut ny s dng mt nhm cc phn t trn thit b ra (my in chng hn) biu din mt pixel trn nh ngun. Cc phn t ca nhm quyt nh sng ti ca c nhm. Cc phn t ny m

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 39

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

phng cc chm en trong k thut na cng . Nhm thng c chn c dng ma trn vung. Nhm n x n phn t s to nn n 2 + 1 mc sng. Ma trn mu thng c chn l ma trn Rylander. Ma trn Rylander cp 4 c dng:

0 4 3 7

8 12 11 15

2 10 6 14 1 9 5 13

Vic chn kch thc ca nhm nh vy s lm gim i mn ca nh. V vy k thut ny ch p dng trong trng hp m phn gii ca thit b ra ln hn phn gii ca nh ngun. Th d: thit b ra c phn gii 640 x 480 khi s dng nhm c kch thc 4 x 4 s ch cn 160 x 120. K thut Dithering K thut Dithering c p dng to ra nh a cp sng khi phn gii ngun v ch l nh nhau. K thut ny s dng mt ma trn mu gi l ma trn Dither. Ma trn ny gn ging nh ma trn Rylander. to nh, mi phn t ca nh gc s c so snh vi phn t tng ng ca ma trn Dither. Nu ln hn, phn t u ra s sng v ngc li. Ma trn Dither cp 2n s c tnh nh sau:

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 40

8 15 6 13 7 12 15 12
gc

7 7 5 13

8 15 13 12

Chng 0 8thu nhn nh Hai: 2

10 12 4 14 6 3 11 1 9 15 7 13 5

a) nh

b) ma trn Dither - D4

c) nh kt qu

Hnh 2.11. To nh theo phng php Dithering

D2n = 4Dn + D200Un 4Dn + D201Un 4Dn + D211Un vi D2 = 0 2 = D200 D201 D210 D211

4Dn + D210

3 1

Dn l ma trn Dither cp n ;Un l ma trn cp n (cc phn t u l 1) dng:

1 . 1

. .

1 . 1

Th d, vi D2 nh trn, ta tnh D4 nh sau:

D4 =

4 D 2 + D 2 00U 2 4 D 2 + D 2 01U 2 4 D 2 + D 2 10 4 D 2 + D 2 11U 2

0 8 2 10 12 4 14 6 v D4 = 3 11 1 9 15 7 13 5
Mt cch tng t, ta tnh c D16. Vi D16, ta thy tt c cc gi tr t 0 n 255 u c mt. Khc vi phng php ngng ngu nhin ch da vo mt ngng bin Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 41

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

0 192 48 240 12 204 60 252 3 195 51 243 15 207 63 255

128 32 160 8 136 40 168 2 130 34 162 10 138 42 170 64 224 96 200 72 232 104 194 66 226 98 202 74 234 106 176 16 144 56 184 24 152 50 178 18 146 58 186 26 154 112 208 80 248 120 216 88 242 114 210 82 250 122 218 90 140 44 172 4 132 36 164 14 142 46 174 6 134 38 166 76 236 108 196 68 228 100 206 78 238 110 198 70 230 102 188 28 156 52 180 20 148 62 192 30 158 54 182 22 150 124 220 92 244 116 212 84 254 126 222 94 246 118 214 86 131 35 163 11 139 43 171 1 129 33 161 9 137 41 169 67 227 99 203 75 235 107 193 65 225 97 201 73 233 105 179 19 147 59 187 27 155 49 177 17 145 57 185 25 153 115 211 83 251 123 219 91 241 113 209 81 249 121 217 89 143 47 175 7 135 39 167 13 141 45 173 5 133 37 165 79 239 111 199 71 231 103 205 77 237 109 197 69 229 101 191 31 159 55 183 23 151 61 189 29 157 53 181 21 149 127 223 95 247 119 215 87 253 125 221 93 245 117 213 85

Ma trn Dither cp 16 - D16 thin, y ngng c xc nh mt cch r rng. Cch dng ma trn ngng c th hnh dung nh sau: Gi s I(x,y) l mt im nh. t x0 = x mod 16 v y0 = y mod 16 th x0,y0 s ch nhn mt trong cc gi tr t 0 n 15. Nh vy, n s xc nh mt phn t ca D16. Gi S = D16(x0,y0). S s c gi tr trong khong t 0 n 255 v c th dng lm ngng hin nh. Hn na, nu ch dch chuyn theo mt chiu (x chng hn), ta thy rng c 16 im nh s ri vo ngng S thu c t 16 im trc. Do vy, ta c mt cch thc chun bt hay tt cc im nh vi trng thi li. s dng c 4 mu, ta cng s dng theo k thut ngng 4 mu nhng ch cn 3 vng, mi vng 85 mc. y cn c s la chn gia D16 v D8. Nu chn D16 th s tha, nn ta chn D8 vi chun ho theo cch thc ch dng 63 mc gi tr.

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 42

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

vng 1

p=

I ( x , y ) * 63 3 * I ( x , y ) = 84 4 ( I ( x , y ) 85) * 3 4 ( I ( x , y ) 170) * 3 4

vng 2

p=

vng 3

p=

Thut ton phn ngng dng ma trn ngng c m t nh sau: for each I[i,j] do if I[i,j] < 84 then { vng 1} Begin I[i,j] := I[i,j] * 3/4 x0 := (i mod 8) +1; y0 := (j mod 8)+1; nguong := D[x0,y0]; If I[i,j] < nguong then Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,0) Else Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,0) end Else If I[i,j] < 169 then {vng 2} Begin I[i,j] := (I[i,j] * 3-85)/4 x0 := (i mod 8) +1; y0 := (j mod 8)+1; nguong := D[x0,y0]; If I[i,j] < nguong then Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,1) Else Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,2) end Else {vng 3} Begin I(i,j) := (I[i,j] * 3-170)/4 x0 := (i mod 8) +1; y0 := (j mod 8)+1; nguong := D[x0,y0]; If I[i,j] < nguong then Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,2) Else Hien(j+x+1, i+y+1,3)

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 43

Chng Hai: thu nhn nh

end End

Bi tp chng 2

1. Vit th tc hin nh theo k thut 4 mu vi ngng ngu nhin. 2. Vi ma trn Dither cp 4 - D4 cho trong gio trnh, hy vit chng trnh tnh ma trn D8 v D16. 3. Vi ma trn D8 va tnh c, hy p dng k thut Dithering bin i nh ra v so snh kt qu. nh vo c th t to hay s dng nh to ra chng 1. 4. Vit th tc th hin chc nng in nh t mn hnh ra my in: a) c mt nh PCX hay BMP v hin ln mn hnh b) dng k thut Dither in nh . 5. Vit th tc c mt nh PCX (gii nn) v lu vo bng 2 chiu. 6. Vit th tc lu nh s biu din bi bng ln tp PCX. 7. Xy dng gii thut chuyn i nh dng PCX sang BMP v ngc li. 8. c v hin nh vi nh dng TIFF. 9. c v hin nh vi nh dng GIF.

Nhp mn x l nh s - HBK H ni 44