Chng I

Chng

GII THIU X L TN HIU S

Chng ny nu tng qut cc vn lin quan n mn hc. Ni dung chnh chng ny l: Gii thch cc khi nim nh: Tn hiu, Tn hiu s, X l tn hiu, X l tn hiu s... Cc khu c bn trong h thng x l tn hiu s Nu mt s ng dng ca x l tn hiu s So snh x l tng t v x l s Gii thch khi nim Tn s Cc bc c bn chuyn i tn hiu t tng t sang s Cc bc c bn chuyn i tn hiu t s sang tng t

1.1 TN HIU, H THNG v X L TN HIU hiu X l tn hiu l g, ta s tm hiu ngha ca tng t. Tn hiu(signal) dng ch mt i lng vt l mang tin tc. V mt ton hc, ta c th m t tn hiu nh l mt hm theo bin thi gian, khng gian hay cc bin c lp khc. Chng hn nh, hm: x(t ) = 20t 2 m t tn hiu bin thin theo bin thi gian t. Hay mt v d khc, hm:

s ( x, y ) = 3 x + 5 xy + y 2 m t tn hiu l hm theo hai bin c lp x v y, trong x v y

biu din cho hai ta khng gian trong mt phng. Hai tn hiu trong v d trn thuc v lp tn hiu c th c biu din chnh xc bng hm theo bin c lp. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, cc mi quan h gia cc i lng vt l v cc bin c lp thng rt phc tp nn khng th biu din tn hiu nh trong hai v d va nu trn.

Hnh 1.1 V d tn hiu ting ni Ly v d tn hiu ting ni- l s bin thin ca p sut khng kh theo thi gian. Chng hn khi ta pht m t away, dng sng ca t c biu din trn hnh 1.1. Mt v d khc l tn hiu in tm (ECG)- cung cp cho bc s nhng tin tc v tnh trng tim ca bnh nhn, hay l tn hiu in no (EEG) cung cp tin tc v hot ng ca no. Cc tn hiu ting ni, ECG, EEG l cc v d v tn hiu mang tin c th biu din l hm theo bin thi gian. Thc t c nhng tn hiu l hm theo nhiu bin c lp. V d nh tn -1-

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hiu nh (image)- l s thay i ca cng nh sng theo khng gian, c th xem l hm sng theo hai bin khng gian. Tt c cc tn hiu u do mt ngun no to ra, theo mt cch thc no . V d tn hiu ting ni c to ra bng cch p khng kh i qua dy thanh m. Mt bc nh c c bng cch phi sng mt tm phim chp mt cnh/ i tng no . Qu trnh to ra tn hiu nh vy thng lin quan n mt h thng, h thng ny p ng li mt kch thch no . Trong tn hiu ting ni, h thng l h thng pht m, gm mi, rng, li, dy thanh... Kch thch lin quan n h thng c gi l ngun tn hiu (signal source). Nh vy ta c ngun ting ni, ngun nh v cc ngun tn hiu khc. C th nh ngha h thng (system) l mt thit b vt l thc hin mt tc ng no ln tn hiu. V d, b lc dng gim nhiu trong tn hiu mang tin c gi l mt h thng. Khi ta truyn tn hiu qua mt h thng, nh b lc chng hn, ta ni rng ta x l tn hiu . Trong trng hp ny, x l tn hiu lin quan n lc nhiu ra khi tn hiu mong mun. Nh vy, x l tn hiu (signal processing) l mun ni n mt lot cc cng vic hay cc php ton c thc hin trn tn hiu nhm t mt mc ch no , nh l tch ly tin tc cha bn trong tn hiu hoc l truyn tn hiu mang tin t ni ny n ni khc. y ta cn lu n nh ngha h thng, khng ch n thun l thit b vt l m cn l cc phn mm x l tn hiu hoc l s kt hp gia phn cng v phn mm.V d khi x l s tn hiu bng cc mch logic, h thng x l y l phn cng. Khi x l bng my tnh s, tc ng ln tn hiu bao gm mt lot cc php ton thc hin bi chng trnh phn mm. Khi x l bng cc b vi x l- h thng bao gm kt hp c phn cng v phn mm, mi phn thc hin cc cng vic ring no . 1.2 PHN LOI TN HIU Cc phng php ta s dng trong x l tn hiu ph thuc cht ch vo c im ca tn hiu. C nhng phng php ring p dng cho mt s loi tn hiu no . Do vy, trc tin ta cn xem qua cch phn loi tn hiu lin quan n nhng ng dng c th. 1.2.1 Tn hiu nhiu hng v tn hiu nhiu knh Nh ni trong mc 1.1, tn hiu c th c m t l hm theo mt hoc nhiu bin c lp. Nu tn hiu l hm theo mt bin, ta gi l cc tn hiu mt hng (one-dimention signal), nh tn hiu ting ni, ECG, EEG. Ngc li ta gi l tn hiu nhiu hng (multidimention signal), v d nh tn hiu nh trng en, mi im nh l hm theo 2 bin c lp.
y

y1

I(x1,y1)

x x1

Hnh 1.2 V d tn hiu nh mu (2 hng- 3 knh) -2-

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Trong mt s ng dng, tn hiu c to ra khng phi t mt m l nhiu ngun hay nhiu b cm bin. Cc tn hiu nh vy c gi l tn hiu a knh (multi-channel signal). Bc nh trn hnh 1.2 l mt v d v tn hiu 2 hng, 3 knh. Ta thy sng I(x,y) mi mt im l hm theo 2 bin khng gian c lp, sng ny li ph thuc vo sng ca 3 mu c bn red, green v blue. Mt v d khc, tn hiu nh TV mu l tn hiu 3 hng- 3 knh, c th biu din bi vector sau :

I r (x, y, t) I(x, y, t) = Ig (x, y, t) I (x, y, t) b

Trong gio trnh ny, ta tp trung xt tn hiu mt hng- mt knh, bin l bin thi gian (mc d thc t khng phi lc no bin cng l bin thi gian) 1.2.2 Tn hiu lin tc v tn hiu ri rc Tn hiu lin tc (continuous-time signal) hay cn gi l tn hiu tng t l tn hiu c xc nh ti tt c cc gi tr thi gian. V mt ton hc, c th m t tn hiu ny l hm ca mt bin lin tc, v d tn hiu ting ni. Tn hiu ri rc (discrete-time signal) ch c xc nh ti mt s thi im no . Khong cch gia cc thi im ny khng nht thit phi bng nhau, nhng trong thc t thng l ly bng nhau d tnh ton. C th to ra tn hiu ri rc t tn hiu lin tc bng 2 cch. Mt l ly mu tn hiu lin tc, hai l o hay m mt i lng vt l no theo mt chu k nht nh, v d cn em b hng thng, o p sut khng kh theo gi... Tn hiu x(t n ) = e n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3,... l mt v d v tn hiu ri rc. Ta c th dng bin nguyn n thay cho bin thi gian ri rc tn. Lc ny, tn hiu tr thnh mt hm theo bin nguyn, v mt ton ta c th biu din tn hiu ri rc l mt dy s (thc hoc phc). Ta s dng k hiu x(n) thay cho x(tn), ngha l tn = nT vi T l hng s- khong cch gia hai thi im ri rc cnh nhau. Hnh 1.3 l mt v d v tn hiu ting ni ri rc.
t

Hnh 1.3 V d tn hiu ri rc 1.2.3 Tn hiu bin lin tc v tn hiu bin ri rc Bin ca c tn hiu lin tc v ri rc u c th lin tc hay ri rc. Nu tn hiu c tt c cc gi tr trong mt di bin no th ta gi l tn hiu bin lin tc (continuous-valued signal). Ngc li, nu tn hiu ch ly mt s gi tr no (cn gi l mc) trong mt di bin th l tn hiu bin ri rc (discrete-valued signal). -3-

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Khong cch gia cc mc bin ny c th bng nhau hay khng bng nhau. Thng th ta biu din cc mc bin ny bng mt s nguyn, l bi s ca khong cch gia hai mc bin cnh nhau. Tn hiu ri rc theo c thi gian v bin c gi l tn hiu s (digital signal). Hnh 1.4 l mt v d v tn hiu s.

Hnh 1.4 V d tn hiu s vi 6 mc bin khc nhau x l tn hiu, trc ht phi thu ly c tn hiu. V d ta thu ly tn hiu m thanh bng microphone, chuyn i tn hiu m thanh sang tn hiu in. Hay nh tn hiu nh, ta c th thu ly bng my nh. Trong my nh tng t chng hn, tn hiu nh sng iu khin cc phn ng ha hc trn mt tm phim nh. V bn cht, cc tn hiu t nhin u l tng t, c s mc bin v s thi im u l v hn. Do vy, tn hiu tng t khng ph hp x l bng cc h thng s. x l s, tn hiu tng t c ly mu vo cc thi im ri rc, to thnh tn hiu ri rc, sau lng t ha bin ca n thnh mt tp cc mc bin ri rc. Qu trnh lng t ha (quantization) tn hiu, v c bn l mt qu trnh xp x ha. N c th c thc hin d dng bng cch lm trn hay ct gt. V d tn hiu c gi tr l 8.62 c th c xp x ha thnh 8 (nu lng t ha bng cch ct gt) hay l 9 (nu lng t ha bng cch lm trn) 1.2.4 Tn hiu xc nh v tn hiu ngu nhin Qu trnh phn tch ton hc v x l tn hiu yu cu phi m t c tn hiu. S m t ny lin quan n mt m hnh tn hiu. Da vo m hnh tn hiu, ta c mt cch phn loi tn hiu khc. Cc tn hiu c th c m t duy nht bng mt biu din ton hc r rng nh l th, bng d liu... c gi l tn hiu xc nh (deterministic signal). T xc nh mun nhn mnh l ta bit r v chc chn cc gi tr ca tn hiu trong qu kh, hin ti v tng lai. Tuy nhin trong nhiu ng dng thc t, c nhng tn hiu khng th biu din chnh xc bng cc cng thc ton hc hay nhng m t ton nh vy l qu phc tp. Ta khng th on trc s bin thin ca cc gi tr ca loi tn hiu ny. Ta gi y l tn hiu ngu nhin (random signal). V d tn hiu nhiu l tn hiu ngu nhin. Ta cn lu rng vic phn loi tn hiu thc thnh xc nh hay ngu nhin khng phi lc no cng r rng. i khi, xem tn hiu l xc nh hay ngu nhin u dn n nhng kt qu c ngha. Nhng i khi, vic phn loi sai s dn n kt qu b li, bi v c nhng cng c ton ch c th p dng cho tn hiu xc nh, trong khi cc cng c khc li ch p dng cho tn hiu ngu nhin. iu ny s tr nn r rng hn khi ta kim tra cc cng c ton c th. 1.3 H THNG X L TN HIU 1.3.1 Cc khu c bn trong mt h thng x l s tn hiu Nh ni trn, hu ht cc tn hiu bt gp trong khoa hc v k thut u l tng t. C th x l trc tip cc tn hiu bng mt h thng tng t thch hp. Trong trng hp -4-

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ny, ta ni tn hiu c x l trc tip dng tng t, nh minh ha trn hnh 1.5. C tn hiu vo v ra u l tn hiu tng t.
T/h tng t vo B x l tn hiu tng t T/h tng t ra

Hnh 1.5 X l tn hiu tng t X l s l mt phng php khc x l tn hiu tng t, nh minh ha trn hnh 1.6. Tn hiu tng t phi c chuyn i thnh dng s (A/D) trc khi x l. iu khng may l qu trnh chuyn i tng t/ s ny khng bao gi hon ho, ngha l tn hiu s khng phi l biu din chnh xc cho tn hiu tng t ban u. Khi tn hiu tng t c chuyn thnh tn hiu s gn ng nht, qu trnh x l s c thc hin bng mt b x l tn hiu s DSP (Digital Signal Processor), to ra mt tn hiu s mi. Trong hu ht cc ng dng, tn hiu s cn c chuyn i ngc li thnh tn hiu tng t (D/A) cui qu trnh x l. Tuy nhin, cng c nhng ng dng lin quan n phn tch tn hiu, trong khng cn chuyn i D/A. Hnh 1.6 l s khi mt h thng x l tn hiu bng phng php s. B x l tn hiu s DSP c th l mt mch logic, mt my tnh s hoc l mt b vi x l lp trnh c.
T/h tng t vo B chuyn i A/D T/h s vo B x l tn hiu s DSP T/h s ra B chuyn i D/A T/h tng t ra

Hnh 1.6 X l s tn hiu 1.3.2 u im ca x l s so vi x l tng t C nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau khin cho x l s c a chung hn l x l trc tip tn hiu tng t. Trc tin, h thng s c th lp trnh c, to ta tnh mm do trong vic cu hnh li cc hot ng x l bng cch n gin l thay i chng trnh, trong khi cu hnh li h tng t, ta phi thit k li phn cng, ri kim tra v thm nh xem cc hot ng c ng khng. chnh xc cng ng mt vai tr qua trng trong vic la chn b x l tn hiu. sai lch ca cc linh kin tng t khin cho cc nh thit k h thng v cng kh khn trong vic iu khin chnh xc ca h thng tng t. Trong khi , vic iu khin chnh xc ca h thng s li rt d dng, ch cn ta xc nh r yu cu v chnh xc ri quyt nh la chn cc b chuyn i A/D v DSP c di t thch hp, c kiu nh dng du phy tnh hay du phy ng. Tn hiu s d dng lu tr trn cc thit b bng a t m khng b mt mt hay gim cht lng. Nh vy tn hiu s c th truyn i xa v c th c x l t xa. Phng php x l s cng cho php thc hin cc thut ton x l tn hiu tinh vi phc tp hn nhiu so vi x l tng t, nh vic x l c thc hin bng phn mm trn cc my tnh s. Trong mt vi trng hp, x l s r hn x l tng t. Gi thnh thp hn l do cc phn cng s r hn, hoc l do tnh mm do trong x l s. Tuy nhin, x l s cng c mt vi hn ch. Trc tin l s hn ch v tc hot ng ca cc b chuyn i A/D v b x l s DSP. Sau ny ta s thy nhng tn hiu bng thng -5-

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cc ln yu cu tc ly mu ca b A/D cc nhanh v tc x l ca DSP cng phi cc nhanh. V vy, phng php x l s cha p dng c cho cc tn hiu tng t bng thng ln. Nh s pht trin nhanh chng ca cng ngh my tnh v cng ngh sn xut vi mch m lnh vc x l tn hiu s (DSP) pht trin rt mnh trong vi thp nin gn y. ng dng ca DSP ngy cng nhiu trong khoa hc v cng ngh. DSP ng vai tr quan trng trong s pht trin ca cc lnh vc nh vin thng, a phng tin, y hc, x l nh v tng tc ngi-my... thy r nh hng to ln ca x l tn hiu s, ta xem v d v s pht trin ca my nh, t my nh tng t truyn thng n my nh s ngy nay. My nh truyn thng hot ng da trn cc c im vt l ca thu knh quang hc, trong cht lng bc nh cng p khi h thng thu knh cng to v rng. Khi my nh s mi ra i vi thu knh nh hn th cht lng nh chp thp hn nhiu so vi tng t. Tuy nhin, khi nng lc x l ca cc b vi x l mnh hn v cc thut ton x l tn hiu s tinh vi hn c p dng th cc nhc im v quang hc c khc phc v cht lng nh c ci thin r rt. Hin nay, cc my nh s cho cht lng nh vt tri hn so vi tng t. Hn na, cc my nh s ci trong in thoi di ng hin nay c thu knh rt nh nhng vn c th cho cht lng nh rt tt. Cht lng nh y ph thuc vo nng lc ca DSP ch khng phi ph thuc vo kch thc ca thu knh quang hc. Ni cch khc, cng ngh my nh s s dng nng lc tnh ton ca DSP khc phc cc hn ch v vt l. Tm li, DSP l mt lnh vc da trn nguyn ca ton hc, vt l v khoa hc my tnh v c nhng ng dng rt rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau. 1.4 KHI NIM TN S TRONG TN HIU LIN TC V TN HIU RI RC T vt l chng ta bit rng tn s lin quan cht ch vi kiu chuyn ng c chu k gi l dao ng v c m t bng hm sin. Khi nim tn s lin quan trc tip n khi nim thi gian. Thc t th tn s c th nguyn l o ngc ca thi gian. Do vy bn cht ca thi gian (lin tc hoc ri rc) s c nh hng n bn cht ca tn s. 1.4.1 Tn hiu sin lin tc Mt dao ng iu ha n gin c m t ton hc bng hm sin lin tc sau:

x a (t) = Acos(t+ ), - <t<

Tn hiu ny c xc nh bi 3 thng s: A l bin , l tn s gc tnh bng radian trn giy (rad/s) v l gc pha tnh bng radian (rad) (hnh 1.7). Thay v dng , ta c th dng F tnh bng s chu k trn giy hay hertz (Hz), y: = 2 F . Vy ta c th vit li:

x a (t) = Acos(2 Ft+ ), - <t<

xa(t) Acos t Tp = 1/F

-A

Hnh 1.7 Tn hiu sin lin tc -6-

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Tn hiu sin lin tc trn c cc c im sau y: 1. Vi F c nh, tn hiu sin lin tc xa(t) tun hon vi chu k c bn l Tp = 1/F, ngha l ta lun lun c:

x a (t + Tp ) = x a (t), < t <

2. Cc tn hiu sin lin tc c tn s khc nhau th khc nhau. 3. Vic tng tn s s dn n tng tc ca dao ng ca tn hiu, tc l tng s chu k dao ng trong mt khong thi gian cho trc. V thi gian t lin tc nn ta c th tng F n v cng. Ta cng c th biu din tn hiu sin lin tc mt dng khc, thng c gi l phasor nh sau:

x a (t) = Acos(t+ )=

A j( t + ) A j( t + ) e + e 2 2

Theo cch biu din phasor, c th xem tn hiu sin lin tc l tng ca 2 tn hiu iu ha hm m phc c bin bng nhau v lin hp phc vi nhau, tn s gc y l : tn s dng v m. thun tin v mt ton, ta s dng c khi nim tn s dng v m. Vy di tn s ca tn hiu lin tc l < F < . 1.4.2 Tn hiu sin ri rc Tn hiu sin ri rc c biu din nh sau:

x(n) = Acos( n+ ), - <n<

y n l bin nguyn gi l s mu, A l bin , l tn s gc tnh bng radian trn mu (rad/mu) v l gc pha tnh bng radian (rad). Thay v dng , ta c th dng tn s f vi quan h: = 2 f . Ta vit li x(n) nh sau:

x(n) = Acos(2 fn+ ), - <n<

Tn s f c th nguyn l chu k trn mu (chu k/mu). Tm thi by gi chng ta cha xt n mi quan h gia F v f, ta xem nh tn hiu sin ri rc l c lp vi tn hiu sin lin tc. Hnh 1.8 l biu din tn hiu sin ri rc vi = / 6 (rad/mu) v pha = / 3 (rad).
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -10

-5

10

15

Hnh 1.8 Tn hiu sin ri rc Khc vi tn hiu sin lin tc, tn hiu sin ri rc c cc c im sau y: 1. Tn hiu sin ri rc tun hon khi v ch khi tn s f l mt s hu t. T nh ngha, tn hiu ri rc x(n) tun hon vi chu k N (N>0) khi v ch khi

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x(n + N) = x(n) n
Gi tr N nh nht c gi l chu k c bn. Gi s tn hiu sin ri rc tn s f0 tun hon, ta c:

cos[2 f 0 (n+N)+ ]=cos(2 f 0 n+ )

Quan h ny ch ng khi tn ti mt s nguyn k sao cho:

2 f 0 N = 2k f 0 =

k N

Theo y, ta thy tn hiu sin ri rc ch tun hon khi f0 c th biu din di dng t ca hai s nguyn, ngha l f0 l mt s hu t. xc nh chu k c bn ca tn hiu sin ri rc, ta biu din f0 di dng t ca hai s nguyn k/N, sau a k/N v dng phn s ti gin. Lc mu s ca phn s ti gin chnh l chu k c bn. V d f1 = 31/50, ngha l N1 = 50 hay N2 = 25/50 = 1/2 ngha l N2 = 2. 2. Cc tn hiu sin ri rc c tn s khc nhau mt bi s nguyn ln 2 th trng nhau. Ta xt tn hiu sin ri rc x(n) = cos(0 n+ ) . D dng nhn thy rng:

x(n) = cos[(0 +2 )n+ ]=cos(0 n+2 n+ )=cos(0 n+ )

Vy tt c cc tn hiu sin ri rc c dng:

x k (n) = cos(k n+ ), k = 0,1,2,...

vi

k = 0 + 2k , 0
u trng nhau. Ni cch khc, cc tn hiu sin ri rc c tn s nm trong di hay 1 f 1 th mi khc bit nhau. V l do nn ta gi nhng tn 2 2 hiu sin ri rc c tn s nm ngoi di [- , ] l phin bn (alias) ca nhng tn hiu ri rc c tn s nm trong di [- , ] tng ng. Di tn c gi l di c bn. Ni rng hn, di c bn l di tn s c b rng l 2. Nh vy, di c bn cng c th l di 0 2 , 3 ... Nhng thc t thng chn di c bn l:

hay l 0 2
3. Tc cao nht ca tn hiu sin ri rc t c khi = hay = , tng ng vi f = 1 hay f = 1 2 2 Ta c th thy r iu ny qua v d minh ha vi tn hiu x(n) = cos0 n . Ln lt cho

0 = 0, , , , ta c chu k tng ng l N = ,16,8, 4, 2 . Ta thy chu k gim khi

8 4 2

tn s tng, tc l tc dao ng ca tn hiu tng. 1.4.3 Tn hiu iu ha hm m phc Cng nh tn hiu sin iu ha, tn hiu iu ha hm m phc ng mt vai tr quan trng trong phn tch tn hiu v h thng. Trong phn ny chng ta xt tn hiu iu ha hm m phc trong c min thi gian lin tc v ri rc. -8-

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1. Tn hiu iu ha hm m phc lin tc Xt tn hiu sau:

s k (t) = e jk0 t = e jk 2 F0 t

k = 0, 1, 2...

Lu rng vi mi k, tn hiu sk(t) tun hon vi chu k c bn l 1/(kF0) = Tp/k v chu k chung l Tp. Khi k khc nhau th tn hiu sk (t) cng khc nhau. T sk (t), ta c th t hp tuyn tnh cc tn hiu sk(t) li vi nhau to thnh mt tn hiu tun hon xa(t) vi chu k c bn l Tp = 1/F0 nh sau:

x a (t) =

k =

cs

k k

(t) = c k e jk0 t
k =

Biu din ny c gi l khai trin Fourier ca xa (t), cc hng s phc ck l cc h s Fourier v sk(t) l cc hi bc k ca xa(t) 2. Tn hiu iu ha hm m phc ri rc V tn hiu sin ri rc ch tun hon khi tn s l mt s hu t nn ta chn f0 = 1/N v nh ngha tn hiu iu ha hm m phc ri rc l:

s k (n) = e jk 2 f0 n = e jk 2 n / N
Khc vi tn hiu lin tc, y ta thy:

k = 0, 1, 2...

s k + N (n) = e j2 (k + N)n / N = e j2 n s k (n) = s k (n)

iu ny ngha l khi chn k sai khc nhau mt bi s nguyn ca N th sk(n) s trng nhau, do ta ch cn xt vi k = n0 n k = n0 + N -1. cho tin, ta thng chn n0 = 0. Vy ta c:

s k (n) = e jk 2 f0n = e jk 2 n / N

k = 0,1, 2,..., N 1

Theo , tn hiu s(n) tun hon vi chu k c bn N c th khai trin thnh chui Fourier nh sau:

x(n) = c k s k (n) = c k e j2 kn / N
k =0 k =0

N 1

N 1

y ck l h s Fourier v sk (n) l hi bc k ca x(n). 1.5 BIN I TNG T - S (A/D) Hu ht cc tn hiu thc t nh ting ni, tn hiu sinh hc, tn hiu a chn, radar, sonar, tn hiu thng tin nh audio, video... u l tn hiu tng t. x l tn hiu tng t bng phng php s, trc ht phi chuyn tn hiu tng t sang dng s. Qu trnh ny gi l bin i A/D. Qu trnh A/D v c bn gm 3 bc nh minh ha trong hnh 1.9.
T/h tng t xa(t)

Ly mu

Lng t ha T/h ri rc x(n)

M ha

T/h s 010011...

T/h lng t xq(n)

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Hnh 1.9 B chuyn i A/D c bn 1. Ly mu (sampling) l qu trnh chuyn i tn hiu t lin tc thnh ri rc bng cch ly tng mu (sample) ca tn hiu lin tc ti cc thi im ri rc. Vy nu tn hiu xa(t) c a vo b ly mu th u ra l xa(nT) x(n) vi T l chu k ly mu. Sau ly mu, tn hiu lin tc tr thnh dy cc gi tr ri rc v c th lu tr trong b nh my tnh x l. Thc t th gi tr ca tn hiu ti cc thi im ly mu thng c duy tr cho n mu tip theo. Do qu trnh ly mu cn c gi l ly mu v gi mu (sample and hold). C th ni qu trnh ly mu ny l cu ni gia th gii tng t v th gii s. 2. Lng t ha (quantization) l qu trnh chuyn i tn hiu ri rc c bin lin tc thnh tn hiu ri rc c bin ri rc (cn gi l tn hiu s). Mi mu tn hiu c biu din bng mt gi tr chn t trong tp hu hn cc gi tr c th c. S khc nhau gia gi tr ca mu cha lng t ha x(n) v gi tr ca mu lng t ha xq(n) gi l sai s lng t ha (quantization error). Nu b qua sai s ny th thut ng tn hiu ri rc v tn hiu s c th s dng thay th cho nhau. 3. S ha (digitization) l qu trnh biu din mi gi tr ri rc xq(n) bng mt dy s nh phn b bit. Hnh 1.10 minh ha qu trnh bin i A/D qua mt v d c th.

Hnh 1.10 Bin i A/D 3 bit Trong phn ny, ta s xt chi tit qu trnh chuyn i A/D, gm ly mu, lng t ha v m ha. Nu bng thng ca tn hiu tng t l hu hn v tn s ly mu ln th vic ly mu s khng lm mt mt tn tc v khng lm mo tn hiu. Trong khi , lng t ha l qu trnh xp x ha nn s gy mo tn hiu. mo ny ph thuc vo s bit b. S bit tng s lm gim mo nhng dn n gi thnh tng. 1.5.1 Ly mu tn hiu tng t Nh gii thiu trn, qu trnh ly mu c m t bi quan h sau: - 10 -

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x(n) xa(nT) y x(n) l tn hiu ri rc c c bng cch ly mu tn hiu tng t xa(t) vo cc thi im cch nhau T giy. Khong thi gian T gia cc mu cnh nhau gi l chu k ly mu v Fs = 1/T gi l tc ly mu (mu/s) hay tn s ly mu (Hz). T y suy ra mi quan h gia bin thi gian lin tc t v bin thi gian ri rc n nh sau:

t = nT =

n Fs

Nh vy cng s tn ti mt quan h gia bin tn s F (hay ) ca tn hiu lin tc v bin tn s f (hay ) ca tn hiu ri rc. thit lp mi quan h ny, ta xt tn hiu sin lin tc sau:

x a (t) = Acos(2Ft+)
Ly mu tn hiu ny vi tn s Fs = 1/T (mu/s), ta c tn hiu ri rc sau:

2nF x a (nT) x(n) = Acos(2FnT+)=Acos + Fs

So snh tn hiu ny vi tn hiu sin ri rc xt trong (1.4.2), ta c quan h gia F v f l quan h tuyn tnh nh sau:

f=
iu ny tng ng vi:

F Fs

= T
Tn s f cn c gi l tn s chun ha (normalized frequency) hay tn s s. Ta c th s dng tn s f tnh tn s F (Hz) nu bit tn s ly mu. Kt hp cc di bin thin ca tn s F (hay ) v f (hay ) vi quan h va tm ra, ta c bng tm tt 1.1 sau: Tn hiu lin tc Tn hiu ri rc

= 2F
[rad/s] [Hz]

= 2f
[rad/mu] [chu k/mu]

< < < F < = T, f = F / Fs = / T, F = f .Fs / T / T Fs / 2 F Fs / 2

Bng 1.1 Quan h gia cc bin tn s - 11 -

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T quan h trn, ta thy im khc bit chnh gia tn hiu lin tc v tn hiu ri rc l di bin thin ca tn s F v f (hay v ). Vic ly mu mt tn hiu lin tc chnh l sp xp di tn s v hn ca bin F (hay ) vo di tn s hu hn ca bin f (hay ). V tn s cao nht ca tn hiu ri rc l f = (hay = ) nn vi tn s ly mu l Fs, tn s tng ng cao nht ca F v l:

Fmax = max

Fs 1 = 2 2T = Fs = T

Nh vy, tn s cao nht ca tn hiu lin tc khi ly mu vi tn s Fs l Fmax = Fs /2. Khi tn s ca tn hiu lin tc ln hn tn s Fs /2 th s xy ra s mp m (ambiguity)hay cn gi l chng ph (aliasing). Ta c th thy r iu ny qua v d minh ha sau: Cho 2 tn hiu sin khc nhau c tn s ln lt l 10 Hz v 50 Hz :

x1 (t) = cos2(10)t x 2 (t) = cos2(50)t

Ly mu 2 tn hiu ny vi tn s Fs = 40Hz, tn hiu ri rc l :

10 x1 (n) = cos2 n = cos n 2 40 5 50 x 2 (n) = cos2 n = cos n 2 40

Nhn xt thy x2 (n) = x1 (n). Nh vy, 2 tn hiu sin ri rc ny khng phn bit c vi nhau. Ta ni tn s 50 Hz l phin bn ca tn s 10 Hz ti tn s ly mu l 40 Hz. Ta c th suy ra tng qut l tn s (F0 + kFs) (Hz) l phin bn ca tn s F0 (Hz) ti tn s ly mu l Fs (Hz). T v d trn, ta c th d dng thy tn s cao nht khng xy ra s chng ph l 20 Hz. y chnh l Fs /2 tng ng vi = . Tn s Fs /2 cn c gi l tn s gp (folding frequency), v xc nh tn s phin bn (ln hn Fs / 2), ta c th chn Fs / 2 lm im cht ri gp (hay phn x) tn s phin bn vo di c s [0, Fs /2]. V d 1.1 Cho tn hiu tng t:

x a (t) = 3cos100t
(a) Xc nh tn s ly mu nh nht trnh chng ph (b) Gi s tn hiu trn c ly mu vi tn s Fs = 200 Hz, tn hiu ri rc sau ly mu l g ? (c) Gi s tn hiu trn c ly mu vi tn s Fs = 75 Hz, tn hiu ri rc sau ly mu l g ? (d) Xc nh tn s (0 < F < Fs) ca tn hiu sin m c cc mu trng vi cc mu ca tn hiu (c)

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1.5.2 nh l ly mu Cho mt tn hiu tng t, ta chn tn s ly mu nh th no ? tr li cu hi ny, ta phi c mt s thng tin chi tit v cc c im ca tn hiu c ly mu, bao gm bin , tn s v pha ca cc thnh phn tn s khc nhau. Tuy nhin, nhng thng tin nh vy th ta li khng c bit trc. Ta ch c th bit c tn s ln nht ca mt lp tn hiu no (nh l lp tn hiu ting ni, lp tn hiu video...). Da vo tn s ln nht ny, ta c th xc nh c tn s ly mu cn thit chuyn tn hiu t tng t sang s. V tn s ln nht ny c th thay i cht t trong cc tn hiu cng lp (v d ting ni ca nhng ngi ni khc nhau th c tn s ln nht khc nhau) nn m bo tn s ln nht khng vt qu Fs /2 ( trnh chng ph) th trc khi ly mu tn hiu, ta cho n i qua mt b lc, lc b cc tn s trn Fs/2. B lc ny c gi l lc chng chng ph (antialiasing filter) T tn s Fmax bit, ta c th chn tn s ly mu tng ng Fs > 2Fmax Vi tn s ly mu nh th ny, tt c cc thnh phn tn s ca tn hiu tng t c biu din di dng cc mu m khng b chng ph, v do vy, ta c th khi phc li tn hiu tng t t cc mu ri rc m khng b mo bng cch s dng mt phng php ni suy thch hp. Cng thc ni suy c trnh by trong nh l ly mu nh sau : Nu tn s cao nht trong tn hiu lin tc xa(t) l Fmax v tn hiu c ly mu vi tn s Fs>2Fmax th c th khi phc chnh xc xa(t) t cc mu ri rc xa(nT) bng cch s dng cng thc ni suy sau :

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x a (t) =

n =

(nT)

sin 2Fmax (t nT) 2Fmax (t nT)

Tn s ly mu Fs = 2Fmax c gi l tn s Nyquist (do Nyquist tm ra nm 1928)- l tn s ly mu nh nht trnh chng ph. Chng minh (xem SGK) V d 1.2 Cho tn hiu tng t :

x a (t) = 3cos50t+10sin300t-cos100t
Xc nh tn s Nyquist.

V d 1.3 Cho tn hiu tng t :

x a (t) = 3cos2000t+5sin6000t+10cos12000t
(a) Xc nh tn s Nyquist (b) Gi s tn hiu c ly mu vi tc 5000 (mu/s), tm tn hiu ri rc c c sau ly mu (c) Xc nh tn hiu tng t ya(t) khi phc t tn hiu ri rc (gi s ni suy l tng)

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1.5.3 Quan h gia ph ca tn hiu ri rc v ph ca tn hiu lin tc Ly mu tn hiu tng t xa(t), v mt ton hc chnh l:

x s (t) = x a (t).s(t)
Trong xs(t) l tn hiu sau ly mu, s(t) l dy xung vung tun hon chiu cao h, rng xung l , chu k l T v c 0, h1. Khai trin Fourier cho dy s(t) trn ri ly gii hn, ta c :

s(t) = lim

h 0 T k = h1

sin k

2 2 jk t T e jk T t = 1 e T T k = k T

Vy c th biu din tn hiu ri rc di dng sau :

x s (t) =

2 jk t 1 x a (t) e T T k =

T y ta tm c ph ca tn hiu ri rc theo cng thc bin i Fourier nh sau :

X s ( ) = =

x (t)e
s

jt

2 j( k )t 1 T dt = x a (t)e dt T k = k =

1 2 1 X a k = X a ( kFs ) T k = T T k =

T y ta c kt lun: ph ca tn hiu ri rc l xp chng tun hon ca ph ca tn hiu lin tc vi chu k l Fs. Nh vy vic ly mu tn hiu lin tc to ra mt dy mu ri rc trong min thi gian v ng thi cng c nh hng trong min tn s na. Hnh v 1.11a l ph 2 pha ca tn hiu gc cha ly mu v hnh v 1.11b l ph ca tn hiu ri rc c ly mu vi 3 tn s ly mu khc nhau, y W l bng thng ca tn hiu tng t- cng chnh l tn s cao nht Fmax Qua y ta thy cc ph ca tn hiu ri rc khc nhau khi ly mu vi cc tn s khc nhau. Nu ly mu vi tn s trn tn s Nyquist Fs 2Fmax = 2W th cc bn copy ca ph gc (gi l nh ph) khng b chng ln nhau. Lc ny ta c th khi phc li tn hiu gc ban u t tn hiu ri rc bng cch cho tn hiu ri rc i qua b lc thng thp tn s ct l Fmax = W. B lc ny c gi l b lc khi phc hay b lc nh ph (anti-imaging filter). Nu ly mu vi tn s thp hn tn s Nyquist th cc nh ph s b chng ln nhau, ph tng l ng nt t trn hnh 1.11b(iii), lc ny ta khng th khi phc li tn hiu gc ban u. Khi tn hiu l thng di ( W1 < F < W2 ), ta khng cn ly mu vi tn s gp i tn s ln nht. Thay vo , tn s ly mu ph thuc vo bng thng ca tn hiu W2 W1 cng nh - 15 -

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Hnh 1.11 Ph ca tn hiu gc v tn hiu ri rc Hnh 1.11 Ph ca tn hiu lin tc v tn hiu ri rc v tr ca ph trn trc tn s. Tn s ly mu t nht l gp i bng thng ca tn hiu. iu quan trng y l phi chn tn s ly mu sao cho hin tng chng ph khng xy ra. V d 1.4 Cho mt tn hiu lin tc c ph t 120-160 kHz. V ph 2 pha ca tn hiu ri rc c c bng cch ly mu tn hiu trn vi 3 tn s ly mu khc nhau sau y : (a) Fs = 80 kHz (b) Fs = 100 kHz (c) Fs = 120 kHz Tn s ly mu thch hp l bao nhiu trong 3 tn s trn ? Gii thch.

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1.5.4 Lng t ha tn hiu c bin lin tc Nh trnh by trn y, lng t ha chnh l bin i tn hiu ri rc c bin lin tc thnh tn hiu c bin ri rc bng cch biu din mi mu x(n) bng mt gi tr xq(n) chn t mt tp hu hn cc gi tr bin . Hnh 1.12 minh ha hot ng lng t ha. Qua y ta thy lng t ha gy ra li lng t, l sai khc gia gi tr lng t v gi tr thc s ca mu. Gi eq(n) l sai s lng t ha, ta c :

eq (n) = x q (n) x(n)

Xq(n) Mc lng t ha Bc lng t ha

Hnh 1.12 Minh ha s lng t ha V mt ton, lng t ha chnh l lm trn hay ct gt cc gi tr ca cc mu ri rc. Gi gi tr lng t ha l mc lng t ha, khong cch gia hai mc lng t ha cnh nhau l bc lng t ha , sai s lng t ha trong trng hp lm trn nm trong gii hn l:

eq (n) 2 2
x max x min L 1

Nu xmin v xmax l gi tr nh nht v ln nht ca x(n) v L l s mc lng t ha th :

Ta gi xmax xmin l di ng ca tn hiu v l phn gii. Lu rng khi di ng c nh th vic tng s mc lng t ha s lm gim kch thc bc lng t ha, li lng t ha gim v chnh xc trong chuyn i A/D tng ln. V l thuyt th lng t ha lun lm mt mt thng tin. L do l tt c cc mu c gi tr - 17 -

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nm trong di

x(n) < u c lng t ha thnh cng mt gi tr. 2 2

Cht lng ca tn hiu ra b chuyn i A/D c biu din bng t s tn hiu trn nhiu lng t ha SQNR (signal-to-quantization noise ratio) :

SQNR =

Px Pq

Trong Px l cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu lin tc v Pq l cng sut trung bnh ca li lng t ha. Gi s ta xt lng t ha tn hiu sin lin tc chu k T0. Cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu l :

1 0 2 A2 Px = (Acos t) 2 dt = T0 T0 2 0
Nu ly mu ng vi nh l ly mu th lng t ha l qu trnh duy nht gy ra li trong chuyn i A/D. Do , ta c th tnh li lng t ha bng cch lng t ha tn hiu xa(t) thay cho tn hiu ri rc x(n). Tn hiu xa(t) hu nh l tuyn tnh trong khong gia hai mc lng t ha cnh nhau. Li lng t ha l :

eq (t) = x a (t) x q (t)

nh ch ra trong hnh 1.13.
xa(t) eq(t) /2 -/2

Hnh 1.13 Li lng t ha trong trng hp lng t ha tn hiu sin Cng sut li Pq c tnh l:

1 1 2 2 Pq = eq (t)dt = eq (t)dt 0 2
V eq (t) = ( / 2 ) t, t nn ta c:

1 2 2 Pq = t dt = 0 2 12
Nu b lng t ha c b bit v di ng l 2A th = 2A / 2b . Do :

A2 / 3 Pq = 2b 2
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Nh vy SQNR tnh theo dB l:

P SQNR(dB) = 10log10 x Pq
V d 1.5

3 b = 10log10 ( .2 ) = 6.02b + 1.76 2

Qua y ta thy khi tng s bit thm 1 th SQNR tng thm 6dB Lng t ha tn hiu tng t in p t -5V n 5V dng 3 bit. Xc nh gi tr lng t ha v li lng t ha cho cc mu sau: (a) -3.4V (b) 0V (c) 0.625V

1.5.6 M ha cc mu lng t ha Qu trnh m ha s gn cho mi mu lng t ha mt s nh phn. Nu ta c L mc lng t ha, ta cn t nht L s nh phn. Vi t m di b bit ta c 2b s nh phn khc nhau. Nh vy yu cu:

b log 2 L
Ni chung, tc ly mu cng cao v phn gii lng t ha cng cao (b ln) th thit b chuyn i A/D cng t tin. Trong thc t, qu trnh lng t ha v m ha gp chung li thnh mt. Hnh 1.14 trnh by b chuyn i A/D thc t. - 19 -

Chng I T/h tng t xa(t) Lc chng chng ph Lng t ha & M ha T/h ri rc x(n) T/h s 010011...

Ly mu

Hnh 1.14 B chuyn i A/D thc t 1.6 BIN I S - TNG T (D/A) Trong mt s trng hp, c th dng trc tip tn hiu s sau x l. Tuy nhin, hu ht cc ng dng u yu cu phi chuyn i tn hiu s sau x l tr li thnh tn hiu tng t. B chuyn i s-tng t (D/A) c trnh by trn hnh 1.15. Trc tin, mt mch s thc hin chuyn i cc t m b bit thnh cc mc tng t tng ng. Cc mc ny c duy tr trong khong 1 chu k ly mu nh b gi mu bc 0 (cn gi l ZOH-Zero Order Hold). Tn hiu ra ca ZOH c dng bc thang, cc sn nhn ca tn hiu bc thang cha cc tn s cao. Cc tn s cao ny c loi b nh mt b lc khi phc. B lc ny chnh l b lc loi b cc nh ph to ra do ly mu.
T/h s 010011... i thnh mc tng t Gi mu bc 0 (ZOH) Lc khi phc T/h bc thang T/h tng t xa(t)

Hnh 1.15 B chuyn i D/A Hnh 1.16 minh ha qu trnh chuyn i D/A 3 bit.

Hnh 1.15 Chuyn i D/A Hnh 1.16 Chuyn i D/A 3 bit

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