.

2

"tex"

 1

Carl Friendrich Gauss (17771855) Disquistiones Arithmeticae, 24
. , , Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665) .
,  mod m, m,
m | ( )  mod m. m - ( ),
,  mod m .  mod m.

.
1 a, b, c, d . :
1. a b mod m b a mod m a b 0 mod m.
2. a b mod m b c mod m a c mod m.
3. a b mod m c d mod m (a + c ) (b + d ) mod m.
4. a b mod m c d mod m ac bd mod m.
5. a b mod m d | m, d > 0 a b mod d.
6. a b mod m, ac bc mod m, c > 0.
2 f (x ) Z[x ]. a b mod m , : f (a ) f (b) mod m.
3

1.

3 , x, y Z m1 , m2 , . . . , mr , m N.
1. x y mod m x y mod

(,m )

2. x y mod m (, m ) = 1, x y mod m.
3. x y mod mi , i = 1, 2, . . . , r x y mod [m1 , m2 , . . . , mr ] ,
(x, y) = ...{x, y} [x1 , . . . , xr ] = ... {x1 , . . . , xr }.

 2
Fermat,
Euler
Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} mod m.
Zn :
+:+=+ ,
:  = 
(Zn , +, ) . , (Zn , +)
(Zn , +) = h i, (, n ) = 1. , (Zp , +, )
p.
Zn = { Zn : (, n ) = 1}. (Zn , )
() . , Zn , Z : + n =
1
1 = 1 (, n ) = 1, = .
1

1. Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} Z5 = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

2

D E

2 : 2, 2 = 4, 2 = 3, 2 = 1 , Z5 = 2 . ,

D E 3
D E
Z5 = 3 , 3 = 2 , 4 = {4, 1} Z5 .
2

2. Z8 = {1, 3, 5, 7} , 3 = 1, 5 = 1, 7 = 1,
4.
4 ( Fermat) p Z,
p - . p1 1 mod p.
,  Z/{0} p  mod p
.

5

2. FERMAT, EULER

, ,
 

. (Zp , ), Zp  = p 1.

Zp , p1 = 1. , p - p1 1 mod p.
p1 1 mod p p mod p.
p | .  Z/{0}, p  mod p, p .

5 ( Euler) n > 1 Z
(, n ) = 1.
(n ) 1 mod n,



Euler, (n ) = Zn .
.
 
(n )
= 1, Z,
(n ) = Zn , Zn ,
(n )
(, n ) = 1,
1 mod n.
6 ( Wilson)
(i) p (p 1)! (1) mod p
(ii) n > 1 , (n 1)! (1) mod n,
n .
.
(i) (Zp , +, ) p 1 .
Zp , 2
x 2 = 1 Zp , x 2 1 = 0
Zp . 1 1 = p 1. ,
Zp 1 p 1 ,
a , a . , 1 2 p 1 = p 1,
(p 1)! (p 1) mod p (p 1)! (1) mod p.
(ii) n > 1 , (n 1)! (1) mod n.
n , n = n1 n2 1 < n1 , n2 < n.
n1 | (n 1)! n1 | n. (n 1)! = (1) + kn,
k Z, n1 | [(n 1)! kn ], n1 /mid 1, .
.
1

Fraleigh 4.3, . 296

7
7 ( ) m1 , m2 , . . . , ms
1, a1 , a2 , . . . , as
. , a : a ai mod mi , 1 i s,
mod m1 m2 ms .
.


m := m1 m2 ms . mi , mmi = 1. Mi
mmi Zmi , Mi mmi 1 mod mi , 1 i s.
a = a1 mm1 M1 + a2 mm2 M2 + . . . + as mms Ms .
a ai mod mi , 1 i s().
a 0 x ai mod mi , 1 i s,
()

a 0 ai mod mi
()

mi | (a 0 a ), 1 i s m1 ms | (a 0 a ), a 0 a mod m.
1
1. , Fraleigh, 4.3,
. 296
2. -, . 64,11:
11.1 , 11.2 11.3

2. FERMAT, EULER

 3
Euler
Euler 
:
 
: N N, n 7 (n ) = Zn . p
(p) = p 1.


, (pe ) = pe pe1 = pe1 (p 1) = pe 1 1p . ,
1, 2, . . . , p 1, p, p + 1, . . . , 2p, . . . , 3p, . . . , pe1 + 1, . . . , pe
p p, 2p, 3p, . . . , (p1)p, . . . , pe1 p = pe ,
pe1 . (pe ) = pe pe1 .

(n.m ) = 1, (nm ) = (n )(m ).
Zn Zm
(Zn , +, ) (Zm , +, ), + :
(a mod n,  mod m )+(a 0 mod n, 0 mod m ) = ((a + a 0 ) mod n, ( + 0 ) mod m )
(a mod n,  mod m ) (a 0 mod n, 0 mod m ) = ((aa 0 ) mod n, (0 ) mod m ).
Zn Zm . ,
a mod n Zn , a 0 mod n,
aa 0 1 mod n,  mod n Zm ,
0 mod m, 0 1 mod m, :
(a mod n,  mod m ) (a 0 mod n, 0 mod m ) = (1 mod n, 1 mod m ).
, a mod n Zn (a mod n )1 =
a 0 mod n  mod m Zm ( mod m )1 = 0 mod m.
8 n > 1, m > 1 . :
(i) Znm  Zn Zm ,
(ii) Znm  Zn Zm .
9

10

3. EULER

.
(i) f : Znm Zm Zm , a mod nm 7 (a mod
n, b mod m ).
f . f 0 mod nm. ,
f (a mod nm ) = (0 mod n, 0 mod m ) a 0 mod n b 0 mod m.
(n, m ) = 1, a 0 mod nm. ,
f . (b mod n, c mod m )
Zn Zm . , a,
a b mod n , a c mod m a mod nm.
f (a mod nm ) = (b mod n, c mod m ). f .
(ii) f ,
Znm 

 
 f


Zn Zm . Znm  = Zn  Zm . 
9 (i) n > 1, m > 1 .
(nm ) = (n )(m ).
Q
(ii) n > 1 n = si=1 pi ei
, pi , 1 i s
 , n.
Qs
Qs 


1
ei
e i 1
(n ) = i =1 pi pi
= n i =1 1 p i .
.
(i) 8(ii) n > 1, m > 1 ,
, (nm ) = (n )(m ).
(ii) (i) (pe ) = pe pe1 .
10 n > 1 . n =
Euler.

d |n

(d ),

.
n > 1, n1 , n2 , n3 , . . . , nn1 , nn ,
n.
da (a, d ) = 1.
n d
P
(d ), Euler. n = (d ).

11

1. m N m1 | m m1 > 1.
a mod m1 mn1 : a, (a + m1 ) mod m, . . . ,

[a +

m
m1


1 m1 ] mod m.

(a + km1 ) mod m, 0 k mm1 1

a mod m1 . .
, a + m1 (a + m1 ) mod m 0 , mm1 1
( )m1 0 mod m mod mm1 .

1
, Z = a =1 0 a mod m1 Z = m
=0  mod m
a mod m1 .
a mod m1
(a = km1 ) mod m, 0 k mm1 1. , x

Sm

a mod m1 x = a + m1 , Z x = a + mm1 + m1 ,

= mm1 + , 0 mm1 1, x = a + m + m1 , 0
m
1, x (a + m1 ) mod m, 0 mm1 1.
m1
1 2 + 9Z = (2 + 18Z)
m = 18, m1 = 9.

(11 + 18Z),

2. n, m N/{0} (n, m ) = 1. , , {a1 , . . . , an 1 } ( {1 , . . . , m 1 }) mod n ( mod m) . ai m + j n, 1 i n 1, 1 j m 1

mod nm.

ai m + j n, 1 i n 1, 1 j m 1 nm,
mod nm.
ai m + j n (a m +  n ) mod nm nm | [(ai a )m + (j  )n ]

j  mod m ai a mod n.
1 :
m N/{0} 0 a m 1 mod m, sa + , 0 a m 1
, (s, m ) = 1 Z,
mod m.

12

3. EULER
2 .

3. n1 , n2 , . . . , ns .
Zn1 Zn2 Zns Zn1 n2 ns .
: : s
8. : Z Zn1 Zn2 Zns ,
a 7 (a mod n1 , a mod n2 , . . . , a mod ns )
4. (n + 1)2 x 1 mod (2n + 1)3 ,
n Z.

(n + 1)2 , (2n + 1)3 = 1. , p p | (n + 1)2
p | (n + 1). , p | (2n + 1)3 p | (2n + 1) = 2(n + 1) 1 p | 1,
. .
:
(2n + 1)3 = (n + 1)2 (8n 4) + 6n + 5
36(n + 1)2 = (6n + 5)(6n + 7) + 1
1 = 36(n + 1)2 (6n + 5)(6n + 7) = 36(n + 1)2 [(2n + 1)3
(n + 1)2 (8n 4)] = (n + 1)2 [8(6n 2 4n + 1)] (2n + 1)3 (6n + 7).
8(6n 2 4n + 1) mod (2n + 1)3 .
5. ai x i mod mi , 1 i s, m1 , m2 , . . . , ms
, (a1 , m1 ) = 1, i , ai Z.

, ai x i mod mi , 1
i s, , x ci mod mi , 1 i s. ,
,
mod m1 m2 ms .
6. ai x i mod mi , 1 i s, m1 , m2 , . . . , ms
ai , i Z.

ai x i mod mi , 1 i s
di := (ai , mi ) | i , 1 i s .
i
i
i
, ci + 2 m
, . . . , ci + (di 1) m
mod
di , 1 i s , : ci , ci + m
di
di
di


i
mi , ci daii x dii mod m
, 1 i
di
s. d1 , . . . , ds ,

13
modm1 ms ,
.
7. 3749 7.

Fermat, 3771 1 mod 7, 376 1 mod 7.

49 = 6 8 + 1, 3749 = (376 )8 37 37 mod 7 = (5 7 +
2) mod 7 = 2 mod 7.
8. 347 23.

Fermat 322 1 mod 23.

47 = 2 22 + 3, 347 33 mod 23 = 4 mod 23.
9. 22 + 1 19.

Fermat 218 1 mod 19.

217 mod 18. (2, 9) = 1, 26 1 mod 9
27 2 mod 18 217 = 227+3 = (27 )2 23 22 23 mod 18 =
25 mod 18 = 32 mod 18 = 14 mod 18. 217 14 mod 18
17
217 = 14 + k 18, k Z , 22 = 214+k 18 214 mod 19.
218 = 1 mod 19 214 24 1 mod 19, 214
24 Z19 .
, 19 = 16 + 3, 16 = 3 5 + 1 11 = 16 3 5 = 16 5(19 16) =
= 5 19 + 6 16, 6 mod 19 16 mod 19.
17
17
22 214 mod 19 6 mod 19 22 + 1 7 mod 19.
17

10. p , p 3. (p 2)! mod p.

Wilson, (p 1)! (1) mod p. , (p 1)

(1) mod p. , (p 2)! (p 1) 1 mod p (p 2)!
1 mod p.
11. 34! mod 37

Wilson, 36! (1) mod 37. ,

10, 35! 1 mod 37. , 34! 35 1 mod 37 34!
(35)1 mod 37. , 37 = 35+2, 35 = 217+1 1 = 1737+1835,
18 35 1 mod 37, 34! 18 mod 37.

14

3. EULER

12. 49! mod 53.

(53 2)! 1 mod 53 51! 1 mod 53 49! 50 51 1 mod 53.

50 51 = 2550 Z53 . 2550 =
48 53 + 6, 53 = 8 6 + 5, 6 = 5 + 1 1 = 9 2550 433 53. ,
49! 9 mod 53.
13. n Z, 383838 | (n 37 n ).

383838 = 2 3 7 13 19 37 383838
. 37 | n 37 | (n 37 n ). 37 - n n 36 1 mod 37
37 | (n 36 1) 37 | (n 37 n ). , 2, 3, 7, 13, 19
(n 37 n ), 383838 | (n 37 n ).
2 . . -.
:

1. 11
2. 12, . 82: 12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.5
3. 14, . 91: 14.1, 14.2, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6, 14.8
4. 15, . 105: 15.4, 15.5

 4
(Zp , )
(Zp , ) .
, .
G a G. a, ord (a )
s , 0 : a s = e, e G.
ha i , G,
a. :

1 G = ha i n < .
(i) ord (a ) = |ha i|,
(ii) a = e n |
(iii) a = a mod n
n
(iv) ord (a t ) = (n,t
)
(v) G = ha t i (n, t ) = 1
(vi) G
(vii) m | n G m,
n
H = ha m i.
2 G ,a G p . a p = e
1
a p , e, ord (a ) = p .

m = ord (a ), a p = e (ii) 1,
15

 4. (ZP , )

16

m | p . m = pt , 0 t . t <, ,
ap

= ap

t +( 1t )

 t p(1t )
= ap
= e, . t = .

3 G a,  G, ord (a ) = n, ord () =
m. ord (a) = nm (n, m ) = 1.
.
(n, m ) = 1 ord (a) = k. :
(a)nm = a nm nm = (a n )m (m )n = e, k | nm. e = [(a)k ]n =
= (a)kn = a kn kn = ekn = kn m | k m | k, (n, m ) = 1. ,
e = (a)km = a km km = a km e = a km n | km n | k, (n, m ) = 1.
n | k m | k nm | k, (n, m ) = 1.
k | nm nm | k nm = k, ord (a) = nm.
, ord (a) = nm 1 , d = (n, m ) :
m
n
nm
<, nm = ord (a).
(a) d = (a n ) d (m ) d = e e = e, , , nm
d


2 (Z18 , ) 6 ord6 = ord6 1 =
18
= 18
= 3. , ord9 = 2. (2, 3) = 1, ord (6 + 9) = 2 3
(6,18)
6

ord15 = 6.
G |G | = n < . G k = {a k :
a G }, k Z. G k
G. , a k , k G k , a k (k )1 = a k k = (a1 )k G k .
G n = {e }, a G, a n = e.
t G t = {e }.
M := {t Z : G t = {e }} Z. m
, 0 G m = {e }, ,
,
. m
G. m a m = e, a G.
ord (a ) | m, a G.
G.
2

1. Z2 Z2 2 4.
2

2. Z8 2 4. , Z8 = {1, 3, 5, 7}, 3 = 9 =
2

1, 5 = 25 = 1, 7 = 49 = 1.

17
3. (Z4 , +) 4.
m.
4 G m |G | = n < .
(i) k: G k = {e }, m | k.
(ii) m | n
(iii) a G, ord (a ) | m
(iv) G , m = n.
.
(i) m - k, k = m + , 0 m 1. G k = {e },
a k = e, a G a m a = e, a G (a m ) a = e, a G a =
e, a G, 0 m 1, m.
(ii) (i), G n = {e }.
(iii) 1 (ii), a m = e, a G.
(iv) G = ha i, n = ord (a ) | m. G n = {e }, (ii) m | n.
m = n. 
11 G , |G | = n < m.
G m. , G ,
n = m.
.
Q
s
m = ti=1 pi i m . ai G, 1 i t,
m

aipi , e. , , , aipi = e, a G,
, m m
<, m, 1 i t. , , ai G, 1 i t,
pi
m
s
p i

aipi , e. , , ai i

ai

m
pi si

pi si 1

= ai


m
pi

ord ai
m

, e, 1 i t. , 2

= pi si , 1 i t. , , a :=

m
pi si
m

a1 p1 s1 a2 p2 s2 at pt st G. a m,
s1
s2
st
4,
 m
 p1 , p2 , . . . , pt
s
s
i
i
ord ai pi
= pi , 1 i t. , a G ord (a ) = m. 3 (iv) G
, n = m. , n = m, a G,
ord (a ) = n. ha i G | ha i | = m = n = |G |. , G = ha i.

 4. (ZP , )

18

3 Z9 , Z12 ,
Z16 , Z20 .

1. Z9 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}, Z9  = 6. ord (2) = 6,

D E
Z9 = h2i = {2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 7, 25 = 5, 26 = 1} = 25 ,
(k, 6) = 1 k = 1, 5. Z9 6.
2. Z12 = {1, 5, 7, 11}. 52 = 1 = 72 = 112 . ,
Z12 2 .
3. Z16 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}, Z =16 = (16) = 8.
ord (3) = 4, ord (5) = 4, ord (15) = 2 h3i = {3, 32 = 9, 33 = 11, 34 =
1}, h5i = {5, 52 = 9, 53 = 13, 54 = 1}. Z16
1. 4,
2.

 
4. Z20  = (20) = (22 5) = (22 )(5) = 2(2 1)(5 1) = 8
Z20 = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19}. 8, Z20  Z4 Z5 ,
Z20  {1 mod
 4,
 3 mod 4} {1 mod 5, 2 mod 5, 3 mod 5, 4 mod 5}.
 
Z4  = 2, Z5  = 4 (2, 4) , 1, 4,
Z20 ( Z4
Z5 , Z5 = h2 mod 5i = h3 mod 5i. Z20
8 4 (ii), m <, 8, Z20
. m = 2 m = 4. Z5 4,
Z20 . , m = 4.
: Z20 m = 4.
, ,

12 p, Zp ,

.


Zp , . m ,
a m = 1 Zp , a Zp m p 1 ( 3).
Zp
x m 1 Zp [x ],
 
x m 1 Zp [x ] p 1 = Zp 
Zp x m 1 m , m p 1.

19
m p 1 m p 1 m = p 1.
11 Zp . 
1 .
.
12, Zp , . 
1 n C, .

n
, a n = 1 = n , a,  C, a1 = a n n 1 = 1.
.
1 Zp modp,
p .
4
1. mod5 2 mod 5,
3 mod 5 (. 4, . 14).
2.   mod 7.
Z  = 6. 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8 = 1, ord2 = 3.
7
3, 32 = 9 = 2, 33 = 27 = 6. ord3 > 3
ord3 D
6, 1,2,3,6. ord3 = 6.
E

5
Z7 = h3i = 3 , 6 3 Z7
1,5. mod 7 3 35 = 5.

3
1. . . - . ,
16, . 107: 16.2, 16.8 .
2. modp, p ,
((p)).
3. mod 17.
4. a mod p, p , p + a mod p.

20

4. (ZP , )

 5
-
Legendre
Zp
 

, Zp = hi. ord () = p 1 = Zp  Zp = hs i,
s N (s, p 1) = 1.
Zp (p 1) = ((p)).
Zp
x 2 a mod p a Zp , (a.p) = 1.
:
2 n > 1 . a modn, (a, n ) = 1 x 2 a mod n
. x a mod
n.
n .
13 ( Euler) p > 2 .
p 1
modp Zp 2 .
p 1

a , 0 mod p a 2 1 mod p a
p1
mod p a 2 1 mod p
.
a modp,
x x 2 a mod p. a {g2 : g Zp } = Zp 2 .
21

22 5. - LEGENDRE
t : Zp Zp 2 , g 7 g2 . Zp
, t . t
. Kert = {g Zp : g2 = 1}
Zp ( ).
Zp /Kert  Zp 2 (1). ,  ,

Zp = hi = { : Z} = { : 0 i p 1}, Zp  = p 1.
Zp 2 = {g2 : g Zp } = {( )2 : Z} = {(2 ) : Z}, Zp 2
2 , Zp 2 = h2 i (2).
, ord (2 ) =

ord ()
= p 1
(2,ord ())  (2,p1)
 2 

4, Zp

  

|Zp |
Zp /Kert  = Zp 2  |Kert
=
|

p 1
2

= ord ( ) =
2

1(iii),
p 1
.
2

(1)

|Kert | = 2. Kert.
1(v) 4, 2 | p 1 p 1
Zp 2, Kert Kert = h 2 i.
p 1
p 1
, t 0 : Zp Zp 2 , g 7 g 2 p 1
p1
p 1
, Zp 2 = h 2 i Kert 0 = {g Zp : g 2 = 1} = h2 i,
p 1
|Kert 0 | = 2 (3).
p 1
2

(2) (3) t
t 0 , Zp 2 , modp, a Zp
p 1
2

 
1 mod p Zp 2  = p21 . ,
 p1 2
 
a Zp , a p1 = 1, Zp  = p 1. a 2
= 1

a
p 1

p 1

a 2 1 mod p. , Zp 2
p 1
2 ,
mod p. 
3 mod 11
Z11 = {1, 2, . . . , 10} = h2i Z11 2 = h22 i = h4i = {4, 42 = 16 = 5, 43 = 4 5 =
20 = 9, 44 = 4 9 = 36 = 3, 45 = 4 3 = 12 = 1}.
mod 11 1,3,4,5,9.

a Zp modp.
, mod p
.
mod p,

23
. .
3 Legendre
p > 2 . Legendre :

1,
p - a a mod p

(a/p) =
0,
p | a

1, p - a a mod p
x 2 = a mod p (a, p) = 1
Zp , x 2 a Zp [x ]
. , (a/p) = 1,
p | a (a/p) = 1. , (a/p) + 1
.

Legendre
14 p a,  Z. :
p1
(i) (a/p) a 2 mod p
p1
(ii) (1/p) = (1) 2
(iii) (a/p) = (a/p)(/p)
(iv) a  mod p (a/p) = (/p)
(v) (a 2 /p) = 1 (1/p) = 1.
.
(i) Euler ( 13).
p 1
(ii) (1/p) 1. (1) 2
Euler.
(iii) p | a p | , (a/p) = 0 (/p) = 0. p - a p - ,
p 1
p 1
p 1
Euler (a/p)(/p) = a 2  2 = (a) 2 =
(a/p) mod p p > 2 |(a/p)| 1, (a/p)(/p) = (a/p).
(iv) Legendre.
(v) (iii) .
4 x 2 63 mod 11.
63 8 mod 11, (63/11) = (8/11). (8/11) = (23 /11) = (2/11)
(22 /11) = (2/11) 1 = (2/11). , 3
2 < Z11 2 , (2/11) = 1,
.

24 5. - LEGENDRE
4
1. . - . ,
17: 17.3 , 17.4 , 17.5
2. 3 mod p p = 7, 13;
3. (a/p) a = 1, 2, 2, 3 p = 11, 13, 17.
4. ;
(i) x 2 2 mod 61
(ii) x 2 2 mod 59
(iii) x 2 2 mod 61
(iv) x 2 2 mod 59
: , .
15 ( Gauss Gauss) p
p 1
p - a. a, 2a, 3a, . . . , 2 a
mod p. n
p
2 , (a/p) = (1)n .
.
p 1
r1 , r2 , . . . , rn mod p a, 2a, . . . , 2 a p
2 s1 , s2 , . . . , sk . r1 , r2 , . . . , rn , s1 , s2 , . . . , sk
p 1
. , n + k = 2 . ,
p
p
ri > 2 0 < p ri < 2 , 1 i n p ri .
, p ri , 1 i n
s1 , . . . , sk . , p ri = sj ri a mod p, sj a mod p
p 1
1 , 2 , p a a mod p ( + )a 0 mod p.
, (a, p) = 1, + 0 mod p,
. , p r1 , . . . , p rn , s1 , . . . , sk
p
, 2 n +
p 1
p 1
k = 2 , 1, 2, . . . , 2
. :
(p r1 )(p r2 ) (p rn )s1 s2 sk = 1 2 p21
(r1 )(r2 ) (rn )s1 s2 sk 1 2 p21 mod p
(1)n r1 r2 rn s1 s2 sk 1 2 p21 mod p
(1)n a 2a p21 a 1 2 p21 mod p
p 1

(1)n a 2 1 mod p ( 1 2 p21 )

(1)n (a/p) mod p (. 14,(i))
(a/p) = (1)n , (a/p) (1)n 1 1. 

25
5
1. p . -1
, p 1 mod 4. p 3 mod
1
 4, p
1
1
2
modp. , p = (1) . 1
p 1
2

p 1
  = 1 2 =p12m,
p 1
m N p = 4m + 1. , p1 = 1 (1) 2 = 1 2 =
2m + 1, m N p = 4m + 3, m.

mod p, (1)

2. (3/7) = 1 (5/7) = 1. , Z7 2 = {1, 2, 4}. , 3 < Z7 2 ,

(3/7) = 1.
(3/7)(5/7) = (15/7) = (1/7), 15 1 mod 7. (3/7)(5/7) =
(1/7) (3/7)(5/7) = 1 (3/7) = 1, (5/7) = 1.
3. (3/7) Gauss.
p 1
3, 2 3 = 6, 3 3 = 9 2 mod 7, p = 7, 2 = 3.
p
, 2 = 3, 5 6, 3,6,2 3,5.
(3/7) = (1)1 (3/7) = 1.

26 5. - LEGENDRE

, .
16 p .

 
2
p

= (1)

p 2 1
8

17 (
p, q ,
 p   q  )
p 1 q 1
2
2
p , q. q p = (1)
. ( Gauss(17771855), 19 , 152
)

6
1. p. :
 
p 1
2
= (1) 4 , p 1 mod 4
p

 
2
p

= (1)

p +1
4

, p 3 mod 4.

, 16,

(1)

p +1
2

p 1
4

,
.

 

p +1 p 1
2
4
2p

p 2 1
8

7 2 1

 

(1)

= (1)

p 1
4

p 2 1
8


 p41
p+1
2
= (1)
=

= (1) 8 = (1)6 = 1, 2
mod 7.
 
112 1
2
3. 11
= (1) 8 = (1)15 = 1, 2
mod 11.
2.

2
7

27

 6.

28

132 1

 

= (1) 8 = (1)21 = 1, 2
mod 13.
 
172 1
2
= (1) 8 = (1)36 = 1, 2
5. 17
mod 17.

4.

2
13

6. 
 p,p q, p, q . :
q
= q , p q 3 mod 4
p

q
p

p

, ,
p 1 q 1
2
2

q p
p

= 1,

= 1   
p q 3 mod 4.
 q 
p
p 1 q 1
q
p 1
, p q = 1 (1) 2 2 = 1 2
, p =
q 1
2 p = 4k + 1 q = 4 + 1.
(1)

p 1
2
p
q

q 1
2

7. 257

 269
 
 
257 1 mod
 4,
 
2571
257
269
12
22 3
3
257
2

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2
269
257
257
257
257
3
3

1, Z3 = {1, 2} Z3 2 = {1}.

8. 5m 1.
n > 1 .
N = 5(n !)2 1. N +1 = 5(n !)2 , N 1 mod 5.
p N , p . 1 mod 5. Q
a
, N 1 mod 5 N = si=1 pi i ,
Qs
n = i =1 (1+5i )ai , ai , i , 1 i s.
, N 1 mod 5, N N 1 mod 5, .
p | N p . 1 mod 5.
p 
0 mod
N + 1
 p> n. p | N  N 5(
 p 
 
n !)2
(n !)2
1
N +1
5
N +1
= p
= 5p .
1 mod p p = p = 1 1 = p =
p
p

 
p
 
p1 51
5
5
2
2
=
(
1
)
=
1.

=
,

1
=
,
5  
p
5
p
p
5
1 = p = 5 , p mod 5.
mod 5 1 4, Z5 2 = {1, 4}.
p 4 mod 5, p . 1 mod 5. , , p < n. ,
p | n !, p | 5(n !)2 . , p | N
N = 5(n !)2 1, p | 1, . ,
,

  p
5
p

, n > 1, p > n,
p 4 mod 5.
5m 1.

29
9.

874
5231






1
2
19
23
=
=
5231



 5231 5231 5231 5231
231
5231
(1) 2 5231
=
19
23

874 = (1)21923.
52312 1

52311

191 52311

874

= (1) 2 (1) 8 (1) 2 2




5231
= 5231
.
19
23
  

  
5231
6
, 19 = 19
5231
= 10
.
23
       23 
192 1
31 191
2
3
6
= 2193 = 19
= (1) 8 (1) 2 2
19
19
    
     
19
1
10
10
=
=

= 10
=
19
3
3
3
23
23
23



 

 
2
23 1
31 51
51 231
23
3
5
2
2
= (1) 8 (1) 2 2 23
=
=
=
(
1
)
5
5
5
3
   
2
3 1
5
2
8
3 = 3 = (1)
. .

10. -3 mod p, p > 3

p = 6m + 1,
m N.

 
 
 
p1
p 1
1
3
3
p = 1 p p = 1 (1) 2 3p = 1 p3 = (1) 2 .
,

p

p 1
2

  p
3
p

= (1)

p1 31
2
2

p

= (1) (1) p21 3 = 1. p p 1 mod 3

p 2 mod 3.
p  
p
32 1
p 2 mod 3, 3 = 32 = 2 8 = 1, , 3 = 1.
p 1 mod 3 3 | (p 1). , 2 | (p 1), p
. , 6 | (p 1) , p = 6m + 1.   
, p = 6m + 1 m N, (3/p) = p1 3p =
 
 


 
p 1
p1 31
(1) 2 3p (1) 2 2 = p3 = 6m3+1 = 31 = 1, -3
mod p p 6m + 1.
3

8. , , .
18 (Dirichlet) a,  N, (a, ) = 1. ,
an +  ,
n N.
11. 
p > 2 3 ;
 p 
p 1
3
2 ,
=
(
1
)
p
3

 
1

p 1 mod 3
 3  = 1,
=

3
= 1, p 2 mod 3.
3

p

 6.

30

(1)

p 1 mod 4
1,
=

1, p 3 mod 4.

p 1
2

p 1 mod 3, p 1 mod 4
=1

p 2 mod 3, p 3 mod 4.
p
3

 
3
p

= 1 p 1 mod 12 p 11 mod 12.

5 a p > 2 ,
p - a. (a/p) = (1)m , m =
x.

P p21 
i =1

ia/p [x ]

.
, ia = i p + i , 0 i < p,


p 1
1 i 2 . , i ia mod p i = ia/p .
Gauss r1 , r2 , . . . , rn
p
i , 2 s1 , s2 , . . . , sk

P p21

i =1 ia =
P p21
P p21 
P p21
P p21 
 P p21
 Pn
p + i = i =1 p ia/p + i =1 i i =1 ia = i =1 p ia/p + i =1 ri +
Pki =1 i
p

2 . p ri < 2 .
i =1

si (1).

P p 1

, i =21 i = ni=1 (p ri ) + ki=1 si = np ni=1 ri +

  (1) (2), :

Pk

i =1

si (2).

P p 1
P
P p 1 

(a 1) i =21 i = p i =21 ia/p n + 2 ni=1 ri (3).
a 1 (p, 2) = 1, (3) mod 2 :
P p 1 
P p 1 




0 i =21 ia/p n mod 2 n i =21 ia/p mod 2. ,
Gauss (a/p) = (1)m . 
16
a = 2, (a 1)

(2 1)

p 1
2

i =1

i=p

P p1 
2
i =1

p1
2

P p21

i =1

i=p

2i/p n + 2

p 2 1

P p1 
2

Pn

i =1

i =1 r i

ia/p n + 2

Pn

i =1 r i

(1).

i =1 i = 8 , (2, p) = 1 2i < p, 1 i 2 ,


p 1
2i/p = 0, 1 i 2 . , (1),

p 1

31
mod 2
2
p 2 1
n mod 2 n p 81 mod 2. , ,
8
Gauss. 
17
S = {(ip, kq) : 1 i 2 , 1 k 2 }.
p 1 q 1
|S| = 2 2 . , S1 S2 S :
S1 = {(ip, kq) S : ip < kq} , S2 = {(ip, kq) S : ip > kq}.
S ip = kq
p q. , S = S1 S2 .
p 1

q 1

|S1 | =

P p21 

(ip, kq) S1 , i <

kq
.
p

i =1

kq/p |S2 | =

p 1
,
2

j =1

jp/q (2).

kq
p

p 1 q
2 p

= pp 1 2q <
h ip i

P q21

i =1 q .
p
p
q
(2). 5, p = (1)|S1 |
p
q p
q = (1)|S2 | . , p q = (1)|S1 | (1)|S2 | = (1)|S1 |+|S2 | = (1)|S| . q p
pq q1
, p q = (1) 2 2 . 
q
.
2

h kq i

q 1
2

|S1 | =

P p21 h kq i

P q21 

i =1

, |S2 | =

32

6.

 7

f (x ) = sn x n + an 1 x n 1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 Z[x ]. ,
f (x ) 0 mod m
m > 1. , f (x )
Zm [x ].
f (x ) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 Zm [x ]
n an , 0 Zm . , f (x ) 0 mod m
n. a Z, f (a ) 0 mod m.
a f (x ) mod m.
19 (Lagrange) f (x ) Z[x ] n.
f (x ) 0 mod p, p , n .
.
Zp , f (x ) Zp [x ] n, n
. , f (x ) 0 mod p n . 
7
1. x p x 0 mod p p ,
Fermat a Zp , a p a a mod p.
2. x 2 1 0 mod 8 1, 1, 3, 3 Z8 ,
.
Lagrange .
3. 8x 3 + 2x 2 + 1 0 mod 5 3, 8x 3 + 3x 2 +
x + 1 0 mod 4 2.
33

34

7.

20 d | m, d > 0 a f (x ) 0 mod m,
a f (x ) 0 mod d.
.
m | f (a ) d | f (a ) f (a ) 0 mod d. 
21 f (x ) . m N (m ) f (x ) 0 mod m. m = m1 m2 , (m1 , m2 ) = 1, N (m ) =
Q
Q
e
e

N (m1 )N (m2 ). , m = ti=1 pi i , N (m ) = ti=1 N pi i .
.
a Zm f (a ) 0 mod m, . m = m1 m2 ,
(m1 , m2 ) = 1, f (a ) = 0 mod m1 m2 mi | f (a ), i = 1, 2 f (a )
0 mod mi , i = 1, 2. a1 Zm1 , a a1 mod m1
a2 Zm2 , a a2 mod m2 . , 2,
f (a1 ) 0 mod m1 f (a2 ) 0 mod m2 . ,
a f (x ) 0 mod m, (a1 , a2 ), ai
f (ai ) 0 mod mi , i = 1, 2. ,
a1 , a2
f (x ) 0 mod m
f (x ) 0 mod m1 f (x )
0 mod m2 . , a  mod m
 1 mod m1  2 mod m2 , a1 1 mod m1 a2
2 mod m2 . (m1 , m2 ) = 1.

. .
ai f (x ) ai mod mi . , a Zm
a a1 mod m1 a a2 mod m2 . f (a ) 0 mod m1
f (a ) 0 mod m2 f (a ) 0 mod m1 m2 , (m1 , m2 ) = 1, f (a )
0 mod m. N (m ) = N (m1 )N (m2 ). 
2 f (x )
0 mod m, N (m ) = 0.
8
1. f (x ) = x 2 + x +
7 0 mod 15. x 2 +x +7 0 mod 3
x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 5. 0,1,2
x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 3 , x 1 mod 3. ,

35
x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 5 ,
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4( 0,1, 2). ,
2. x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 21. x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 3
, x 1 mod 3, .
x 2 +x +7 0 mod 7 , x 0 mod 7 x 1 mod 7.
1 2 = 2 .
(1, 0),

x 1 mod 3

x 0 mod 7
(1, 1) (1, 6)

x 1 mod 3

x 6 mod 7.
,
+ 0M2 21
, M1 21
1 mod 3 M1 = 1
1M1 21
3
7
3
21
M2 7 1 mod 7 M2 = 5. , 1 1 7 + 0 5 3 =
7 mod 21. 1 1 7 + 6 5 3 = 97 mod 21,
13 mod 21.
5
1. f (x ) = x 2 + x + 7.
f (x ) 0 mod 189, 189 = 33 7
f (x ) 0 mod 27 4 13.
2. x 3 + 4x + 8 0 mod 15.

f (x ) 0 mod pi , f (x ) Z[x ], p i 2.
22 ( Hensel) f (x ) Z[x ].
a mod pi f (x ) 0 mod pi p
f 0 (a ) . 0 mod p, f 0 (x ) f (x ),
t mod p f (a + tpi ) 0 mod pi +1 , i 1. t
f (a )
tf 0 (a ) pi mod p.

36

7.

.
f (x ) = k0 + k1 x + . . . + kn x n Z[x ]. f 0 (x )
f (x ), f 0 (x ) = k1 + 2k2 x + . . . + nkn x n 1 . a mod pi f (x ) 0 mod pi ,
f (a ) 0 mod pi . t mod p
(a + tpi ) mod pi +1 f (x ) 0 mod pi +1 .
Taylor
f (a + tpi ) = f (a ) + tpi f 0 (a ) + 21! t 2 p2i f 00 (a ) + . . . + n1! t n pni f (n ) (a ),
n f (x ). f (a +tpi ) (f (a ) + tpi f 0 (a )) mod
pi +1 (1). , pi | psi s 1.
s1! f (s) (a ) 2 s
n. r f (x ) kr x r , f (s) (a )
kr r (r 1)(r 2) (r s + 1)a r s , 0 !r n. s! | r (r 1) (r s + 1)
r
r s+1)
(
= r (r 1)(
Z). , 0
s!
s
!
r
r s,

s
s! (1). , , a + tpi
f (x ) 0 mod pi +1 , f (a + tpi ) 0 mod pi +1 ,
(1) :
f (a )
f (a )
f (a ) + tpi f 0 (a ) 0 mod pi +1 f 0 (a )t pi mod p. pi
, f (a ) 0 mod pi . , , f 0 (a ) .
0 mod p, t

f (a )f 0 (a )
pi

mod p,

f 0 (a ) f 0 (a ) mod p, f 0 (a )f 0 (a )
1 mod p. , , f 0 (a ) . 0 mod p, a + tpi
f (x ) 0 mod pi +1 , t
(1). , , (1)
a + tpi [a f (a )f 0 (a )] mod pi +1 (*). 
5 x 2 + x + 47 0 mod 73 . f (x ) = x 2 +
x + 47. Z7 a 1 mod 7
 5 mod 7 f (x ) 0 mod 7. ,
f 0 (x ) = 2x + 1 f 0 (1) = 3 . 0 mod 7 , f 0 (5) = 11 . 0 mod 7. Hensel t a + 7t
f (x ) 0 mod 72 t 0  + 7t 0
f (x ) 0 mod 72 .
a 1 mod 7, f 0 (1) 3 mod 7 f 0 (1) 5 mod 7, 3 5 = 15
1 mod 7. , (*), 1 + 7t = 1 f (1)f 0 (1) 1 + 7t = 1 49

37
5 (1 245) mod 72 1 + 7t 244 mod 49 1 + 7t 1 mod 49.
a2 1 mod 49 a2 f (x ) 0 mod 72 .
,  5 mod 7, f 0 (5) 11 mod 7 f 0 (5) 4 mod 7 f 0 (5)
2 mod 7, 4 2 = 8 1 mod 7. , (*), 5 + 7t 0 =
5 f (5)f 0 (5) 5 + 7t 0 = 5 77 2 2 mod 49 5 + 7t 0 47 mod 49.
2 47 mod 49.
, a2 1 mod 72 2 47 mod 72
a3 mod 73 3 mod 73 x 2 + x + 47 mod 73 .
a2 1 mod 72 , f 0 (1) = 3, f 0 (1) 5 mod 7 a3 = a2 f (a2 )f 0 (1)
a3 = 1 49 5 mod 73 a3 = 245 mod 343 a3 99 mod 343 a3
99 mod 73 .
2 47 mod 72 , f 0 (47) = 95 4 mod 7 f 0 (47) 2 mod 7
3 = 2 f (2 )f 0 (47) 3 = 47 2303 2 mod 73 3 = 4551 mod 343
3 243 mod 343 3 243 mod 73 . , : 99 mod 73 , 243 mod 73 .
3 Hensel (a + tpi )
mod pi +1 , f (a ) 0 mod pi f 0 (a ) . 0 mod p. f 0 (a ) 0 mod p,
Taylor f (a + tpi ) f (a ) mod pi +1
t. , f (a ) 0 mod pi +1 f (a + tpi ) 0 mod pi +1
0 t p, p , a + tpi , 0 t p. , ,
f (a ) . 0 mod pi +1 , a + tpi .
, a mod pi f (x ) 0 mod pi +1 .
6 f (x ) = x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 81,
x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 34 .
x 2 + x + 7 0 mod 3 a 1 mod 3 f (1) = 9.
f 0 (x ) = 2x + 1 f 0 (1) = 3 0 mod 3. ,
f (x ) 0 mod 32 1 mod 32 , 1 + 3 = 4 mod 32
1 + 2 3 = 7 mod 32 .
a 1 mod 32 , f (1) = 9 . 0 mod 33 .
f (x ) 0 mod 33 a 1 mod 32 .
 4 mod 32 , f (4) = 27 0 mod 33 , 4 mod 32
f (x ) 0 mod 33 . f 0 (4) = 2 4 + 1 = 9 0 mod 3, ,
, f (x ) 0 mod 33
4, 4 + 32 = 13 4 + 2 32 = 22.
, 4 mod 32 4 mod 33 , 13 mod 33
22 mod 33 , f (x ) 0 mod 33 .

38

7.

1 4 mod 33 , f (4) = 27 . 0 mod 34 .

2 13 mod 33 , f (13) = 189 27 mod 34 f (13) . 0 mod 34 .
3 22 mod 33 , f (22) = 513 27 mod 34 f (22) . 0 mod 34 .
x 2 + x + 7 mod 81.
f (x ) 0 mod p, f (x )
p . Lagrange
n , n = deg f (x ). x 2 + x + 7
0 mod 33 3 , ,
Langrange f (x )
Zn , n .
f (x ) Z[x ]
f (x ) mod p n p n p. f (x ) Z[x ] x p x Z[x ].
q(x ), r (x ) : f (x ) = q(x )(x p x )+ r (x ), 0 deg r (x )
p. x Z x p x mod p, Fermat,
f (x ) 0 mod p
r (x ) 0 mod p. , r (x ) = 0
r (x ) p,
r (x ) 0 mod p. , r (x ) p 1. r (x ) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + as x s Z[x ],
s p 1 p - as , r (x ) 0 mod p as a0 + . . . + as as1 x s1 + xs
0 mod p, as as Zp . ,
as as 1 mod p p - as . , r (x ) 0 mod p
as r (x ) 0 mod p.
f (x ) 0 mod p as r (x ) 0 mod p.
.
23 f (x ) 0 mod p n n p.
f (x ) 0 mod p
g(x ) p 1, g(x ) 0 mod p
.
6

1. x 3 3 0 mod 5

2. 2x 3 39 + 9 0 mod 7
3. 7x 4 + 19x + 25 0 mod 27

39
4. 23 :
(i) x 11 + x 8 + 5 0 mod 7
(ii) x 20 + x 13 + x 7 + x 2 mod 5
(iii) x 15 x 10 + 4x 3 0 mod 7.

40

7.

 8

f : N/{0} C .
:
(n ) = n
(n ) = n
k (n ) = k n
w(n ) = n
(n ) = n
.
, (8) = 4, (12) = 6, (8) = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15, 2 (8) = 1 + 22 + 42 + 82 =
85, w(8) = 1(8) = 3. :
P
P
P
P
P
(n ) = d |n 1, (n ) = d |n d, k (n ) = d |n d k , w(n ) = p|n 1, (n ) = pa ||n a,
pa || n a p
n.
f f (mn ) =
f (m )f (n ), (m, n ) = 1 . f (mn ) = f (m )f (n )
m, n .
1
1. f f (n ) =
f (n 1) f (n ) = f (1)f (n ) f (1) = 1, C
Qt
ei
n f (n ) , 0. , n =
i =1 pi ,
Qt
e
f (n ) = i =1 f (pi i ). , f
e
f (pi i ) , 1 i t.
t
i
2. f n =
i =1 p i .
Qt
f (n ) = i =1 f (pi )ei , f f (p), p

41

 8.

42
.
9
.

1. Euler

2. .
.
a (p)
6 n =
n N {0}, n
pp
Q
a (p)
, p
|| n. (n ) = p|n (a (p) + 1).

.
Q (p)
d n d =
pp
0 (p) a (p), p n.
, (p)
Q
a (p) + 1. , n p|n (a (p) + 1). 
3. I : N {0} C,

1, n = 1
I (n ) =

0, n > 1
.
4. J : N{0} C, n 7 1
.
5. : N {0} C, :

0, , 1 n
(n ) =

(1)r , n r
Mo bius.
(1) = (1)0 = 1, (2) = 1, (4) = 0, (6) = 1.

Dirichlet( convolution, ) :
P
f g(n ) = d |n f (d )g( dn ), f g n
N{0}. Dirichlet

43
, f g
.
P
d g(n ) = n =d1 d2 f (d1 )g(d2 ),
(d1 , d2 ), d1 d2 = n.
Dirichlet ,
f g(n ) = g f (n ).
, , [(f g) h ](n ) =
[f (g h )](n ) f, g, h.
P
[(f g) h ](n ) = n =d1 d2 d3 f (d1 )g(d2 )h (d3 ) = f (g h )(n ),
(d1 , d2 , d3 ) n = d1 d2 d3 .


P
I f (n ) = d |n I (d )f ( dn ) = I (1)f (n ) = f (n ), I f = f = f I.
.
7
Dirichlet I, : I (1) = 1 I (n ) = 0
n > 1.
.
24 f ,
P
F (n ) = d |n f (d ) .
.
F (m1 m2 ) = F (m1 )F (m2 ), (m1 , m2 ) = 1. m =
m1 m2 .
d m (d1 , d2 ), d1 | m1
d2 | m2 . d | m. d1 = (d, m1 ) d2 = (d, m2 ).
d = d1 d2 , d1 | m1 d2 | m2 . , , d 7 (d1 , d2 ).
, (d1 , d2 ) d1 | m1 d2 | m2 , d = d1 d2
m = m1 m2 d1 = (d, m1 ) d2 = (d, m2 ). (d1 , d2 ) 7 d = d1 d2 .
. |{d : d | m1 m2 }| =
|{(d1 , d2 ) : d1 | m1 , d2 | m2 }|. , (d1 , d2 ) = 1,
P
P
P
P
P
F (m1 m2 ) = d |m1 m2 f (d ) = d1 |m1 d2 |m2 f (d1 d2 ) = d1 |m1 d2 |m2 f (d1 )f (d2 ) =

P

 P

d1 |m1 f (d1 )

d2 |m2 f (d2 ) = F (m1 )F (m2 ). 

 8.

44

10
1. (n ) =
P
P
d |n 1. (n ) =
d |n J (d ), J (n ) = 1, n 1 J
. , 24
. n =
Qt
Qt
Qt
ei
ei
i =1 pi , (n ) =
i =1 d (pi ) =
i =1 (ei + 1) (.
2).
2. 24 (n ).
P
P
(n ) = d |n d = d |n f (d ), f (n ) = n. f
, .
Qt
Qt
Qt
ei
ei
, n =
i =1 p1 i , (n ) =
i =1 (pi ) =
i =1 (1 + pi +
. . . + di i ) =
e

Qt

i =1

e +1

p i i 1
.
p i 1

25 n =

:
i
i =1 pi , (n ) =

Qt

Q piei +1 1
p i 1

3. d |n (n ) = n, n 1
Euler.
P
F (n ) = d |n (d ). ,
Q
e
F . n = ti=1 pi i ,
F (pe ).
P
P
P
F (pe ) = d |pe (d ) = es=0 (ps ) = 1 + es=1 ps ps1 = pe (.
3.

n > 0
, (n ) = 2n.

.
8 n > 1 s > 1 . n s 1
n > 2 s .
.
s = tu, t > 1 u > 1. n tu 1 = (n t 1)(n t (u 1) + . . . +
n t + 1), n s 1 , n > 2 s . 
Mp = 2p 1, p , Mersenne( Father Martin Mersenne , 1588-1648).
Mersenne,
-

45
.
Mersenne
.
9 n
2p1 (2p 1), p 2p 1 .
4 4 ..
.
Euler 18 ..
.
n = 2p1 (2p 1) p 2p 1 (
8, 2p 1 ,
p ). n : 1, 2, . . . , 2p1 , 2p
1, 2(2p 1), . . . , 2p1 (2p 1). , 1 + 2 + . . . + 2p1 = 2p 1 1 + 2 +
. . . + 2p1 + (2p 1) + 2(2p 1) + . . . + 2p1 (2p 1) =
= (2p 1) + (2p 1) + 2(2p 1) + . . . + 2p1 (2p 1) =
2p 1 + (2p 1)(2p 1) = 2p (2p 1) = 2n. (n ) = 2n, n
.
, n . n = 2k 1 m,
k 2, m (n ) = 2n.
, 25. (n ) = (2k 1 ) (m ). ,
(n ) = 2n, (2k 1) (m ) = 2k m (2k 1) | m, m = (2k 1)m1 .
, (m ) = 2k m1 . m m1 m.
, m1 = 1 , m = 2k 1 , k
, 8, , n = 2k 1 (2k 1). 
5 .
< 106 : 6, 28, 496 8128.
p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257 Mp , p < 257.
.
24 :
f , f J
.

46

8.

, J f (n ) = d |n f (d ) P
f . , (. 1) (n ) = d |n J (d ) =
J J (n ), = J J . Mo bius.

26 f
Q
P
e
n = ti=1 pi i d |n (d )f (d ) = (1 f (p1 )) (1 f (pt )).
( t = 0, n = 1, 1).
.
(d ) d
1, 2, . . . , t. , .. d = q1 qs ,
{q1 , . . . , qs } {p1 , . . . , pt }, (d ) = (1)s f (d ) = f (q1 ) f (qs ),
(d )f (d ) = (1)s f (q1 ) f (qs ).
, . 
11
1. f (n ) = n1 , n N {0}, n =
P
1
1
1
d |n (d ) d = (1 p1 ) (1 pt ).

Qt

i =1

pi i

2. f = J . , 26 :
Q
P
P
P
J (n ) = d |n (d )J ( dn ) = d |n (d ) = d |n (d )I (d ) = ti=1 (1 I (pi )) =
Qt
i =1 (1 1) =

1, n = 1

0, n > 1

= I (n ). J = I = J .
27 ( Mo bius) f F
. : F = J f f = F .
.
F = J f F = (J f ) F = ( J )f F = I f F = f ,
I f = f = f I J = I = J . ,
f = F J f = (J ) F J f = I F = F ,
I f = f = f I J = I = J . 
, , 24.
28 F
P
F (n ) = d |n f (d ), f , f
.

47
.
P
F (n ) = d |n f (d ) F = f J (.
P
J f (n ) = d |n f (d ). , Mo bius
F = f J F = f J = I = J . ,
F ( ) ,
f . 
7
1. Dirichlet .
2. : (300), (250), s(e e 52 7).
3. J f (n ) = d |n f (d ), f J (n ) = 1 n 1.

t
i
4.
= ti=1 pi ei 1 p11 1 p1t ,
i =1 p i
Mo bius. ( : F (n ) = n
f (n ) = (n ).)
e

 

5. d |n (d ) dn = 1 d |n (d ) (d ) = (1)t ,
Q
e
n = ti=1 pi i . ( : = J J
J = I = J .)

6.
Q
e
n = ti=1 pi i .

d |n

7. (n ) = n

(d )

d |n

 
n
d

= n

(d ) d1 .

d |n

(d ) (d ) = (1)t p1 pt ,

48

8.

 9


, 2
.
4 a , f (x ) Q[x ], f (a ) = 0.

12 2 ,
x 2 2. i
x 2 + 1. a = 2 +
3
3
3 5 a 2 = 3 5 (a 2)3 =27 5 a 3 6a 2 + 12a 8 = 135
3
a 3 6a 2 + 12a 143 = 0. 2 + 3 5 ,
x 3 6x 2 + 12x 143 Q[x ].
, . e, ,
. , .(;)
29 a . ( )
p(x ) a. a
p(x ).
: F : Q[x ] C, f (x ) 7 f (a ) , ,
(x ), Q[x ] .
49

 9.

50

Q[x ] a
(x ). (x ) . , (x ) = 1 (x )2 (x ),
0 = (a ) = 1 (a )2 (a ) 1 (a ) = 0 2 (a ) = 0, C .
(x ) | 1 (x ) (x ) | 2 (x ). ,
1 (x ) 2 (x ) Q,
Q[x ]. (x ) .
(x ) 1 , q Q
x, 1q (x ) a. p(x ) 1q (x ).
g(x ) a, p(x ) | g(x ).
p(x ) = g(x ) p(x )
g(x ) g(x ) . 
5 a
Q[x ] a
a Q IrrQ (a )(x ).

7 x 2 7 = IrrQ ( 7), x 2 +1 = IrrQ (i )(x ), x 2 +x +1 = IrrQ

IrrQ

 1i 3 
2

 1+i 3 
2

(x ), x 2 + 3 = IrrQ (i 3)(x ).

8 3

1+ 7
,1
2

2+

3, 1 + 3i

Q[a ] 29.
Q[a ] ( C)
Q[a ] = {f (a ) : f (x ) Q[x ]}. Q(a ) f (a )
Q[a ], Q(a ) = { g(a ) : f (x ), g(x )
Q[x ], g(x ) , 0}. 29 ,
Q[x ]/ (p(x ))  Q[a ].
, Q[x ]/ (p(x )) (p(x ))
, p(x ) = IrrQ (a )(x ).
Q[a ] Q[a ] = Q(a ),
Q[a ] , Q a. Q(a )
Q a.
a , Q[x ]  Q[a ]
Q(x )  Q(a ), Q(a ) Q, Q(x ) Q[x ].

51
30 a n IrrQ (a )(x ).
1, a, . . . , a n 1 Q
Q(a ), Q(a ) = {qo + q1 a + . . . + qn 1 a n 1 : qi Q, 0 i n 1}.
:
1, a, . . . , a n 1 , Q[x ] a
n 1. , degIrrQ (a )(x ) = n.
1, a, . . . , a n 1 . , Q(a ) =
Q[a ] f (a ) f (x ) Q[x ]. ,
f (x ) = (x )IrrQ (a )(x ) + (x ), (x ), (x ) Q[x ], deg (x ) < n,
f (a ) = u (a ), f (a ) 1, a, . . . , a n 1 , Q(a ) 1, a, . . . , a n 1 ,
Q . 

13
x 2 2.

1. Q( 2) = {q0 +q1

2 : q0 , q1 Q}, IrrQ ( 2)(x ) =

2. , Q(i ) = {q0 + q1 i : q0 , q1 Q}.

3. IrrQ ()(x ) = x 2 + x + 1, 3 .
Q() = {q0 + q1 : q0 , q1 Q}.

2
4. IrrQ ( 7)(x ) = x 3 7, Q( 7) = {q0 + q1 7 + q
q1 , q2 Q}.
2 7 : q0 ,
3
3
3
3
x 7
7, 7,
72 ,
3
3
1,
, 2 x 3 1. IrrQ ( 7)(x ) = IrrQ ( 7)(x ) =
3
IrrQ ( 72 )(x ) = x 3 7.

e.
5. q Q, IrrQ (x ) = x q. q Q
e := {a C : a }.
Q
e
Q Q C.
6 a e : a
, IrrQ (a )(x ) Z[x ]. e
Z = {a Q
}.

14
1.
.

2, i,

7, 3- ,

 9.

52
2.

3+i 15
4

. ,

3+i 15

2a 2 + 3a + 3 = 0,
a =
4
2
2x + 3x + 3 Q[x ] a. , IrrQ (a )(x ) = x 2 + 23 x + 32 <
Z[x ].
3. a Z e
Z, x a Z[x ].

e C.
31 (i) Q
(ii) a e
Z f (x )
f (a ) = 0.
e
(iii) a Q
.
e.
(iv) e
Z Q
.
e. , f (x ), g(x ) Q[x ] f (a ) = 0
(i) a,  Q
Q
Q
g() = 0. f (x ) = k ni=1 (x ai ) g(x ) = m
j=1 (x j )
f (x ) g(x )
C[x ],
Qn,m
Qn,m
i =1,j=1 (x (ai + j )),
i =1,j=1 (x (ai j )) a + a
ai , i i n
j , 1 j m, Q, Q[x ]. e
C Q
e, a Q
e 0 , a,
. a Q
1
e, Q
e C. f (x ) =
a Q
n
q0 + q1 x + . . . + qn x Q[x ] f (a ) = 0, a
e
q0 q1 x + q2 x 2 + . . . + (1)n qn x n . a
 Q. ,

n
n
a , 0, q0 + q1 a + . . . + qn a = 0 a qn + qn 1 a1 + . . . + q0 a1n = 0,
a 1 qn + qn 1 x + . . . + q0 x n Q[x ].
e C.
Q
(ii) a e
Z,
. ,
f (x ) Z[x ] a. IrrQ (a )(x ), g(x ) Q[x ], f (x ) = IrrQ (a )(x )g(x ).
g(x ) Gauss
IrrQ (a )(x ), g(x ) Z[x ]. a e
Z.
n
e IrrQ (a )(x ) = q0 + q1 x + . . . + qn x . m (iii) a Q

53
IrrQ (a )(x ), 0 = m n IrrQ (a )(a ) = m n IrrQ (a )

n 1

 qm 
m

. am = .

0 = m n q0 + q1 m + . . . + qn 1 m n1 + m n =
= q0 m n + q1 m n 1  + . . . + qn 1 mn 1 + n . , 
q0 m n + q1 m n 1 x + . . . + qn 1 mx n 1 + x n Z[x ].
e
Z a = m , .
(iv) ,
(i), a,  e
Z, a  a e
Z. e
Z e
Q
e e
. (iii) Q
Z. 


10 e
Z Q = Z.
.
a Z x a Z[x ] a e
Z. Z e
Z Q. a Q e
Z
x a Q[x ] a e
Z, IrrQ (a )(x ) = x a Z[x ] x a
Z[x ] a Z, Q e
Z Z. , e
Z Q = Z. 
e
Q Q
e .
Q|Q

e : Q = .
11 Q
.
n p

 .

n
n
p : Q = n.
x p Q[x ] Q

 

e,
Q Q n p Q
.
e n Q,
n
Q


e
Q : Q = . 
e, Q,
7 K Q
. , (K : Q) = 2, K
.
.
K |Q (K : Q) = 2, a K, a < Q p(x ) = IrrQ (a )(x ).
Q , Q(a ) K, Q(a ) Q
K 1 < dimQ Q(a ) dimQ K = 2. (Q(a ) : Q) = 2
Q(a ) = k. degp(x ) = 2, p(x ) = x 2 + q1 x + q0 Q[x ].

 9.

54

a
q1 +

q 1

q1 2 4q0

p(x ).

q1 2 4q0

p

, a =
q1 2 4q0 .
. K = Q(a ) = Q
2

, K = Q( q), q Q q < Q.

, K = Q( q), q Q q < Q, IrrQ ( q) = x 2 q

( x 2 q q Q).
(K : Q) = 2.


K = Q( q), q < Q. q = , (, ) = 1.

 

= Q  = Q(  ), , Z. , , K = Q( q),

q Z q < Q. n

q = n 2 m, K = Q( n 2 m ) = Q(n m ) = Q( m ), m
( @s Z s2 | m).
q 

32 Q( m ),

m . Q( m ) =

{a +  m : a,  Q}.

m > 0, Q( m ) R, m < 0,
Q( m ) C.

Q( m ).

33 Q( m ) , m
. R
Q( m ). :

m 2, 3 mod 4, R = {a +  m : a,  Z} := Z[ m ]
q + m
m 1 mod 4, R = { 2 : a,  } =

= {a +  1+2 m : a,  Z}.

a +b m
32 Q( m )
,
c
a, b, c Z
(a, b, c ) = 1.

a +b m
a +b m
b , 0,
< Q.

c
c

q +b m
c



q b m
c

q
= x 2 2a
x+
c

b 2 m

2a
c

a +b m
.
c

c2

Q[x ],

a 2 b 2 m
c2

a +b m
c

Z. (*)

55
(a, c ) > 1. p
p | (a, c ), p - b, (a, b, c ) = 1. , , p2 | a 2 p2 | c 2 ,
q 2 b 2 m
c2 Z m ,
p | b, . (a, c ) = 1. , 2a
Z
c
c = 1 c = 2.
c = 1, a 2 b2 m Z a, b Z.
2
2
c = 2, a cb2 m Z a 2 b2 m 0 mod 4. c = 2
(a, c ) = 1. a . a = 2k + 1.
a 2 b2 0 mod 4 b2 m 1 mod 4. b
. b = 2+1, b2 m 1 mod 4
m 1 mod 4. (*)

c = 1, R = {a + b m : a, b Z

c = 2, m 1 mod 4 R = { q+b m : a, b .}
2

m 2 3 mod 4, R = {a +  m : a,  Z} ( R

a + m
Z[ m ]) m 1 mod 4, R = { 2
: a, 

q+ m
0
}. , , R = {a +  2 : a,  Z}

q+ m
m 1 mod 4. R = R 0 . 2 R,

1+ m
q + m
a,  Z, a +  2 R. R 0 R.
R, a, 
2

q + m
1+ m
. x, y Z :
=
x
+
y
.
2
2
1
y =  x = 2 Z. 

8 k = a + b m Q( m ). a b m
k k + k
k k.
Tr (k ). norm k k k
N (k ).
N (k )

R Q( m ).
R ( ) R, u R
u 0 R uu 0 = 1. u 0 u 1 .
R U (R ).

34 (i) N (k1 k2 ) = N (k1 )N (k2 ), k1 , k2 Q( m ).

(ii) N (k ) = 0 k = 0.

56

9.

(iii) r R, N (r ) Z.
(iv) u U (R ) N (u ) = 1.
.

(i) ki = ai + bi m, 1 i 2 .

(ii) k Q( m ). k = 0, N (k ) = 0. ,
N (k ) = 0 k k = 0 k = 0k = 0. , k = 0, k = 0.
N (k ) = 0, k = 0.
(iii) r R, IrrQ (r )(x ) = x 2 Tr (r )(x ) + N (r ). N (r ) R.
(iv) r R N (r ) = 1, r r = 1, R
R, r r, R. , r U (R ). ,
u U (R ), R u 0 , uu 0 = 1 N (uu 0 ) =
1 N (u )N (u 0 ) = 1. , (iii) N (u ), N (u 0 ) Z.
N (u )N (u 0 ) = 1 N (u ) = 1 ( Z 1
-1). 
15

1. U (Z) = {1, 1}.

2. R Q( 1) =
Q(i ). 1 3 mod 4, R = {a + i : a,  Z} := Z[i ].
Z[i ] Gauss.
Z[i ]. a + i U (Z[i ]), N (a + i ) = a 2 + 2 .
a + i U (Z[i ]) a 2 + 2 = 1, a 2 + 2 = 1,
a 2 , 2 > 0. a 2 + 2 = 1 a 2 = 1 2 = 0 a 2 = 0
2 = 1. U (Z[i ]) = {1, 1, i, i }.

3. Q( 5). 5 3 mod
4,

Q(

5)
Z[ 5] = {a +  5 : a,  Z}. a +  5, a, 
Z, a 2 + 52 = 1,
a 2 + 52 = 1 ( a 2 , 2 > 0). ,

a = 1  = 0. , , U (Z[ 5]) = {1, 1} =
U (Z).

4. k Q( m ), m
,
Tr (k ) N (k ) .
IrrQ (k )(x ) = x 2 Tr (k )x + N (k ).

57
5. k Q(i ). N (k ) Z, k
;
34(iii) k Z[i ], N (k ) Z.
(iii) 34.
k = a + i, N (k ) = a 2 + 2 . ,
: a 2 + 2 Z, a,  Z;
k = 3+54i N (k ) = 9+516 = 5.
(iii).
9
k1 =

1.
:

3
10
+
3
5
13
7
i +5 5
,
k
=
,
k
=
+
.
2
3
4
2
2
3

3
2. a1 , a2 , a3 x
+ x 2 + x + 1
ai + 2, ai aj , (1 + 2)ai , 1 i, j 3.

3.

2 + i, 2 +

5,

q+ 3
,
2

17 +

19,

3+ 5 1+ 23
,
.
4
2

4. K = Q( m ) , m k1 , k2 K. k1 , k2
d (k1 , k2 )


2
k1 k2 
d (k1 , k2 ) = 
k1 k2 

m ) d (1,

d (1,

1+ m
2

).

5. 0 , a Q( m )
, |N (a )| > 1.
1+ 7
2

6.
.

a + 7
2

Q( 7), a, 

7. Z u Z( m ), u | .

8. a , 0 b , 0 Q( m )
a | , a |  N (a ) | N ().

58

9.

35 m
R Q( m ). m , 1 m , 3,
U (R ) = {1, 1}. m = 1, U (R ) = {1, 1, i, i }. m = 3,
U (R ) = {1, 12 3 , 12 3 }.
.
m = 1 2(15). m = 3,

3 1 mod 4. k R, k = a +2 3 . N (k ) = 1
a 2 + 32 = 4 a 2 + 32 =4.

, U (R ) = {1, 1, 1+ 2 3 , 1 2 3 , 1+2 3 , 12 3 }.

, , m , 1, 3. m 2, 3 mod 4 a +  m R, a,  Z,
N (a +  m ) = 1 a 2 + 2 = 1 a 2 + 2 = 1 a = 1
 = 0, m > 1.

a + m
, m , 1, 3 m 1 mod 4. k =
R, a, 
2
, N (k ) = 1 a 2 + m2 = 4
a 2 + m2 = 4 a = 1  = 0, m2 22 2. 
, m 1,
. ,
(. Ribenboim, "Algebraic Numbers",
1972, p.132).

36 K = Q( m ), m
. U K (
) {1, 1} hi, {1, 1}
, hi

.
,
Q( m ).
:

m 2 mod 4 m 3 mod 4 u = a +  m

u = 1. u, u 1 .
Q( m )

u = a +  m, {u, u 1 } = {a  m },

( ) 1. = 1 = a1 + 1 m

n = n = an + n m, n +1 = a1 n + an 1 .
, 1 < 2 < . . .. , N (1 ) = N () = 1 a12 m12 =
1 a12 m12 = 1 a 2 1 = m2 ,  = 2, 3 . . ., m2 =

59
4m, 9m, 16m, . . .  > 0 m2 = a 2 1
1 .
.. m =2, 212 = 12 1 > 0 212 = 2. 1 = a1
=1
= 1 + 2. m = 3,

=
1

a
=
2,

=
2
+
3.
1
1

m = 6, = 5 + 2 6 m= 7, = 8 + 3 7.
a + m
m 1 mod 4 = 1 =
, a, 
2
a,  . N (1 ) = 1 a12 m12 = 4 m12 = a12 4.
 1 > 0 m12 = a12 4.
.. m = 5, 512 = a12 4,
a1 = 1 1 = 1,

1 =

1+ 5
.
2

, m = 13, 1 =

3+ 13
.
2

9 R
. r R ,
R, r = a,
a,  R, a U (R )  U (R ). r R
, p | a, a,  , p | a p | .
, Z, . R
.
16
1. r

Q( m ). N (r ) = p, p , r
.
: r = a, a, 

Q( m ) N (r ) = p N (a) = p
N (a )N () = p. , 34(iii), N (a ), N ()
Z. , p ,
N (a ) = 1
N () = 1, a  Q( m ),

r Q( m ).
2. p Z[i ];
p Z p . p Z[i ] N (p) = p2 , 1. p
Z[i ]. p = (a + i )(x + yi )
p Z[i ]. p2 = N (p) =
(a 2 + 2 )(x 2 + y2 ). p Z[i ]
p = (a + i )(x + yi ) , a 2 + 2 , 1 x 2 + y2 , 1.
p = a 2 + 2 = x 2 + y2 . , p , p = a 2 + 2 .

 9.

60

, p = a 2 + 2 a,  Z. p =
(a + i )(a i ) N (a + i ) = a 2 + 2 = p , 1, a + i
, a i
. p . ,
p Z[i ]
.
.. 2 = 1 + 1, 5 = 1 + 22 , 13 = 22 + 32
Z[i ]. 7,11,19 Z[i ].

3. 5 Z[ 2]:

N (5) = 25 , 1

Q(

2). 5 =
(a +  2)(x + y 2) N (a +  2) , 1, N (x + y 2) , 1,

a 2 22 , 1 x 2 2y2 , 1. N (5) = N (a +  2)N (x + y 2)

25 = (a 2 22 )(x 2 2y2 ). a 2 22 = 5.

:0,1,4,5,6,9.
:0,2,8. a 2 22 = 5, a 2 22 = 5
a 2 22 = 5.
a 5 22 0. , , 5 | a
5 | . 25 | (a 2 22 ), ,
N (x + y 2) = 1.

4.

Z[ 6] ,

2 3 =
6( 6). 2, 3, 6, 6 2 3
.


6
)

Z[
6], 6 2 mod 4.,
Q(

U (Z[ 6]) ={1, 1}.

2 3 = 6( 6)
Z[ 6], 6 6
.

2 = (a +  6
)(
x
+
y
6) 2

Z[ 6], a, , x, y Z. N (2) =
(a 2 + 62 )(x 2 + 6y2 )
a 2 + 62 = 1 x 2 + 6y2 = 4 a 2 + 62 = 1 x 2 + 6y2 = 4 (1)
a 2 + 62 = 4 x 2 + 6y2 = 1 a 2 + 62 = 4 x 2 + 6y2 = 1 (2)
a 2 + 62 = 2 x 2 + 6y2 = 2 a 2 + 62 = 2 x 2 + 6y2 = 2 (3).
(3) ,
,
a, , x, y Z
(1) (2) a +  6 x + y 6

61

Z[ 6]. 2 .

6 3, 6,
.
2, 6 3, 6 , 2 , 6 3 , 6. ,
6
2 3 = 6( 6)

, Z[ 6] .
1801 Gauss :

1. K = Q( m ),
R
.
2. m = 1, 2, 3, 7, 11, 19, 43, 67, 163 R .
2. 1966 Stark Baker,
1. . :

37 Q( 1),Q( 2),Q( 3),Q( 7),Q( 11)

, R
.

38 Q( m ) m =
2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 41, 57, 73 R .
R , ( ):
m = 38, 41, 43, 46, 47, 53, 57, 59, 61, 62, 67, 69, 71, 73, 77, 83, 86, 89, 93,
94, 97.
39 R
.
40 R
K = Q( m ) : m =
5, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30, 10, 15, 26, 30.

62

9.


[1] . , , , 1988
[2] E. Grosswald, Topics from the Theory of Numbers, Birkhauser, 1988
[3] H. E. Rose, A Course in Number Theory, Oxford S.P., 1996
[4] I. Niven & H. Zuckermann & H. Montgomery, An Introduction to the
Theory of Numbers, J. Wiley, 1991
[5] R. Molin, Fundamental Number Theory with Applications, CRS
Press, 1998
[6] P. Ribenboim, The Book of Prime Numbers, Springer, 1988
[7] P. Ribenboim, My Numbers, My Friends, Springer 2000
[8] P. Ribenboim, The Classical Theory of Algebraic Numbers, SpringerVerlag, 2000
[9] R. K. Guy, Unsolved Problems in Number Theory, Springer, 1994
[10] G. Tenenbaum & M. Mendes Frauce, The Prime Numbers and their
Distribution, AMS, 2000
[11] . & . , , , 1991
[12] . , , , ..., 2008
[13] A computational Introducion: Number Theory and Algebra, Cambridge, 2005

63