Outline Chapter 4 Development psychologists- study physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the human life cycle,

, and find common patterns which are important.

Prenatal Development and the Newborn Only 1 of 5000 of a womans eggs will be mature enough to be released Men can produce over 1000 sperm in a second, this rate will decrease over age The mating of the egg and sperm include o Sperms going up to an egg which is 85000 times bigger than itself o The sperm releases digestive enzymes to dissolve the eggs protective layer o The egg will block other sperm out once one sperm penetrates the protective layer o Fingerlike projections will sprout around the sperm and full it in o By the end of the day, they will fuse Prenatal Development Zygotes are fertilized eggs In the first week, the cell divides to produce a zygote of about 100 cells After the first week, the cell will differentiate and specialize in structure and function After ten days, the zygote will attach to the mothers uterine wall The placenta and the embryo are then formed After nine weeks, the embryo is known as the fetus After six months, the organs like the stomach will be able to function and perform The fetus starts to respond to noise during the sixth month Both genetic and environmental factors can affect the prenatal development Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is usually seen with children born with mental as well as physical deformities. Over 1 in 750 kids are born with this syndrome FAS is the leading cause of mental retardation Pregnant women who have been stressed during their pregnancy have children who are less competent in motor skills, emotional as well as learning deficiency. Increased proclivity of depression The Competent Newborn the rooting reflex is when newborns are prompted to open their mouth and turn towards the nipple when touched on the cheek

William James presumed that newborns experiences where similar to that of buzzing confusion

Research from the 1960s revealed that newborns were born preferring sights and sounds which facilitate social responsiveness. They are more drawn into pictures that are associated to humans(Mondlocks study) Habituation is the decrease in responding with repeated stimulation Janine Spencer and Paul Quinn did a study which revealed that 4 year olds like adults focused on the faces of animals. (cat and dog experiment) Alan Slater explained that in order to recognize a new stimulus as different, an infant must remember the initial stimulus.

Brain Development Over 23 billion neurons were produced in the child by birth From age 3-6, the brains neural system starts to grow in the frontal lobes, enabling rational planning Maturation sets the basic course of development. It is the genetically designed biological growth process. Maturation is uninfluenced by experiences While genetic growth tendencies are inborn Motor Development The order in which physical coordination occurs like crawling before walking is due to the maturing of the nervous system and has nothing to do with imitation Individual differences in timing occur Genes play a role in the timing of each coordination. Identical twins would be able to walk more or less on the same day Biological maturation includes the rapid development of the cerebellum at the back of the brain Experiences will not have a major effect on the childs physical skills until after age 1 Maturation and Infant Memory Pillemers study concluded that the average age of earliest conscious memory was 3.5 years of age Starting at 4 years old, a child can start to remember their experiences From age 3-4 , the brain cortex matures , thus enabling toddlers to increase their long-term storage However , the childs memories during this time may not be interrupted properly later on in life

Association can be remembered for the maximum time of a month for a 3 month old child.

When the conscious mind does not know and cannot express in words, the nervous system may remember through increased physiological responses like through skin perspiration

Cognitive Development Jean Piagets works revolved around the errors give by children by each age. Before Piaget, people thought that children simply knew less, not differently than adults. Later it was discovered that children reason in wildly illogical ways about problems whose solutions are self-evident to adults. A childs mind also develops through many stages Piaget revealed that schemas develop when the brain builds concepts. The schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences. There are two ways which we could adjust our schemas. By assimilating as well as accommodating them. When we assimilate new schemas, we interpret them into our current schemas When we accommodate our schemas, we adjust our present schemas to fit the particulars of new experiences. You refine the category. Piagets theory and Current Thinking Cognition refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing , remembering and communicating. The sensorimotor stage is from birth to age 2. This is when the babies will take in the world through their sensory and motor interactions interacting with objects Object Permanence is the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived Before 8 months, the child lacks object permanence Many argue that Piaget underestimated the intelligence of a child. He claimed that children did not have the ability to think. Todays researchers see development as more continuous than Piaget. However, his views were contradicted when babies seem to have a more intuitive grasp of objects, when it was found that toddlers had a sense of numbers (Karen Wynns study). The preoperational stage is Piagets theory that from age 2 to about age 7, a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Conservation is the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape. (Like when closed beakers seem to hold more volume as another open beaker with the same volume.)

Judy DeLoache revealed that if the child was prompted to find a hidden object in a room, they could easily find it, but they could not locate the location on another map or painting. This was found for ages 2-3 From age 3, the child could locate the hidden location in a map. Thus showing that they could use the symbols for the room. This went against Piagets theory of children not being able to think Piaget found that preschool children were egocentric. They had much difficulty to perceive things from anothers point of view. Asking wether the childs brother had a brother(which was the child being asked) the child would reply that he did not. Parents often abuse their children since they do not understand their egocentric thoughts. The theory of mind is the ability to read intentions, formed starting when a child is in pre-school. From age 3, children start to realize the difference between false beliefs Jennifer Jenkins and Janet Astington performed the band aid experiment in which they would ask children what they thought was in the box, then recorded what their reaction would be if found that the box was filled with something else. From 4 years old, the children were able to respond to theory of mind, claiming that their friends would probably think that the box was filled with band aids instead of pencils. Before they responded that they would think that the box was filled with pencils. First children realize that sad events can cause sad feelings and then they realize that thought can cause feelings. From age 5-8, children realize that spontaneous self-produced thoughts can also create feelings. Children with autism were found to have difficulty understanding someones state of mind differs from their own. They also have difficulty reflecting on their own mental states. They are less likely to use personal pronouns such as I and me. Deaf children also have problems with such usage. Lev Vygotsky revealed that children no longer thought aloud from age 7. They start to rely on inner speech. Talking to themselves allows children to control their behavior and emotions and master new skills. Concrete Operational Stage was Piagets theory of cognitive development. From 611 years of age. Children start to gain the mental operations what enables them to think logically about concrete events. Children also start to comprehend mathematical transformations and conservation. Formal Operation stage is by age 12, when reasoning expands from concrete experiences to abstract thinking. Children start to solve hypothetical propositions and deduct consequences starting from adolescence.

Reflecting on Piagets Theory Researchers start to see development more continuous than did Piaget. Piaget identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulated interest on how the mind develops.

Piagets major revelation was that children construct their understandings from interactions with the world.

Social Development Stranger Anxiety- fear of strangers, starting at around 8 months. They have schemas for similar faces. The intense mutual infant-parent bond develops by 12 months. Orgins of Attachments Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow revealed in their monkey studies that monkeys brought up in isolated cages with cheese clothes, became distressed when the cheesecloth was taken away from them. When they created two mothers , by inserting a wire cylinder with a wooden head and another cylinder with terry cloth, they found that the monkeys they found that the monkeys did not prefer the nourishing mother, but instead the comfy mother. This revealed that much of the parent-infant attachment comes from touch A safe haven as well as a secure base also strengthens attachment Critical period is known as an optimal period shortly after birth when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development. Imprinting is the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. Children do not imprint Familiarity is more comfortable to children Attachment Differences Mary Ainsworth studied attachment differences by observing mother infant pairs at home during their first six months. Securely attached children play and explore comfortably when a mother is present and then becomes distressed when she leaves. Insecurely attached children meanwhile explore less in the mothers presence and may cling to her, cry loudly when she leaves and remain upset until she returns. Sensitive responsive parents tend to have securely attached children Genetically influenced temperament may evoke responsive parenting, but parental sensitivity has been taught and does increase infant attachment security. Both father and mother love is a predictor to a childs well-being. Adult relationships tend to reflect the secure or insecure attachment styles of early childhood

Erick Ericksons idea prompted that basic trust is formed in infancy through our experiences with responsive caregivers.

Deprivation of Attachment

Children become withdrawn and frightened when they are deprived of attachment and may not be able to develop speech properly Childhood abuse can lead to physical, psychological as well as social problems, it may alter the brains production of serotonin. This effect can be minimal before 16 months of age, by age 2 problems start to develop if abuse persists. Extensive time spent in day care is linked to increased aggression and defiance

Self Concept Self concept is the sense of their own identity and personal worth. It emerges around 6 months At 15-16 months, children start to recognize themselves in the mirror When they start school, they can describe many of their own traits By age 10, their self conception is rigid and stable The childrens views of themselves affect their actions. Children who form a positive self concept are more confident, independent and optimistic Child Rearing Practices Kids with the highest self esteem and reliance come from homes were their parents are authoritative Those with authoritarian parents tend to have less social skills, self esteem Those with permissive parents are more likely to be aggressive and immature The association between certain parenting styles and certain childhood outcomes is co relational. There are many other explanations for a childs behavior other than parenting styles. Permissive parents submit to childrens demands ask little and punish rarely Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience. Authoritative parents are demanding but responsive to their children Sharing genes may lead to a temperament that is comfortable with an authoritative parenting style and that manifests itself in agreeable easygoing social interactions. Adolescence Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence G.Stanley Hall described adolescence as the tension between biological maturity and social dependence

Physical Development Puberty paves way to a surge of hormones, creating mood swings. The primary sex characteristics (reproductive organs) develop dramatically

Menarche- first menstrual period Spermarche-first ejaculation Early developing boys become stronger and more athletic, as well as more popular and have a higher self esteem. Hereditary and environmental interaction plays a major role of how both boys and girls feel about puberty During puberty, unused neural connections are weakened Myelin also grows in the frontal lobe during puberty The frontal lobe maturation slows down the emotional limbic system. This explains why teenagers can be impulsive Younger teens are more likely to smoke or do drugs since they are unable to plan ahead.

Cognitive Development Adolescents are more likely to worry about what others think about themselves. Since this is when they start to think about how others perceive them During the early teenage years, reasoning is often self-focused. They feel that their private experiences are unique. They think that others can not understand their unique experiences Formal operations is the shift from preadolescents thinking concretely to adolescents becoming more capable of abstract logic. This is Piagets theory The teenagers ability to reason hypothetically and deduce consequences allows them to detect inconsistencies in others reasoning and to spot hypocrisy Developing Morality Kohlberg did studies in which he recorded the morality thoughts of people of different ages. He found that there were 3 different stages o Preconventional Morality- When children before 9 years old, have a preconventional morality of self interest. These children obey either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete awards o Conventional Morality When young teenagers, use morality which includes caring for others as well as upholding laws and social rules just because they are rules and laws. o Post conventional morality- When someone develops personally perceived ethical principles, they confirm peoples agreed upon rights Kohlberg constructed the moral ladder, which included the three stages Once our thinking matures, our behavior becomes less selfish and more caring Elevation- tingly, warm, glowing feeling in the chest, usually felt when witnessing someone doing charity Jonathan Haidt exclaimed in his book social intuitionist, that moral feelings overpower moral reasoning. He revealed that moral reasoning aims to convince others of what we feel

Joshua Greene found that when a person is faced with dilemmas, their neural responses varied, based on how much their emotion areas lit up Despite the identical logic, the personal dilemma allowed emotions that altered mood judgment. Morality is influenced by social influences, and is doing the right thing. Children are taught to be empathetic to others. Those who rely on delay gratification (restraining ones impulse and waiting for a greater award) became more socially responsible as well as academically successfully. Students are engaged in responsible action through service learning.

Social Development Erik Erikson exclaimed that individuals go through eight stages in life, each with a psychosocial task. Till age 1, the issue was that of trust and mistrust Till age 2, it becomes autonomy vs. shame and doubt Till age 5, the issue is initiative and guilt Till puberty, the child is given the issues of inferiority and competence From adolescence till becoming a young adult, it becomes about finding ones identity For young adults, the issue is between intimacy and isolation From 50-60 years old, it becomes generativity vs. stagnation. From 60s up, the issue becomes integrity vs. despair. Forming an identity Erikson revealed that some teenagers take their parents values and expectations and use it as their identity. Other teenagers tend to gain a negative identity by rejecting traditional values ant conforming to a particular group William Damon revealed that a main idea of teenagers is to try to make a difference in the world Daniel Hart discovered that younger teenagers were more likely to reflect the values of a certain group while older teenagers were more likely to reflect their own personal values. Older teenagers were also more likely to have intimacy, the ability to form emotionally close relationships. This is after these individuals get a better sense of who they are Parent and Peer Influence Positive relations with parents support positive peer relations Teenage years is a time of decreasing parental connection and a more peer connection Parents have a bigger influence on religious faith, career, college and thinking values. Most teenagers share their parents political views Emerging Adulthood

Emerging adulthood are people who are no longer teenagers but are not ready to take on adulthood responsibilities. Due to this emerging adulthood, marriage has been delayed by several years.

Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood Physical vigor has less to do with age; it has more to do with a persons health and exercise habits. In Eastern countries, respect is given to the aged. Power is seen to be derived over age In many western cultures, young people are more prized. Menopause is the ending of the menstrual cycle beginning around when a woman hits her 50th birthday. Estrogen is reduced during this period. Menopause usually does not create psychological problems for women. A womans attitudes reflect on how she will perceive and go through menopause Bernice Neugarten went around and asked women who had their menopause how they felt. The majority felt at the prime of their lives. Men experience a more gradual decline of sperm production over age. Testosterone levels, erection and ejaculation are also at a declining rate. Physical Changes in later life Life expectancy has increased from the average 49 years to 67 years Women outlive men and after the stage of infancy, outnumber them After age 70, hearing, distance perception, reaction time, stamina, muscle strength, sense of smell all decrease Neural process slow their rate Around age 80, 5% of the brain shrinks. Physical exercise however, can stimulate the development of some new brain cells and connections. The risk of dementia increases, doubling every five years from age 60. It is not a normal part of the aging process. Older adults who exercise regularly become smart thinkers due to the oxygen and nutrient circulation. Alzheimers disease affects over 3% of the worlds population by age 75. They are not part of the normal aging process. It is the loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Memory and thinking thus decrease. Aging and Memory Recalling new information declines during the early and middle adulthood years. Older adults are able to recall meaningful information more easily than meaningless information, they may however take longer to produce words to describe these memories Thomas Cook and Robin West discovered that younger adults were more likely to recall names after one introduction, while older age groups had a poorer performance.

When asked how they heard a certain event or news , many could recall instantaneously upon a few moments, while asking after a couple of months prompted variations in their recalls. David Schonfield and Betty-Anne Robertson found that recognition memory is better for older adults early in the day rather late. Being able to recognize a set of words via multiple choices had a minimal decline when compared to the results of each age. It was the recall of the words which had a greater difficulty Time based tasks as well as habitual tasks decline over age

Aging and Intelligence Cross sectional studies are comparing people of different ages with one another. These studies revealed that intelligence declined after early adulthood They excluded the factors of generational differences of education as well as life experiences Longitudinal studies is the retesting the same people over a period of time, these studies showed that intelligence may be stable through out the years. They however, excluded the factors of people dropping out of studies, those who were less intelligent and that in poor health. The present day view is that fluid intelligence takes place by declining later in life and that crystallized intelligence does not. (Paul Baltes) Crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of knowledge and skills Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason speedily and abstractly Scientists and mathematicians are more likely to have their best outcomes in earlier adulthood, while historians and writers experience success later in life. Adulthoods Ages and Stages Midlife transition takes place in the early forties and is associated with struggle, regret, and feeling struck down. Usually triggered by illness, divorce or by job loss. The social clock is the cultural prescription of when the right time of each stage in life must occur. For example, what time to leave home, college, get a job, family, etc. Romantic attraction is often influenced by chance encounters. Not many identical twins would feel attracted to their twins partners. The social clock varies from culture to culture Adulthoods Commitments Erik Erikson pinned two aspects of our live. Intimacy and Generativity. Generativity is being productive and supporting future generations. Love and work are two major themes of adulthood The social expectation of families staying together, is explained by evolutionary psychologists in having a better chance of passing down ones genes. Due to the increased expectations of both women and men and womens increased independence, divorce rates have doubled in the past 40 years

Those who tested out their marriage before getting married had a higher rate of divorce and marital dysfunction. The risk of poor martial outcomes appears greatest for those who cohabit prior to engagement. Cohabiters tend to be less committed to the ideal of enduring marriage. John Gottman discovered that stable marriages provide five times more instances of smiling, touching, complimenting, laughing than of sarcasm, criticism and insults. Work satisfaction reveals the roles of the woman, such as a paid worker or a wife did not matter, but the quality of her experiences in these roles meant a lot. Satisfying work correlates with life satisfaction

Well Being Across the Life Span A persons feeling of satisfaction and well being are stable through out ones lifespan Older adults may experience a higher rate of satisfactions since they had satisfied the tasks of early adulthood. They are filled with a strong sense of satisfaction and identity Older adults are less sensitive to negative facts. The amygalda show decreased activity in response to negative events while maintain its responsiveness to positive events. Mihalay Csikszentmihalyi and Reed Larson revealed that teenagers got over an emotion within an hour while older people endured their emotions longer. Death and Dying Death of spouse is the hardest for a person When death comes at an expected time, grieving may be short lived. When death comes earlier, grief is more severe Erikson believed that older people where filled with a sense of meaning and identity when thinking about death Continuity and Stages Researchers who stress biological maturation see development as a series of genetically predisposed steps. Researchers who stress slow continuous development stress experience and learning. Piagetss, Eriksons and Kohlbergs ideas have shown us the ways people differ at various points in the life span. Lifelong development also shows stability and change Personality gradually stabilizes throughout age. When we age, we may change our earlier personalities but sustaining characteristic traits in comparison to our age mates.