MC LC Phn 1- M U .....................................................................................................2 Phn 2- NI DUNG .................................................................................................3 I- Tng quan chung v cht phng x.................................................................3 I.1- S lc v phng x ......................................................................................3 I.

2- Tnh cht v cng ca cc sn phm phn hy phng x .....................4 I.3- Thi gian bn hy ( thi gian phn na i sng)ca cc ng v phng x ..............................................................................................................................5 I.4- Cc tc ng sinh ha ca cht phng x ....................................................5 II- An ton sinh hc vi cht thi phng x .....................................................6 II.1- X l nguyn liu phng x qua s dng ...............................................6 II.2- X l thanh nhin liu ht nhn..................................................................8 II.3- Tho d cc nh my, cng trnh ht nhn phng x ...............................10 II.4- Nguyn tc xy dng nh my in nguyn t m bo an ton.............11 III. Tm hiu c th v cht phng x ht nhn: Uranium v Plutoni ..........13 III.1- Uranium...................................................................................................13 III.2- Plutoni......................................................................................................21 Phn 3- KT LUN........................ 28 TI LIU THAM KHO 29

Phn 1- M U Nhc ti phng x l nhc ti mt lnh vc rng ln, bao gm t vic s dng, vn chuyn, lu tr cng nh nhng ng dng hin nay ca phng x cho ti nhng quy nh an ton i vi cc cht phng x. Bi vic s dng cc cht phng x nh con dao hai li vy, vic con ngi li dng cc cht phng x ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc nh: in ht nhn, chn on, iu tr bnh, cng nh hng lot k thut trong khoa hc, nghin cu, nng nghip v cng nghip, nhng lnh vc ci thin cuc sng trn Tri t vi mc kh c th nh gi c. Chng ta khng th ph nhn nhng li ch to ln m phng x em li ng gp vo s pht trin ca th gii ni chung v ca mi quc gia ni ring. Tuy nhin, nhng thit hi trong lch s m n em li tht khng k xit. Bn cnh l nguy c tim n m phng x em li cho con ngi v hnh tinh xanh ca chng ta hin ang l vn ni cm, rt ng lo lng, thu ht s quan tm ca nhiu ngi. C th ni, nu khng c li ch thc tin t cc cht phng x v t tia phng ca chng pht ra, th vic sn xut v s dng chng l v ngha. Qua nhiu thp k, cc cht phng x nhn to , ang c s dng ngy cng rng ri, lan nhanh t cc quc gia pht trin sang cc nc ang pht trin. Ngy nay, ch bc x l mt ch mang tnh thi s v r rng l nhiu ngi thc s lo lng c bit l v nh hng lu di ca n i vi sc kho ca chnh h v con chu h. Kh nng s c trong cc c s ht nhn, vn qun l, vn chuyn v lu gi cht thi ht nhn, nh hng ca rc thi t cc nh my in ht nhn ra mi trng v cc v th v kh ht nhn l ch lp i lp li trong sch v, tp ch, trn cc chng trnh ti vi v trong cu chuyn hng ngy. Trong bi tiu lun ny vi ti An ton sinh hc phng x. Nhm chng ti xin a ra nhng g tm hiu c v phng x c bit l ng dng ca phng x trong lnh vc in ht nhn. Trong qu trnh vit v trnh by khng th trnh khi nhng thiu st, chng ti rt mong nhn c s ng gp kin ca c gio v cc bn bi tiu lun c hon thin hn.

Phn 2- NI DUNG I- Tng quan chung v cht phng x I.1- S lc v phng x Bc x, s pht x v truyn ti nng lng v cc ht ca vt cht t cc nguyn t. Bc x in t bao gm ton b nng lng bc x hoc ht bc x ht nhn bao gm: (1) nng lng v (2) cc ht khc nhau ca vt cht. nh sng nhn thy l mt v d v bc x in t. Bc x c sn xut bi cc nguyn t phng x. V d: Radium, Uranium, Thorium, potassium V cc cht ng v ca cc nguyn t phng x ny to ra bc x mt cch t nhin v cc ht nhn c chu k phn r c gi chung l cc ng v phng x. Bc x c tm thy trn khp v tr, mc d trong cc hnh thc khc nhau nh tia X, tia gamma, v bc x t l phn ng ht nhn. Bc x xy ra bt c khi no v u v nng lng d tha sinh ra th di chuyn t ni ny n ni khc. Nng lng ca bc x c gi l nng lng bc x (Cc hnh thc khc ca nng lng ha hc, c kh, v ht nhn). Mt s hnh thc ca nng lng bc x, chng hn nh nhit c sn xut bi bc x hng ngoi, sng v tuyn T khi c s pht trin ca nng lng ht nhn v v kh nguyn t, th c nhiu kin khc nhau v s an ton ca cc mc thp ca phng x ln mi trng. Tt c chng ta u tip xc vi phng x c bn (background radiation) t tia v tr v s phn hy t nhin ca cc ng v phng x. Vi ngi xem l c li v n thc y c ch nhn i ADN. Nhng ngi khc li cho l khng c mt mc phng x no l an ton c. S ng gp ca nhiu ngun khc nhau vt qu mc phng x c bn ca mt ni th ty thuc vo a cht a phng. Mt trong nhng ngun phng x quan trng nht l kh radon, n c th t mc gy tc dng trong cc nh km thong kh, c bit nu nh xy trn nn ho nham (nh hoa cng chng hn, HTH) (Mose v CSV, 1992). C 3 yu t xc nh ng v phng x l c hay khng.Th nht tnh cht v cng ca s phn hy phng x c lin quan n khi lng v nng lng ca cc ht to ra.Th nh, thi gian bn hy (half life) ca cht ng v.Th ba l sinh ha hc ca nguyn t phng x.V mt sinh ha hc, cc ng v phng x ca cc nguyn t c cng tc ng vi cc ng v n nh ca chng (tc l cc nguyn t tng ng) v tch ly trong cc c quan c bit trong c th sinh vt.

I.2- Tnh cht v cng ca cc sn phm phn hy phng x Khi mt nguyn t ca mt cht phng x phn hy, n s to ra mt trong 4 loi ht sau: alpha(), beta(), gamma () hay trung ha (neutron). N c th phn hy mt hay nhiu ln cho n khi nguyn t n nh. S nh hng ca cht phng x i vi ngi c biu din bng nhiu cch. n v c s dng kh ph bin l rad. Rad l lng phng x c hp thu, hoc n gin hn l lng nng lng c a vo trong m (hay mt mi trng khc) khi nng lng phng x (irradiated). Mt rad bng 100 ergs (n v ca nng lng) i vo mt gram m. Cng phng x c o bng n v quc t l becquerel (Bq), v l s nguyn t phn r trong 1 giy. Trc kia, tnh phng x (radioactivity) c o bng curie (Ci) v bng s ln phn r ca 1g radium trong 1 giy. Suy ra: 1Ci= 3.7 x 1010Bq 1Bq= 0.2702... x 10-10 Ci 27Ci Ht alpha gm 2 protons v 2 neutrons v l nhn helium mang in tch dng.Cc ht alpha qu ln so vi cc ht phng x khc.D chng ch i t cm trong khng kh v vi mm trong m c th, khi lng ln ca chng gy hi rt ln khi chm ti t bo, c bit khi c ht vo phi ca ng vt c xng sng. Ht beta l mt in t c in tch m. Cc ht beta c kh nng xuyn thu mnh hn cc ht alpha, c th dn vi mt trong khng kh. Ngun phng x beta c th ngn chn bi mt mng nha mng.Khi lng nh ca chng gy hi hn ht alpha cho m sinh vt. Tia gamma l lng t ca phng x in t (quanta of electromagnetic radiation). Chng xuyn thu rt su v c th i qua nhiu cm ch (Walker v CSV, 1996, tr.21), hay c vi mt ch! (Ramade, 1987, tr.205).Tc hi ca chng cng ging nh cc ht beta. Ht trung ha khng mang in tch v ch c phng thch khi vi nguyn t b bn ph bng tia alpha v gamma. Chng phn ng vi cc nguyn t khc ch bng va chm trc tip (direct collision). S sn xut ra cc ht trung ha l c s cho s phn i ht nhn trong l phn ng.Ht trung ha c th xuyn qua b dy nhiu cm ch.
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Trong lnh vc sinh hc, nu chng ta o tnh phng x ca mt cht ch bng becquerel th c t thng tin v tc ng gy cho cc m c th bi v becquerel khng k n tnh cht phn r ht nhn, nht l tn s ca n. Cho nn ngi ta s dng thm hai n v gray v sievert. Gray (Gy) l lng phng x lm cho 1 kg m hp th 1 joule nng lng. Tuy nhin, nhiu loi phng x khc nhau gy ra nhiu loi tc hi khc nhau cho m bi cng mt nng lng.iu ny i khi kh hiu, nn cn s din t n gin hn. Nu mt v s hng nng nn vo cm anh bng 100 c m v chia s X joule nng lng cho mi c m, th anh cm thy b au v xng hm khng b thit hi g. Nhng nu anh ta dng ht s X joule nng lng cho ch mt c m thi, th chc l anh b b xng hm v bt tnh trong nhiu gi. Nh quyn anh dnh cng mt nng lng cho ci cm ca anh, nhnh t l chia (chia cho 1 hay 100) ca nng lng gy nn cc nh hng khc nhau. Do , cn c n v khc, l sievert. Sievert (Sv) tnh n cc cch khc nhau m theo cng mt nng lng c th c dnh cho m. S tip xc "an ton" hng nm ca cng chng thng c cho l 5 mSv. Mt lng 20 mSv (lng m hng trm cng nhn nhn ti Chernobyl) l bng vi 20 Gy ca phng x beta hay gamma, hoc ch bng 1 Gy ca ht alpha. Nn ht alpha c tc ng gp 20 ln ca beta hay gamma, vi cng mt s lng gray nh nhau (Walkre v csv, 1996).Thi gian bn hy (half life) I.3- Thi gian bn hy ( thi gian phn na i sng)ca cc ng v phng x l thi gian cn thit phn hy phn na ca s nguyn t ca ng v phng x. ng biu din phn hy gim theo hm exponentiel. Th d 32 P l ng v phng x ca ln dng nhiu trong cc th nghim sinh hc phn t v sinh l thc vt.Thi gian bn hy ca n l 14 ngy. Nu chng ta bt u t ngy 0 vi 1 g 32 P, th vo ngy 14 chng ta s c 0,5 g 32 P v 0,5 g 32 S (lu hunh n nh). Vo ngy 28 chng ta s c 0,25 g 32 P v 0,75 g 32 S v tip tc nh th. Qua 10 ln bn hy, tnh phng x ca mt ng v khng cn khc vi mc phng x c bn v c xem l "an ton". Do 32 P c th khng cn cc iu kin ngn nga sau 140 ngy phn r. I.4- Cc tc ng sinh ha ca cht phng x Vi ng v phng x c bit nguy him bi v chng c cng cch tc ng sinh ho nh cc nguyn t n nh i vi c th sinh vt. Th d nh hn 80% ca tng iod ca ngi c cha trong tuyn gip trng ni n to ra kch thch t
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tng trng thyroxin. Nu iod phng x c hp thu, n s tp trung trong tuyn gip trng v c th gy ra ung th tuyn ny. R rng l ung th tuyn gip trng c thy tng khng khip dn chng sng gn nh my Chemobyl (Kazakov v csv, 1992). ng v phng x strontium phng x theo sau s pht tn cht ny sau cc v th bom nguyn t trong khng kh vo nhng nm 1950 v 1960. Caesarium- 137 theo con ng ca potassium v l vn c bit ca cc vng chu nh hng ca cc v tai nn Chernobyl, Ty bc Anh quc v vng Scandinavia (Bc u). Cc ni m cht dinh dng c thc vt s dng nhiu ln th phi cn n nhiu thp nin cho mc nhim bn Chernobyl h xung mc phng x c bn. II- An ton sinh hc vi cht thi phng x II.1- X l nguyn liu phng x qua s dng Nhin liu ht nhn sau khi c lp t vo l phn ng c th s dng trong thi gian mt nm, sau thay th 25% bng nhin liu mi mi nm v li tip tc vn hnh c 1 nm tip theo. Ngi ta gi nhng nhin liu qua phn ng c ly ra t l phn ng l nhin liu s dng. Trong nhin liu s dng c cht phng x sinh ra do qu trnh phn hch. Cc sn phm phn hch ny, sau khi c ly ra t l phn ng vn tip tc phn r v sinh ra nng lng. Nng lng ny dng nhit v c gi l nhit phn r (Decay Heat) C quan nng long nguyn t quc t a ra cch phn loi cht thi phng x ra lm 5 loi: Loi 1: Cht thi phng x c chu k bn r di ngy, mc hot phng x cao. Loi 2: Cht thi phng x c chu k bn r di ngy, mc hot phng x trung bnh. Loi 3: Cht thi phng x c chu k bn r di ngy, mc hot phng x thp. Loi 4: Cht thi phng x c chu k bn r ngn ngy, mc hot phng x trung bnh. Loi 5: Cht thi phng x c chu k bn r ngn ngy, mc hot phng x thp. Ba loi u phi chn ct trong kho thi su trong lng t, hai loi sau c th cha trong cc kho thi nng. i vi cc thanh nhin liu qua s dng, c th coi l cht thi hoc l nguyn liu u cho ti ch.
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Cc loi cht thi phng x ca nh my in ht nhn bao gm cht thi dng kh, lng v rn. + Cht thi phng x dng kh sinh ra do b hot ho bi cc ntron, nh Nit-12; Nit-16; xy-19; It-131; Cacbon-14; Argon-41; Xenon-133... + Cc cht thi phng x dng lng bao gm nc lm mt l phn ng; cc dung dch hp th cc nhn phng x sinh ra t cc qu trnh x l kh phng x; nc dng lm v sinh, ra cc dng c lm vic. + Cc cht thi phng x dng rn l cc rc thi b nhim phng x, dng c lm vic hng, gng tay, qun o, nha, giy... Lng cc cht thi phng x mi loi c sinh ra tu thuc vo kiu l phn ng, loi chu trnh nhin liu s dng. Trong cc iu kin lm vic bnh thng cc cht thi ca nh my in ht nhn u thuc loi phng x thp v trung bnh. Tt c cc loi cht thi phng x ca nh my in ht nhn u phi c thu gom v x l. Ba nguyn tc ca x l v qun l cht thi phng x l: + Lu gi c lp ch phn hu (delay- and decay) ; + Pha long v lm phn tn nh ra (dilute- and disperse); + Lm giu ln ct gi (concentrate - and - contain). i vi vic x l cc cht thi phng x dng kh cn p dng c ba nguyn tc trn. Quy trnh x l gm cc bc chnh nh sau: Cht thi dng kh, trc ht c lm gim hot phng x bng cc thit b nh b gim hot v thit b lu gi kh him bng than hot tnh, sau i qua cc thit b lc loi b cc cht dng ht, kim tra nng phng x v nu xc nhn an ton s c thi ra khng kh. Cc phin lc, cht hp ph/hp th c x l nh nhng loi cht thi phng x rn/lng. Cht thi lng, nu c phng x cc thp nh nc thi sau khi git, th kim tra nng phng x v nu c xc nhn l an ton s c thi ra bin. Cn cc cht thi dng lng khc tin hnh cng ngh x l nhm tch cc nhn phng x ra khi dung dch lm sch dung dch. Cc phng php thng dng l: ng kt ta, trao i ion, bay hi dung dch, trch ly lng, mng. Cc nhn phng x c thu hi v x l nh nhng cht thi phng x rn. Sau khi tp trung c cc cht phng x vi nng cao th tin hnh x l nh dng ct
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gi nhm giam gi mt cch cht ch cc phn t phng x c nng cao trong cc th tch nh, thun tin cho ct gi lu di. Cc phng php ch yu thng dng l: ng rn bng xi mng; ng rn bng bitum v thu tinh ho. Ngoi ra, c th s dng cc phng php khc nh: SYNROC, Polymer ho. Vic la chn phng php nh dng ct gi lu di ph thuc vo cc phng php phn tch ho hc ban u; cc thng s v thnh phn ho hc v phng x ca khi vt liu s c nh dng v phng php ct gi cui cng c d kin ph hp vi cc iu kin. Ni chung, la chn phng php tu thuc nhiu vo cc yu cu v an ton, tnh kinh t v kh nng k thut. Cng ngh x l cc cht thi phng x dng rn ch yu p dng nguyn l th ba: lm giu v ct gi theo mc tiu thu nh th tch nh dng v thun tin cho ct gi. Cc phng php ch yu l tro ho v nh dng gim th tch 10 n 100 ln ; nn p v nh dng - gim th tch 3 n 10 ln. Tin hnh vic ct gi cc cht thi c nh dng v bao gi nhng c s ct gi thch hp. Vic ct gi cc cht thi phng x dng rn bao gm: ct gi gn mt t v chn su cc cht thi trong kt cu a cht. Vic ct gi gn mt t thng c tin hnh trong cc ho hay trong cc hm c cc lp ngn, nhm lm gim hot dn vi thi gian trong vng 200 - 300 nm. Vi cc cht thi c hot thp thng khng cn lp chn, cht thi thng c cho vo trong cc thng cha. Cc cht thi c hot cao hn c chn cc lp su hn vi cc kt cu che chn tt hn. Vic chn su cc cht thi trong kt cu a cht c dng cho cc loi cht thi c hot cao (nhin liu ht nhn thi); thi gian ct gi c tnh cho ti nhiu nghn nm khng b nh hng ca cc tc ng t nhin; khng c s xm nhp ca cc nhn phng x ra ngoi mi trng do c che chn v nh dng thch hp cho cht phng x. Tu thuc nhiu vo iu kin t nhin c c. II.2- X l thanh nhin liu ht nhn Nhin liu ht nhn chy c hot phng x cao, do vy vic qun l thanh nhin liu qua s dng l mt ni dung quan trng ca vic x l, qun l cht thi phng x ca nh my in ht nhn. Trong cng nghip in ht nhn, cht thi phng x c hot cao thng l cc thanh nhin liu chy v mt phn cht thi sinh ra trong qu trnh ti ch thanh nhin liu. Mc phng x cng nh lng cht thi hot cao thi ra
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ph thuc vo rt nhiu yu t nh: chu trnh nhin liu, loi l phn ng ht nhn, hm lng ca ng v U-235 c trong thanh nhin liu. V mt nguyn tc, cc thanh nhin liu sau khi c s dng mt ln u phi c lu gi tm thi ngay ti nh my trong khong thi gian t 30 n 50 nm lm gim bt mc pht nhit v hot phng x ca thanh nhin liu chy ( ch cn c 1/1000 so vi lc mi tho d khi l). Sau , tu theo chnh sch ca tng quc gia m cc thanh nhin liu ny s c ti ch thnh dng nhin liu mi ti s dng hoc c chuyn ch ngc tr li nc cung cp thanh nhin liu ban u tu nc ny ti ch hoc lu gi. Quy trnh bo qun tm thi nhin liu chy c tin hnh nh sau: + Thanh nhin liu sau khi c tho d ra khi l phn ng c ngm trong cc b nc cnh l nhm lm ngui dn cc thanh nhin liu; lm gim dn qu trnh phn r ht nhn vn tip tc xy ra trong thanh nhin liu; hot phng x gim dn. Thi gian lu gi nhin liu trong cc b ny thng t 3 - 4 thng cho n vi nm. + Cng on tip theo l lu gi thanh nhin liu chy trong mt khong thi gian di cng l nhm c thi gian ch xem c cch no tt hn vic loi b vnh vin khng. C hai phng php ch yu l phng thc lu gi kh v t. C th ct gi trong cc b v lm lnh bng nc; ct trong cc hm c lm lnh bng khng kh; ct gi trong cc cng ten n c lp v bo v. Thi gian lu gi nhin liu trong cc b ny thng t 25 n 50 nm. Trn thc t, c hai phng php u tho mn cc yu cu v an ton v u c thit lp trn c s cc cng ngh tin tin. + Cc thanh nhin liu sau khi c lu gi theo cc phng php kh hoc t k trn trong khong thi gian thch hp s c vn chuyn ti cc nh my ti ch thanh nhin liu hoc em chn ct lu di su trong cc tng a cht vi nhiu lp bo v theo nguyn tc cht thi c t trong cc thng cha bn vng v cc hng cha c t su trong cc cu trc a tng rt bn vng. Hin nay, nhiu nc c in ht nhn xy dng c cc khu chn ct cht thi phng x hot thp v trung bnh. Mt s nc th ang trong giai on tm kim, la chn a im. i vi cht thi hot phng x cao, hu ht cc nc mi ang giai on thnh lp cc phng th nghim su di lng t nghin cu hoc ang nghin cu la chn a im, ang xy dng kho cha cht thi su di lng t. Ni chung cc kho cha cht thi ny ch c th c bt u a vo s dng trong khong thi gian t 2020 2030.
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Chn ct cht thi phng x gn mt t c tin hnh t nhng nm 1940. Kinh nghim cho thy rng, k thut c th c p dng an ton ch khi bi thi c la chn k cng v cc khu vc cha thi c thit k, vn hnh c tnh n c tnh ca bi thi v cht thi. Cc phng php chn ct thi lin tc c pht trin ti u v mt k thut, an ton, v kinh t. Hin nay, Nht Bn l nc u t ln cho vic xy dng cc khu ct gi cht thi phng x Rokkasho nhm p ng nhu cu pht trin in ht nhn. Cc kinh nghim hin ti s c ngha cho s ci tin v m rng cc khu vc chn ct thi phng x gn mt t trong tng lai. Cc kinh nghim ny rt cn thit cho cc nc ang lp k hoch pht trin in ht nhn ng thi vi vic qun l an ton cht thi phng x nh nc ta. Trong nhin liu s dng c 1% Uranium 235 cha phn hch v 1% Plutonium mi to ra cn c thu hi ti s dng. y l qu trnh ti x l nhin liu s dng. Cng on ti x l bt u t vic ly cc thanh nhin liu qua s dng c lm mt trong b nc, ct nh ra v ho tan cc vin nhin liu bng axit. Sau l phn tch cc sn phm phn hch bng dung mi hu c v tch Uranium v Plutonium thu hi. Sn phm phn hch cn li sau khi thu hi uranium v plutonium c thu tinh ho dng cht thi phng x hot cao. Cht thi phng x hot cao ch yu l nhng sn phm phn hch cn li sau khi thu hi Uranium v Plutonium t nhin liu s dng ti c s ti x l. Do c nng cht phng x cao nn c gi l cht thi phng x hot cao. So vi cht thi phng x hot thp, cht thi phng x hot cao tuy s lng khng nhiu nhng cha kh nhiu cht phng x c chu k bn r di ngy. V vy cn c bo qun cch ly vi mi trng v con ngi trong mt thi gian di. Cht thi phng x hot cao c trn vi thu tinh, nu chy ri rt vo cc thng cha bng thp khng g gi l canister, sau lm mt. V khi thu tinh ny pht nhit nn phi bo qun tm thi trong thi gian 30-50 nm ti c s x l lm mt, sau chn ct su vi trm mt. II.3- Tho d cc nh my, cng trnh ht nhn phng x Giai on 1: Tho d ton b nhin liu s dng, sau chuyn ra bn ngoi khu vc. L phn ng c hot phng x s c ng cht bn trong nh l v bo qun 5~10 nm.
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Giai on 2: Tho d v hu b cc thit b khng c hot phng x. Giai on 3: Tho d v hu b cc thit b l phn ng c hot phng x gim. Tng lng cht thi, ph thi tho d l khong 500~550 nghn tn i vi trng hp l phn ng nc nh cng sut 1100 MW. Trong , ngi ta tnh ra cht thi phng x hot thp khong 10 nghn tn (di 3% tng trng lng cht thi tho d), cht thi hot phng x tng i cao nh cc thit b bn trong l phn ng l khong 200 tn (di 0,1% tng lng cht thi tho d). Do , trong s cht thi t vic tho d l phn ng nh my in nguyn t th c khong 95% l cht thi c th x l ging nh cc cht thi cng nghip thng thng. Vic m bo tnh bn vng ca nhin liu l quan trng nht. Nu nhin liu khng b hng th cc sn phm phn hch phng x s b nht kn bn trong cc v bc thanh nhin liu, lng thot ra bn ngoi rt t.Mt cch hu hiu na l gim thiu lng cht n mn thot ra t cc thng cha, ng, bm, van ca h thng s cp l phn ng. lm c iu ny, ngi ta s dng vt liu chng n mn mnh v p dng nhng k thut mi nht trong vic qun l cht lng nc hn ch ti a kh nng n mn. Hn na, vic la chn vt liu c hm lng Cobalt t cng ht sc quan trng. Cht thi phng x nn ct gi bo qun ti a bn trong khu vc nh my c th qun l v bo qun mt cch an ton. II.4- Nguyn tc xy dng nh my in nguyn t m bo an ton Trong l phn ng ht nhn, do c rt nhiu cht phng x nguy him nn l phn ng c thit k rt cng phu nhm m bo d c pht sinh tai nn nh th no chng na th cc cht nguy him vn c nht cht bn trong thit b, bn trong nh my v khng thot c ra bn ngoi. Nguyn tc quan trng trc ht l khng xy ra tai nn. lm c iu ny, iu quan trng nht l phng chng ti mc ti a nhng r ro c kh nng gy tai nn nh hng hc hoc h hi my mc, thit b. Thit k y , chnh xc, thc hin cng tc qun l cht lng nghim ngt v kim tra theo di thng xuyn phng pht sinh nhng bt thng v sai st, hng hc. nh my in nguyn t, khi vn hnh bnh thng th hu nh khng cn nhng thao tc trc tip ca nhn vin, tnh trng cc b phn ca l phn ng c tng hp v hin th phng iu khin trung tm cc nhn vin vn hnh c th thng xuyn nh gi tnh trng hot ng ca l mt cch chnh
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xc. Hn na, trnh nhng thao tc sai hoc nhm ln gy nh hng ln n an ton, l phn ng c thit k vi h thng an ton 2 ln (Fail Safe System), h thng kha lin ng (Interlock System). H thng an ton 2 ln (Fail Safe System) l h thng c thit k da trn nguyn tc nu mt b phn ca h thng gp hng hc th lp tc chuyn sang trng thi an ton. V d, khi mt in th ngay lp tc thanh iu khin c t ng a vo. H thng kha lin ng (Interlock System) l h thng c thit k phng chng trc trc, s c pht sinh do thao tc nhm ln, v d nh nhn vin vn hnh nhm ln nh rt thanh iu khin ra th cng khng th rt c. iu quan trng tip theo l nu pht sinh trc trc bt thng th cng khng s c lan rng. Ngi ta p dng nhng i sch an ton sau: + Thit k c th pht hin sm nhng bt thng nh my in nguyn t, c th pht hin v kim tra c nhng bt thng nh trng hp pht sinh r r t h thng ng dn ngay khi mi pht sinh v mc nh, ngi ta lp t cc loi thit b kim tra gim st t ng v khi cn thit s p dng nhng bin php thch hp nh ngng l phn ng. + Thit k c th ngng l khn cp Khi pht hin thy c bt thng nh p lc trong l phn ng t ngt tng cao cn p dng bin php khn cp, ngi ta lp t cc thit b pht hin v thit b ngng l khn cp c th cng mt lc cho cc thanh iu khin vo l phn ng v ngng t ng l phn ng. Cc thit b quan trng c y tin cy, nhiu tng v c lp. Cng phu ti mc lp t c thit b m trong trng hp hy hu thanh iu khin khng hot ng th ngay lp tc mt lng ln dung dch axt boric c kh nng hp th ntron s c rt vo ngng l phn ng. Hin tng rn nt do n mn ng sut (Stress Corrosion Cracking: SCC) SCC l hin tng trong cc cu trc nh ng thp khng g c mt s ch m ng sut tp trung b suy gim, n mn v gy ra rn nt. Thp khng g l hp kim to thnh t st (Fe), Crm (Cr) v Carbon (C), khng b g v l vt liu rt u vit c cng cao. Tuy nhin ch c mt khuyt im l trong iu kin no s gy ra SCC. iu ny d xy ra nhng ch ng sut d nh xung quanh cc mi hn hoc nhng ch nc ng. Rn nt pht sinh t pha bn trong ng, i qua cu trc cc ht kt tinh ca thp ri lan ra pha bn ngoi ng. Ngi ta cng bit rng, nu hm lng carbon trong thp khng g thp th SCC s kh xy ra hn.
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- Nhng bin php c p dng phng chng hin tng SCC. Ngi ta p dng mt s bin php nh sau: + Ch to vt liu thp khng g c hm lng carbon thp. V d: SUS 304 SUS 304L SUS 316 SUS 316L + Gim bt tc ng nhit khi hn bng cch thu hp ch hn v dng hn t ng. + Hn ch cc ch nc ng trong ng. III. Tm hiu c th v cht phng x ht nhn: Uranium v Plutoni III.1- Uranium 1.1- Lch s pht hin Vic pht hin ra nguyn t ny c ghi cng cho nh ha hc c Martin Heinrich Klaproth. Trong khi ang lm cc th nghim trong phng Berlin nm 1789, Klaproth to ra hp cht kt ta mu vng (ging natri diuranat) bng cch ha tan pitchblend trong axit nitric v sau trung ha dung dch bng natri hydroxit. Klaproth cho rng cht mu vng l xit ca mt nguyn t cha c pht hin v nung n vi than g thu mt loi bt mu en m ng ngh rng n l mt kim loi mi c pht hin (nhng thc cht l bt ca mt xit urani). ng t tn nguyn t mi theo tn hnh tinh Uranus, mt hnh tinh va c William Herschel pht hin trc 8 nm. Nm 1841, Eugne-Melchior Pligot, gio s ha phn tch thuc Trng K Ngh Quc gia Php (Conservatoire National des Arts et Mtiers) Paris tch c mu urani kim loi u tin bng cch nung urani tetraclorua vi kali. Antoine Henri Becquerel pht hin ra tnh phng x khi s dng urani vo nm 1896. Becquerel pht hin ra tnh cht ny ti Paris bng cch cho mt mu mui urani K2UO2(SO4)2 trn mt tm phim trong ngn ko v sau ng thy tm phim b m ging nh b ph sng m. ng cho rng c mt dng nh sng khng nhn thy c hoc cc tia pht ra t urani tip xc vi tm phim.

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1.2- Urani v ng v Urani l nguyn t ha hc kim loi mu trng thuc nhm Actini, c s nguyn t l 92 trong bng tun hon, c k hiu l U. Cc ng v phng x ca urani c s neutron t 144 n 146 nhng ph bin nht l cc ng v urani238, urani-235 v urani-239. Tt c ng v ca urani u khng bn v c tnh phng x yu. Urani c mt trong t nhin vi nng thp khong vi ppm trong t, v nc, v c sn xut thng mi t cc khong sn cha urani nh uraninit. Trong t nhin, urani c tm thy dng urani 238 (99,284%), urani 235 (0,711%) v mt lng rt nh urani 234 (0,0058%). Urani phn r rt chm pht ra ht anpha. Chu k bn r ca urani 238 l khong 4,47 t nm v ca urani 235 l 704 triu nm, do n c s dng xc nh tui ca Tri t. Theo s liu thng k th sn lng Urani nm 2005 c tnh c khong 5,5 triu tn qung urani d tr c th khai thc mt cch kinh t mc gi 130 USD/kg, trong khi c 35 tn c xp vo ti nguyn khong sn (c kh nng khai thc mang li li nhun). Ngoi ra, cn mt lng khong 4,6 t tn urani c tnh c mt trong nc bin (trong thp nin 1980, cc nh khoa hc Nht Bn cho thy cch khai thc urani t nc bin bng phng php trao i ion l c tnh kh thi v mt k thut). c nhiu cuc th nghim chit xut urani t nc bin, nhng sn phm thu c thp do trong nc bin c nhiu cacbonat. c c tr lng qung urani chim 23% tr lng th gii v c m urani ring bit ln nht th gii nm m Olympic Dam, Nam c.

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n nm 2011, chnh ph n tit l mi pht hin mt m urani vi tr lng c th ln nht th gii khu vc min nam bang Andhra Pradesh, n . Sau khi bn nm kho st thc a, B trng Nng lng Nguyn t n Srikumar Banerjee khng nh m Tumalapalli c th cung cp ti 150.000 tn urani. Thi bo n dn li ng Banerjee nu r: "C th khng nh rng m ny cha 49.000 tn qung, cng nhng du hiu cho thy tng sn lng ca m c th nhiu gp ba ln. Nhng c tnh trc cho rng m ny ch c th khai thc c khong 15.000 tn urani v d kin hot ng khai thc s bt u vo cui nm 2011. 1.3- Phn b

Uraninit, hay Pitchblend, l qung ph bin c dng tch urani. Urani l mt nguyn t t nhin, c th tm thy trong tt c cc loi t v nc vi hm lng thp. Urani cng l mt nguyn t c s nguyn t cao nht c tm thy trong t nhin vi hm lng nht nh trong v Tri t v lun dng hp cht vi cc nguyn t khc. Hm lng urani trung bnh trong v Tri t (ty theo quy chiu) l t 2 n 4 ppm, tng ng gp 40 ln so vi nguyn t ph bin l bc. Theo tnh ton th v Tri t t b mt n su 25 km cha 1017 kg urani, trong khi cc i dng c th cha 1013 kg. Hm lng urani trong t thay i t 0,7 n 11 ppm (n 15 ppm trong t trng trt do c pht pht t phn bn), v hm lng ca urani trong nc bin l 3 ppm. Urani c tm thy trong hng trm m khong uraninit (loi qung urani ph bin nht), carnotit, autunit, uranophan, torbernit, v coffinit. Hm lng urani nhiu nht trong cc m c pht pht, cc khong nh lignit v
15

ct monazit trong cc qung giu urani (hm lng thng mi ca cc ngun ti thiu l 0,1% urani). mt s sinh vt nh Trapelia involuta hoc vi sinh vt nh vi khun Citrobacter c th hp th nng urani cao gp 300 ln so vi mi trng xung quanh. Loi citrobacter hp th cc ion uranyl vo gc glycerol phosphate (hay cc pht pht v c tng t khc). Sau mt ngy, 1 gram vi khun c th to quanh n mt lp v 9 gram tinh th uranyl phosphate; u ny to ra kh nng

cho vic s dng cc sinh vt ny trong vic x l nc b nhim phng x urani bng phng php sinh hc. c pht hin rng mt con Sphingomonas sp. chng BSAR-1 c th c tc dng nh pht pht kim hot tnh cao (PhoK). Loi ny c a vo ng dng kt ta sinh hc urani nh cc loi tng hp pht pht uranyl t cc dung dch kim. Kh nng kt ta c tng cng bi protein PhoK trong E. coli. Thc vt hp th mt s urani trong t. Nng khi lng kh ca urani trong thc vt thay i t 5 n 60 ppb, v tro ca g c th c hm lng ln n 4 ppm. Nng khi lng kh ca urani trong thc phm t thc vt m con ngi n vo c bit thp, vi khong t 1 n 2 microgram/ngy. 1.4Tnh cht

Khi c tch ra, urani l kim loi c mu trng bc, phng x yu, mm hn thp mt cht, dng in mnh v dn din km. N do, d un v c tnh thun t. Kim loi urani c mt rt ln, c hn ch khong 70%, nhng nh hn vng. Urani kim loi phn ng vi hu ht cc nguyn t phi kim v cc hp cht phi kim vi mc phn ng tng theo nhit . Axit clohidric v axit nitric ha tan urani, nhng cc axit khng c kh nng xy ha phn ng vi nguyn t ny rt
16

chm. Khi chia nh, urani c th phn ng vi nc lnh; khi tip xc vi khng kh, kim loi urani b ph mt lp xit urani mu en. Urani trong qung c tch

Phn hch ht nhn ca urani-235 bng phng php ha hc v chuyn i thnh urani xit hoc cc dng khc c th dng trong cng nghip. Urani-235 l ng v u tin c tm thy c th t phn hch. Cc ng v khc c mt trong t nhin c th phn hch nhng khng th t phn hch. Ty thuc vo vic bn ph bng cc neutron chm, ng v urani-235 s lun phn chia thnh 2 ht nhn nh hn, gi phng nng lng lin kt ht nhn v sinh nhiu neutron hn. Nu cc neutron ny c hp th bi cc ht nhn urani-235 khc, th chui phn hch ht nhn s din ra v c th gy n tr khi phn ng c lm chm li bi vic iu ha neutron, bng cch hp th chng. t nht 7 kg uranium-235 c th s dng to thnh mt qu bom nguyn t. Little Boy l qu bom ht nhn u tin c s dng trong chin tranh da vo s phn hch urani, cn v n ht nhn u tin v qu bom ph hy Nagasaki (Fat Man) u l bom plutoni. Kim loi urani c 3 dng th hnh:

(trc thoi) bn vi nhit ln n 660 C (bn phng) bn nhit t 660 C n 760 C (lp phng tm khi) bn t 760 C n im nng chy y l trng thi do v d un nht.

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1.5- ng dng a) Qun s ng dng chnh ca urani trong lnh vc qun s l lm cc u n t trng cao. Loi n ny bao gm hp kim urani lm ngho (DU) vi 12% cc nguyn t khc. vn tc tc ng cao, mt , cng v tnh t bc chy ca n bn ra c th lm tng sc ph hy cc mc tiu bc st hng nng. Xe tng bc st v cc loi xe bc thp khc c th di chuyn cng c lm t cc mnh urani ngho.

u n t trng cao Cc ng dng khc ca DU l dng lm i tng cho cc b mt kim sot ca phi thuyn, b phng cho cc phng tin phng tr li (Tri t) v vt liu lm khin. Do c t trng cao, vt liu ny c tm thy trong cc h thng truyn ng qun tnh v trong cc la bn dng con quay hi chuyn. Trong giai on cui ca chin tranh th gii th 2, trong chin tranh lnh v cc cuc chin sau , urani c dng lm nguyn liu cht n sn xut v kh ht nhn. C hai loi bom phn hch chnh c sn xut: mt thit b tng i n gin s dng urani-235 v loi phc tp hn s dng plutoni-239 gc urani238. Sau , cc loi bom nhit hch phc tp hn v mnh hn s dng plutoni trong v bc urani to ra hn hp triti v deuteri chu c phn ng nhit hch ra i. b) Dn dng
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ng dng ch yu ca urani trong lnh vc dn dng l lm nhin liu cho cc nh my in ht nhn. Mt kg urani-235 v l thuyt c th to ra mt nng lng 80 teraJun (81013 Jun), gi thit rng chng phn hch hon ton; mc nng lng ny tng ng 3000 tn than. Cc nh my in ht nhn thng mi s dng nhin liu urani c lm giu vi hm lng urani-235 khong 3%. Nhin liu c s dng cho cc l phn ng ca Hi qun Hoa K l urani235 c lm giu rt cao.

Nh my in ht nhn. Trong l phn ng ti sinh (breeder-reactor), urani-238 cng c th c chuyn i thnh plutoni qua phn ng sau:
238

U (n, gamma) 239U -(beta) 239Np -(beta) 239Pu.

Thy tinh urani b chiu tia t ngoi: mt a thy tinh chuyn sang xanh cn chn thy tinh vn khng mu.
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Vic Marie Curie pht hin v tch radi trong cc qung urani (pitchblend) thc y vic khai thc m tch radi, dng lm cc loi sn d quang trn cc con s ca ng h v bn s trn my bay. iu ny lm cho mt lng ln urani tr thnh cht thi, v mi 3 tn urani ch tch ra c 1 gram radi. Lng cht thi ny c chuyn hng n ngnh cng nghip thy tinh, lm cho thy tinh urani rt r v ph bin. Bn cnh thy tinh gm, cn c gch urani c s dng ph bin trong nh tm v bp, cc loi ny c th c sn xut vi nhiu mu khc nhau nh lc, en, lam, v cc mu khc. Urani cng c s dng lm ha cht nhip nh (c bit l urani nitrat lm toner). Vic pht hin ra tnh phng x ca urani m ra nhng ng dng thc t v khoa hc ca nguyn t ny. Chu k bn r di ca ng v urani-238 (4,51109 nm) lm cho n tr nn thch hp trong vic s dng nh tui cc macma c nht v cc phng php nh tui phng x khc, nh nh tui urani-thori v nh tui urani-ch. Kim loi urani c s dng trong my X-quang to ra tia X nng lng cao. 1.6- Tc ng n sc khe con ngi v mi trng sinh thi Mt ngi c th tip xc vi urani (hoc cc ht nhn con ca n nh radon) qua vic ht bi trong khng kh hoc qua cc thc phm hoc nc b nhim chng. Hm lng urani trong khng kh thng rt nh; tuy nhin, i vi nhng ngi lm vic trong cc nh my sn xut phn pht pht, hoc sng gn cc nh my sn xut hc th nghim v kh ht nhn, hoc sng hay lm vic gn nhng ni tng c cc trn nh s dng v kh ht nhn, hay gn nh my nhit in dng than, cc c s khai thc hoc x l qung urani, hoc lm giu uran, c th tng nguy c phi nhim urani. Nhng ngi nh hoc cc cng trnh trn cc m urani (t nhin hoc nhn to) c th chu nhiu tng nh hng phi nhim kh radon. Hu ht urani i vo c th qua ng thc phm c bi tit qua ng tiu ha. Ch c 0,5% c hp th khi cc dng khng ha tan nh cc xit urani, ngc li vic hp th cc ion uranyl c th nhiu hn ln n 5%. Tuy nhin, cc hp cht urani ha tan c khuynh hng i qua c th mt cch nhanh chng trong khi cc hp cht khng ha tan c bit khi i vo c th dng bi trong phi s gy nhng bin chng nghim trng. Sau khi vo mu, urani c hp th c
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khuynh hng tch t sinh hc v tn ti nhiu nm trong cc t bo xng do lin h ca urani vi pht pht. Urani khng lin kt dng cc ion uranyl, cc ion ny tch t trong xng, gan, thn v cc t bo sinh sn. Chc nng thng thng ca thn, no, gan, tim v cc h c quan khc trong c th c th b nh hng khi tip xc vi urani, bi v ngoi cc phng x rt yu, urani cn l kim loi c. Urani cng l cht c c kh nng ti sn xut. Cc nh hng phng x ph bin mc a phng l phng x anpha, mt kiu phn r ban u ca U-238, c thi gian tn ti rt ngn, v s khng xuyn qua da. Cc ion uranyl (UO2+), nh dng uranium trioxit hay uranyl nitrate v cc hp cht ha tr su khc c th gy ra nhng d tt bm sinh v ph hy h min dch ca cc con th trong phng th nghim. Nu phi nhim urani tnh c qua ng h hp vi urani hexafluorua nng cao s gy t vong ngi, nguyn nhn chnh gy t vong lin quan n vic to ra axit hdrofuolric c c tnh cao v cc mui uranyl fluorua hn l do bn thn urani. Urani l mt cht t bc chy nn khi dng ht mn n c nguy c chy trong khng kh nhit phng

III.2- Plutoni 2.1- Lch s pht hin Enrico Fermi v nhm nh khoa hc ca i hc Rome thng bo rng h pht hin ra nguyn t th 94 nm 1934. Fermi gi nguyn t ny l hesperium v cp n n trong Nobel Lecture ca ng nm 1938. Thc s, mu l mt hn hp gm bari, krypton, v cc nguyn t khc, nhng iu cha c bit n vo thi im do s phn hch ht nhn cha c pht hin. Plutoni (c bit l plutoni-238) c to ra u tin vo ngy 14 thng 12 nm 1940, v c xc nh tnh cht ha hc vo ngy 23 thng 2 nm 1941, bi Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J. W. Kennedy and A. C. Wahl khi h dng ht nhn deuteron bn ph urani trong my gia tc 60 inch (150 cm) i hc California, Berkeley. Trong th nghim nm 1940, neptuni-238 c to ra

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mt cch trc tip t vic bn ph nhng b phn r pht ra tia beta 2 ngy sau , v to ra nguyn t 94.

Glenn T. Seaborg v nhm nghin cu ca ng Berkeley l ngi u tin to ra plutoni. Edwin McMillan gn y t tn cho nguyn t siu urani u tin theo tn hnh tinh Neptune v xut rng nguyn t 94 tip theo trong di ny cn t theo tn hnh tinh tip theo l Pluto. 2.2- Plutoni v ng v Plutoni l mt nguyn t ha hc him, c tnh phng x cao vi k hiu ha hc Pu v s nguyn t 94. Plutoni l nguyn t nguyn thy nng nht, ng v bn nht ca n l plutoni-244 c chu k bn r khong 80 triu nm lu nguyn t ny c th c tm thy dng vt trong t nhin. Nhng plutoni l sn phm ph thng xuyn c mt khi nguyn t urani b tch lm i trong l phn ng ht nhn. Mt s ht h nguyn t c tng tc trong qu trnh phn hch bin i urani thnh plutoni. Pht x ht anpha gii phng ht nhn heli nng lng cao l cch pht x ph bin ca plutoni. 5 kg li ca v kh ht nhn c trng cha khong 12,5 1024 nguyn t. Vi chu k bn r 24.100 nm, khong 11,5 1012 trong s nguyn t trn phn r mi giy pht ra 5,157 MeV ht anpha bng vi 9,68 W. Nhit sinh ra t vic bt gi cc ht ny lm chng ta c cm gic m khi chm tay vo.
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C 20 ng v phng x ca plutoni c nhn bit. Cc ng v sng lu nht l plutoni-244 c chu k bn r 80,8 triu nm, plutoni-242 l 373.300 nm v plutoni-239 l 24.110 nm. Tt c cc ng v phng x cn li c chu k bn r nh hn 7.000 nm. Nguyn t ny cng c 8 ng phn ht nhn, mc d khng c ng phn no n nh v tt c c chu k bn r nh hn 1 giy. Cc ng v ca plutoni c s khi nm trong khong t 228 n 247. Cc c ch phn r ban u ca cc ng v c s khi thp hn ng v bn nht plutoni244, l phn hch t pht, pht ra ht anpha v hu ht to thnh cc ng v urani (92proton) v neptuni (93 proton). C ch phn r ban u i vi cc ng v c s khi cao hn ng v plutoni-244 l pht ra ht beta v hu ht to thnh cc ng v americi (95 proton). Plutoni-241 l ng v m ca chui phn r neptuni phn r to ra americi-241 v ht hoc electron. Plutoni-238 v 239 l cc ng v tng hp ph bin nht. Plutoni-239 c tng hp thng qua phn ng gia urani (U) v neutron (n) thng qua giai on trung gian vi phn r beta ( ) v neptuni (Np):

Neutron t s phn hch urani-235 c bt gi bi ht nhn urani-238 to ra urani-239; qua mt phn r beta s bin i mt neutron thnh proton to ra Np239 (chu k bn r 2,36 ngy) v qua mt phn r beta khc to ra plutoni239. Nhng ngi lm vic cho d n Tube Alloys d on trn l thuyt phn ng no nm 1940. Plutoni-238 c tng hp t vic bn ph urani-238 bng cc ht nhn deuteron theo phn ng sau.

Trong qu trnh ny, ht nhn Deuteri ng vo urani-238 sinh ra 2 neutron v neptuni-238, n lt n neptuni-238 phn r t pht bng cch pht ra cc ht beta m to thnh plutoni-238.
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2.3- Tnh cht vt l Plutoni c mu trng bc sng ban u nhn th rt ging niken, nhng n b xy ha rt nhanh trong khng kh lm chuyn sang mu xm ti, mc d i khi cng gp mu lc xanh oliu v lc vng. nhit phng, plutoni c dng thu hnh (anpha). Hnh dng cu trc ph bin nht ca nguyn t ny gin v cng ging nh gang xm tr khi n dng hp kim vi cc kim loi khc lm cho n mm v d un/dt. Khng ging vi hu ht kim loi khc, n khng dn nhit v dn in tt. Plutoni c im nng chy thp (640 C) v c im si cao bt thng (3327 C). Plutoni c 6 dng th hnh Trng bc anpha (),beta (), gamma (), delta (),delta phy ('), & epsilon (). Vic tn ti cc dng th hnh ny lm cho vic gia cng plutoni tr nn rt kh, v n thay i trng thi mt cch d dng. V d dng tn ti nhit phng trong plutoni cha c gia cng. N c c im gia cng tng t nh gang nhng bin i thnh dng c tnh do v d un nhit cao hn mt cht 2.4- ng dng a) Dn s - Dn tin phi thuyn. Nh ni trn plutonium l nhng vt phng x alpha nn c th dng dn tin mt phi thuyn. Theo nh lut tc ng v phn ng, nu hng nhng tia alpha pht ra t s phn r t nhin ca plutonium v cng mt hng th phi thuyn s chuyn v hng i din. Mt khi phng ln tri ri th mt phi thuyn nh ch cn mt cht t nng lng duy tr s chuyn dch. Khi lng nh ca nhng ht alpha lm vic ny. V chu k ca ng v c nhiu nht, ng v plutonium Pu-239, l 24.110 nm nn b dn tin c th hot ng trong c chc nm, thi gian cn thit mt phi thuyn bay ti mc tiu. - Sn xut nng lng Tuy nhin p dng dn s gn nh l duy nht ca plutonium l sn xut nng lng. V mi ln mt ht nhn plutonium phn hch th sinh ra nhiu neutron hn
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l khi mt ht nhn uranium phn hch nn plutonium l nhin liu ht nhn tt hn l uranium. Ngun plutonium chnh l nhng l phn ng ht nhn cc c s o to, c s nghin cu v c s sn xut in ht nhn. Ring nc Php, vi chng su chc l phn ng, mi nm sn xut mi tn plutonium. Khi xa, cng nghip v kh ht nhn l th trng plutonium ch yu ca nhng c s in ht nhn. By gi, nhng p dng dn s li c thm mt ngun plutonium na. l plutonium ly t nhng qu bom nguyn t c tho g theo hip nh gii tr qun b ht nhn. Plutonium ny c nhiu gi tr v cha ti 95 phn trm ng v Pu-239, ng v dng lm nhin liu tt nht trong s nhng ng v plutonium. Ngi ta c c chng hn mt nghn tn plutonium c dng ch to v kh ht nhn c th a ra th trng dn s. b) Qun s Nhng hng sn xut v kh sng ch hai loi bom ht nhn : bom kinh kh v bom nguyn t. Bom kinh kh da trn phn ng hp nht mt ht nhn deuterium De-2 vi mt ht nhn tritium T-3. Loi v kh ny cn c gi l bom H. Bom nguyn t da trn phn ng phn hch ng v uranium U-235 hay ng v plutonium Pu-239. Loi v kh ny cn c gi l bom A. Sn xut mt qu bom nguyn t thc ra khng phc tp my. Nhng lm n mt qu bom nguyn t khng phi l mt chuyn d. Trong mt l phn ng dng nghin cu khoa hc hay l sn xut in th nng lng c sinh ra chm chp mt cch lin tc. Ngc li, mun c mt qu bom th phi thit k ra sao tt c nng lng cha trong nhng ht nhn pht ra trong mt khong khc thi gian ngn tnh bng mt phn hng trm t giy ng h. Nu trong qu bom c t cht kh phn hch th nhng neutron sn xut trong nhng phn ng trc c th lt ra ngoi v khng tham gia vo vic duy tr dy chuyn phn ng. Vy th phi c mt khi lng ti thiu cht kh phn hch gi l khi lng quyt nh. Xung quanh khi uranium hay plutonium phi c mt thit b phn li nhng neutron mun bay ra ngoi v khng tham gia vo dy chuyn phn ng. Thit b gi l mt gng neutron. Ngoi ra, trnh cho

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nhng neutron b hp th bi nhng ng v phong ph th hm lng nhng ng v kh phn hch phi cao, t nht l 90 phn trm, tt nht l 95 phn trm.

gia tng hm lng uranium U-235 ngi ta lc uranium t nhin loi ra nhng ng v U-238. c plutonium th ngi ta phn tch nhng nguyn t t nhng thanh nhin liu ht nhn b phng http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/p/pressurized- x trong mt l phn ng ht water-reactor.htm nhn. Sau , ngi ta li phi lc nhng ng v plutonium trch ra ng v Pu-239 ch to bom. 2.5- Tc ng n sc khe con ngi v mi trng sinh thi Plutonium l cht phng x do uranium 239 hoc 235 sinh ra, v n pht ra tia phng x c tn gi l tia alpha. c tnh ca tia alpha ny l d c bm vo da ngi th n cng khng xm nhp trc tip vo c th con ngi m xm nhp gin tip qua cc loi thc phm b nhim x hoc qua ng th. V d, trong trng hp cht plutonium 239 th chu k bn r ca cht ny rt di, khong 20.000 nm. V th, mt khi nhim vo c th con ngi th n vn s tip tc pht x ti ni m n xm nhp vo v v vy m kh nng b ung th l kh cao.

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C th con ngi c kh nng loi thi plutonium, v th nu b nhim x th trong vng vi thng lng plutonium trong c th s gim xung mt na. Tuy nhin, ngi ta cho rng plutonium thng trong c th con ngi lu hn so vi cht phng x iodine v cesium.

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Phn 3- KT LUN C th ni ch phng x, c bit l cht thi phng x t cc nh my in ht nhn lun l vn c ch trn ton cu. Nht l khi cc s c khng mong mun t cc nh my in ht nhn xy ra ngy cng nhiu. V d gn y nht l v n nh my in ht nhn Fukushima Nht Bn vo nm 2011 gy ra tn tht to ln v thng au cho hng triu ngi dn Nht. Chnh v th, ngi ta ngy cng quan tm hn ti cc vn v an ton sinh hc vi cht thi phng x. Khng ch bi nhng nh hng trc tip ca n m cn bi nhng nh hng lu di ti mi trng sinh thi cng nh th h con chu chng ta. Vit Nam chng ta trong tng lai khng xa s xy dng cc nh my in ht nhn, theo d kin nm 2020 nh my in ht nhn u tin ca Vit Nam s c a vo hot ng. Vi tm nh hng ca n, chng ta cng cn phi c trang b nhng kin thc c bn v an ton sinh hc vi phng x m bo an ton cho chnh chng ta v ln hn l cho s pht trin bn vng ca t nc. Qua phn tm hiu trn y, nhm chng em cng t tm hiu thm c nhng kin thc c bn v phng x cng nh tc hi nh hng ca n ti con ngi v mi trng sinh thi. T hiu c nhng quy tc an ton khi s dng, lu tr v vn chuyn chng. Trong qu trnh vit bi, chc chn khng th trnh khi nhng thiu st. Chng em rt mong nhn c s gp ca c gio v cc bn bi vit hon chnh hn.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

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Arthur C. Upton (1992), The frist hundred years of radiation research: what have they taught us?, Environmental research Larry Macdonald (2006), Radiation detection and measurement , [macdon@u.washington.edu] Howstuffworks (2012), Science about radiations [http://science.howstuffworks.com/radiation-info2.html] L Hoa, Cc kim sot v an ton bc x ht nhn, Tm hiu v bc x v phng x, [http://www.varans.vn/ShowItems.asp?actType=23&ItemID=218&TypeGrp =1&menuid=109000&menulink=100000&menuup=109000]

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