The University of Edinburgh School of Engineering and Electronics

Fluid Mechanics 3 Flow Measurement Methods

Tom Bruce1 February 2006

Summary
This short course aims to generate an awareness of the range of contemporary flow measurement devices and methods available for application to both industrial and research flow problems in Mechanical Engineering. Well-established mass and volume flow rate measuring devices are reviewed, and the strengths and weaknesses of various meters and classes of meter are discussed. Modern non-invasive methods - magnetic and ultrasonic - are also discussed. Velocimetry (or anemometry) methods are then discussed, with a distinction drawn between point measurement methods and 2-D methods. In the former category, Laser-Doppler anemometry is described in detail. Under 2-D methods, Particle Image Velocimetry is described in detail and a range of applications presented.

Lecturer, School of Engineering and Electronics, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, Edinburgh, EH9 3JL, Scotland. Tel: +44 (0)131 650 8701, email: Tom.Bruce@ed.ac.uk 1 flow meas notes 0506 v04.doc

1. Introduction
1.1 Rationale, Aims and Objectives This short course was introduced in 93/94 to reflect a major research interest of the Fluid Mechanics research group within the School. Fluid flow measurements are performed across the breadth of engineering, eg flows of oil, gas, petrol, water, process chemicals, effluent are all necessarily and routinely measured. In the research laboratory, advanced flow measurements are providing new insights into a wide range of engineering flow problems in hydrodynamics (eg wave impact loading on coastal defences, beach erosion) combustion (eg low NOx burners, IC engines), aerodynamics (eg wind turbine optimisation and performance prediction) to list but a few. The course aims to generate an awareness and understanding of the range of contemporary flow measurement techniques available with the emphasis on devices and techniques with wide application in Mechanical Engineering. It is the objective of the course that by its end, the participant should be able to describe the principles of operation of differential pressure, positive displacement, rotary inferential, fluid oscillatory, electromagnetic and ultrasonic flow meters. to discuss advantages and disadvantages of the above meters for different applications. to design systems incorporating differential pressure meters. to describe the principle of operation of hot-wire anemometry. to describe the principles of Laser-Doppler Anemometry (LDA). to discuss the strengths, weaknesses and limitations of LDA. to design LDA systems to suit given experimental flow problems. to describe the principles of Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). to discuss the strengths, weaknesses and limitations of PIV. to design PIV systems to suit given experimental flow problems. 1.2 Types of Measurement Mass flow rate / volume flow rate The most common industrial flow measurement requirement is a measure of the volume or mass of fluid flowing per second through a given cross-section of a pipe. A wide range of devices exist for these purposes reflecting the wide range of conditions which may prevail liquid flow, gas flow, fluid temperature, pressure, viscosity, conductivity, the cleanliness of the fluid, the presence of flow disturbance A selection of the most common and useful devices are presented in Section 2. Velocimetry (or Anemometry) In many applications, particularly in the research laboratory, it is the actual local flow velocity that is of interest rather than the total flow rate. Velocimetry methods fall into two broad categories: those which measure the flow velocity at a single point and those which offer velocity data over a 2-D plane or even a 3-D volume. Point measurement methods may provide very highresolution time histories of the velocity at a point. However, if a flow is neither steady nor precisely repeatable or periodic, then single point methods cannot be used to build up a 2-D velocity map in a point by point manner. 2-D methods are a recent addition to the armoury of methods of flow measurement. Point measurement methods are described in Section 3. Section 4 is devoted to the description of 2-D methods.

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2. Pipe Flows: Measurement of Volume and Mass Flow Rates

2.1 Differential Pressure Flow Meters Differential pressure flow meters all infer the flowrate from a pressure drop across a restriction in the pipe. For many years, they were the only reliable methods available, and they remain popular despite the development of higher performance modern devices, mostly on account of exceptionally well researched and documented standards. The analysis of the flow through a restriction (Figure 2.1) begins with assuming straight, parallel stream lines at cross sections 1 and 2, and the absence of energy losses along the streamline from point 1 to point 2.
D1 Dt D2

2 1

Figure 2.1: A generalised restriction / differential pressure flow meter.

& The objective is to measure the mass flow rate, m . By continuity,

& m = !u1 A1 = !u2 A2
[2.1] Bernoullis equation may now be applied to a streamline down the centre of the pipe from a point 1 well upstream of the restriction to point 2 in the vena contracta of the jet immediately downstream of the restriction where the streamlines are parallel and the pressure across the duct may therefore be taken to be uniform:

u12 p1 u2 2 p2 + = + 2 ! 2 !
assuming that the duct is horizontal. Combining with [2.1] gives
& m= 1! A2
2 A2 2 A1

[2.2]

2 " ( p1 ! p 2 )

[2.3]

For a real flow through a restriction, the assumptions above do not hold completely. Further, we cannot easily measure the cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta at cross-section 2 where the streamlines are parallel. These errors in the idealised analysis are accounted for by introducing a single, cover all correction factor, the discharge coefficient, C, such that

& mactual =

CAt 1! "
4

2#( p1 ! p2 )

where ! "

Dt . D1

[2.4]

Dt and At are the diameter and area of the throat of the restriction respectively.

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The discharge coefficient is empirically determined. If the restriction conforms to a standard eg BS1042, then C may be found from the standard (see below). The main influences on C are the geometry of the restriction (), the location of the pressure taps, and the Reynolds number Re. Note that Re is based upon the pipe diameter, not that of the restriction. For a given restriction,

C = C! +

b Re n

[2.5]

where C! is the value of C at highest Re, and b, n are constants, empirically determined. As Re increases, C becomes less sensitive to Re - the flow is increasingly turbulent and thus the velocity profile becomes flatter and flatter. The three main restriction devices are the orifice plate, Venturi meter and flow nozzle. Orifice Plate

Figure 2.2. Tapping arrangements (Furness, 1989).

Figure 2.3. Orifice profile (Furness, 1989)

Orifice plates vary in the profile of the orifice and the location of the pressure taps. Figure 2.2 shows the tapping arrangements covered by BS EN ISO 5167: flange taps, pipe taps (both D and D/2) or corner taps. Figure 2.3 shows a typical orifice, with a sharp, square edge on the upstream & side. Installation of the plate back-to-front can introduce an error 20% in m ! Older standards (BS 1042) give C as a (relatively) simple function of pipe Reynolds number Re and diameter ratio , eg for corner taps,

C = 0. 5959 + 0. 0312" 2.1 ! 0.184"8 + 91. 71

" 2 .5 Re 2.5
C 1" #
4

0.6% for 0.2 < < 0.75 and 104 < Re < 107 . The graph in Figure 2.4 shows this relation in terms of the flow coefficient, K !

The current standard BS EN ISO 5167-2 gives more accurate (but much longer) equations for C.
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In summary, the principal advantages of the orifice plate are it is simple and robust standards are well established and comprehensive plates are cheap may be used on gases, liquids and wet mixtures (eg steam) Its principal drawbacks are & & low dynamic range: mmax : mmin only 4:1 at best (see tutorial 1) performance changes with plate damage or build up of dirt. affected by upstream swirl large head loss

Figure 2.4: Flow coefficients for orifice with corner taps. Venturi Meter The Venturi meter (after Giovanni Venturi, 17461822) is designed to cause minimal head loss as the flow passes the restriction. Figure 2.5 shows a typical arrangement. Like the orifice plate, the Venturi is dealt with by a British / ISO standard (BS EN ISO 5167-4) For a Venturi, C = 0.99 for 105 < Re < 107 is a useful approximation. BS EN ISO 5167-4 gives more accurate Figures for particular details of an installation (ranges of Re, etc). The main advantages of the Venturi over the orifice plate are low head loss less affected by upstream flow disturbance good performance at higher even more robust self-cleaning less affected by erosion

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Figure 2.5: The Venturi meter (Furness, 1989) The disadvantages compared to the orifice are occupies longer length of pipe more expensive (manufacture and installation) Flow Nozzle In many respects, the flow nozzle is a compromise between the compact orifice plate and the efficient Venturi. There are two standardised designs - Figures 2.6 and 2.7. Flow nozzles have proved particularly suited to high velocity applications, eg steam metering.

Figure 2.6: The ISA flow nozzle. (Furness, 1989). For the ASME nozzle (see BS EN ISO 5127-3)

Figure 2.7: The ASME long radius nozzle (Furness, 1989)

Figure 2.8 shows this relation graphically. Figure 2.9 shows a comparison of permanent ie unrecovered head losses caused by the three designs of restriction flow meter that have been considered.

6. 53" 0.5 C = 0. 9995 ! Re 0.5

2% for 0.25 < < 0.75 and 104 < Re < 107.

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Figure 2.8: K for ASME long radius flow nozzles.

Figure 2.9: Comparison of permanent head loss caused by restriction meters. Advantages: better head loss characteristics than orifice plate self-cleaning Drawbacks: higher cost than orifice plate more sensitive to upstream disturbance than Venturi. 2.2 Constant Pressure Flow Meters
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This class of meter measure the flow by monitoring the position of a moving element which moves such that the pressure drop across it remains constant. The most common design is the rotameter - actually the name of the first major supplier of this type of meter. Figure 2.10 shows a rotameter. The small float is free to move up and down a tube of tapered cross-section which increases upwards. Thus the area available for the flow increases as the float is forced upwards until the pressure difference to keep the float at rest is restored. The actual relationship between flowrate, tube and float characteristics depends upon the fluid density and viscosity. Ball-floats are common in gas flow applications. Figure 2.10: The Rotameter (Furness, 1989) only cope with uni-directional flow. 2.3 Positive Displacement (PD) Flow Meters This class of meter measure the flow by dividing the fluid into packets, each of a precisely known volume. The number of such packets counted in a known time gives a precise measure of the volume flow rate. They are also known as PD Meters or simply Displacement Meters. Under suitable conditions, this class of device offers the highest performance of any mechanical meter, achieved through careful manufacture to high tolerances. Liquid Displacement Meters The Sliding Vane meter, Figure 2.11, is among the most accurate PD meters - uncertainties in the volume flow rate Q may be less than 0.2%. The dynamic range is also quite high, typically 20:1. The liquid is channelled smoothly into the measuring crescent, minimising head losses. The vanes and channel are carefully machined to give smooth operation with very low leakage. The number of rotations is usually counted mechanically. Another PD meter in widespread use is the Oval Gear meter - Figure 2.12. Again, close tolerances ensure minimal leakage. It is unlikely that an oval gear meter can approach the accuracy of the sliding vane meter. They may also introduce a much greater pulsing into the outlet stream, which may or may not be a concern. The main selling points of the rotameter are that it is cheap and simple. It is however not a high performance meter; accuracy is unlikely to be better than 2-3% unless the meter is individually calibrated. A further potential drawback is that it must be mounted vertically and can

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Figure 2.11: A Sliding Vane PD meter.

Figure 2.12: An Oval Gear PD meter.

Figure 2.13: The Nutating Disc PD meter. A further variation on this theme is the Nutating Disc meter (Figure 2.13). The incoming fluid fills the chamber, alternately above and below the disc, driving the disc in a rocking, circular motion - nutation (cf spinning top ?). There is a greater area over which leakage could occur than for sliding vane or oval gear meters, so the accuracy is not in general so good, although meter life is potentially longer. Gas Displacement Meters By far the most common gas PD meter is the Diaphragm meter, used worldwide to meter domestic gas consumption (Figure 2.15).

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Figure 2.15: The domestic gas meter. The two chambers are filled and emptied alternatively, controlled by a sliding valve as shown. The motion of the diaphragm is connected mechanically to a counting mechanism and readout. Mechanical reliability is outstanding, but the design is really suited only to low flow rate, low pressure gas flows. Mass production means that these are inexpensive devices. Rotary gas meters operate in a similar manner to oval gear meters for liquid flows. This type of device is shown schematically in Figure 2.16. Performance after calibration for a particular application can be very good, 0.5%. Dynamic ranges may be as great as 20:1. Pressure may be as high as 80 atmospheres, but moderately high temperatures (>600C) may cause problems.

Figure 2.16: The rotary gas meter.

General Characteristics and Performance At lowest flow rates, the friction of the moving parts may become significant and lead to the meter running too slowly. Leakage is also most likely to be significant at lowest flows, again leading to under-reading. This class of meter all rely on moving parts with close tolerances, so sustained operation over long periods is not their strength. A further consequence of their close tolerances is that they may be sensitive to temperature changes, and almost certainly will not operate well is the flow is not clean, ie has particulate matter entrained at all.

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In summary, advantages of this class of meter include inherent high accuracy and repeatability good operational experience high reliability insensitive to upstream flow conditions can perform well with viscous fluids devices for liquid and gas flows Among the drawbacks are high performance designs are expensive unsuitable for use with dirty flows pulsation introduced into out flow applicable to uni-directional flows only applicable over limited ranges of temperature and pressure. head loss increases with flow rate and viscosity 2.4 Rotary Inferential Flow Meters This class of meter are all basically small hydraulic turbines running at zero load. The rotary element rotates at an angular velocity which is proportional to flow rate. This rotation speed is monitored by mechanical means, or better, by magnetic or optical methods. The basic axial turbine flow meter is shown in exploded view in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Construction of an Axial Turbine flow meter. The axial flow turbine has a bladed rotor running on bearings. The assembly is mounted on a central shaft, which is itself held by hanger assemblies up and downstream. A magnetic pick up senses the turbine blades as they pass, and the pulse frequency is the measure the flow rate. The total number of pulses recorded measures total volume passed. The driving torque of the fluid is resisted by mechanical bearing friction, fluid drag and magnetic drag, all of which effects vary with flow rate. The relation between flow rate and the rotation speed may be written
Q = K. !

where K is the meter factor which must be calibrated for a given meter.

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Figure 2.18: A performance curve for a turbine meter. Figure 2.18 shows how K would typically vary with flow rate. The actual shape of such a characteristic curve will depend upon a multitude of parameters, eg flow rate, viscosity, bearing design, blade roughness, blade sharpness, inlet flow profile... and must be determined for every meter individually. The best meters incorporate flow-straightening vanes upstream of the meter. Simplification of the axial turbine meter is possible by using a mechanical pick up to drive a counting system. Such meters are clearly less accurate, and so may be manufactured to lower tolerances. The cost is lower, and they are also more suited to dirty flows. The propeller meter is essentially an axial turbine meter modified in some way to reduce the cost of production and installation to be reduced. Figure 2.19 shows one particular design in which the bearing assembly is moved outside the flow and the bladed propeller is inclined to the flow. Performance is clearly poorer than for an axial turbine meter, but the cost is much less. 2% linearity over the operating range would be typical. Figure 2.19: A propeller meter. General Advantages and Drawbacks

Strengths RI flow meters include excellent short term repeatability can indicate flow rate and total flow directly excellent transient response relatively low head losses designs available for liquid and gas flows reliability is good in lubricating fluids wide flow ranges and linearity are possible use over wide temperature and pressure ranges is possible

Drawbacks include necessity to calibrate to establish performance sensitive to inlet flow profile and swirl sensitive to changes in viscosity small designs have poor dynamic range sufficient back pressure required to prevent cavitation 2.5 Fluid Oscillatory Flow Meters (or vortex meters)

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The basis of fluid oscillatory meters is the process of vortex shedding from a bluff body exposed to a flow. Early work in fluid mechanics established that, at Reynolds numbers above about 500, continuous vortex shedding takes place, with the generation of a vortex street in the wake downstream of the bluff body. Further, the vortex shedding pattern is largely independent of the fluid density, the frequency of shedding depending only upon the shape of the body, the viscosity, and the flow speed. For a given shape of body in a fluid of a given viscosity, the Strouhal Number, S (Vincenz Strouhal, who first investigated ringing of wires in 1878!) is given by;

S=

f .d u

where f is the frequency of the vortex shedding, d is a characteristic dimension of the bluff body, and u is the flow velocity.

Figure 2.20: Strouhal number vs. Reynolds number for circular and triangular section bluff bodies.. Figure 2.20 shows how the Strouhal number varies with Reynolds number for vortex shedding from bluff bodies of triangular and circular cross-sections. Clearly, for the circular body, S 0.2 over the range 500 < Re < 2x105. The principle of the vortex shedding meter is to measure this shedding frequency, so such a meter has a potential to measure flows over an enormous dynamic range, 400:1. A similar situation pertains for the triangular body, for which S 0.15 over 200 < Re < 105.

Figure 2.21: The vortex shedding flowmeter

Figure 2.22: Bluff body shapes...

Figure 2.21 illustrates the principle of a flowmeter based upon vortex shedding from a bluff
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body. The shedding of a vortex from the lower side of the bluff body generates a lift on the body. Similarly, shedding from the upper side causes the body to experience a lift force in the opposite direction. Thus the shedding of a continuous street of vortices, alternately from upper and lower surfaces induces a periodically varying lift force on the object which may be measured by a force sensor in the body. Possible sensors include piezo-electric, thermal or mechanical devices. The flowrate in a channel of diameter D, for a bluff body of characteristic dimension d is given by
Q=

(. D4 f 4S. d

4 kd % " $1 ! ' # (. D&

where S is the Strouhal number, f is the vortex shedding frequency and k is a shape factor for the bluff body (taking account of width and aspect ratio). Figure 2.22 illustrates a range of shapes proffered by manufacturers of these flowmeters. Relatively recent arrivals, these meters are now competing with DP meters in many areas, eg water, steam and air. Linearity may be as good as 0.5%, and achieved dynamic ranges 15:1 (cf Orifice meter, 4:1 at best). Pros and Cons No moving parts, crevices or seals - suitable for applications where high flow cleanliness is important (eg semiconductor manufacture) May be used with liquids or gases. Insensitive to fluctuations in temperature, pressure or density. Digital output. Very sensitive to swirl or pulsation in incoming flow. Limited range of sizes available. No standards yet, and limited operational experience. 2.6 Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Figure 2.23: Illustration of Faradays Law - a primitive generator. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field (Figure 2.23), a voltage is induced across the conductor. This voltage (emf) e is proportional to the field strength B, the velocity u of the conductor and the length l of the conductor:

e = Blu
This is the basis of the electromagnetic flowmeter, or magmeter. For the magmeter, the conductor is the flowing fluid, a field is applied across the pipe, and the induced voltage is therefore a measure of the velocity with which the conductor is moving. Clearly, non-conducting fluids such
flow meas notes 0506 v04.doc 14

as hydrocarbons cannot be metered by these means. For a pipe of diameter D,

e = k . B. u. D
where k is a constant of proportionality. Figure 2.24 illustrates the components of a magnetic flowmeter. The output signals may be very small and quite noisy, but modern electronics can cope cheaply and relatively easily with the necessary signal conditioning.

Figure 2.24: An electromagnetic flowmeter. This family of meters appear in a remarkable range of sizes suitable for pipe bores from 3mm to 3m, with the result that they have found applications ranging from the metering of blood flow in arteries to the metering of flows in large hydroelectric schemes. Typical applications include water distribution and inorganic chemical process monitoring. They also work well with nonNewtonian fluid flows such as liquid metal flows, sewage sludge... Performance is good: 2-3% uncertainties are easily achieved; 0.5% achievable with the most sophisticated designs. Pros and Cons Obstructionless, so zero head loss. No moving parts. Wide size range. Insensitive to profile distortion or swirl. Insensitive to changes in pressure, viscosity, temperature and density. Linear output with flowrate. Bi-directional operation no problem. Dynamic range ~10:1. Works only with conducting fluids. Works with liquids only. Errors larger than good PD or RI devices. Electrodes may foul with some process liquids.

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2.7 Ultrasonic Time of Flight Flow Meters The ultrasonic time of flight meter is in its relative infancy. It is probably the only type of meter capable of high performance (eg 1%) with bores of >3m. The basis of operation is the measurement of the difference in the time of flight of sound waves propagated in opposite directions, with and opposing the flow. Figure 2.25 illustrates the arrangement.

Figure 2.25: Time of flight ultrasonic flowmeter. The sound propagates at velocity c through the liquid, which is moving at velocity u. Referring to Figure 2.25, it can be seen that the transit times from transducer 1 to 2, t1! 2 , partially opposed by the flow, and from transducer 2 to 1, t2!1 , partially assisted by the flow, are given by

t1" 2 =

d 1 . sin (c ! u cos )

and

t2 !1 =

d 1 . sin (c + u cos )

The flow velocity u c, so the difference between the times of flight is

t = t1" 2 ! t2 "1 =

2du cot c2

Thus t is proportional to u. The time difference may be very small: eg for water flowing in a 100mm diameter pipe at 1ms-1, the transit times are 100s, and t 100ns. Thus if a performance to 1% is sought, timing will have to be good to 1ns - so even now, complex electronics is required. These meters have been used successfully on water flows, clean process fluid flows and on natural gas pipelines. As with electromagnetic meters, ultrasonic meters cover the whole spectrum of sizes from mm up to an 11m bore application on a hydro scheme. Pros and Cons Non-invasive - zero head loss. Gas or liquid flows possible. Bi-directional applications possible. Wide range of sizes. May simply be clamped to pipe. Sensitive to velocity profiles. Long term stability unproven. Not suitable for dirty flows.

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2.8 Doppler Ultrasonic Meters The basis of operation of this class of flowmeter is that if sound of a given frequency is reflected from a moving object, the frequency of the reflected sound is shifted by an amount proportional to the speed of the moving object (cf passing ambulance, driving past players of bagpipes in Glencoe laybys...). In these maters, ultrasound is transmitted into a flow which contains scatterers travelling with the flow (eg dirt particles, bubbles), and the scattered sound wave detected by a receiver. The frequency shift is then a measure of the flow speed. A possible arrangement is shown in Figure 2.26.

Figure 2.26: The Doppler flowmeter The Doppler shift frequency is given by
f D = f trans ! f rec " 2 f trans u cos # c

where c is the sound speed in the fluid and is the angle between the transmission direction and the pipe axis. (The theory of Doppler shifting is covered in more detail in Section 3). Because the velocity profile across the pipe will not, in general, be uniform, a range of frequencies will be received related to the velocity profile that exists in the pipe. Usually, the peak frequency is sought - this smearing of received, shifted frequencies degrades the accuracy of these devices. Pros and Cons Non-invasive - zero head loss. Bi-directional applications possible. Liquids or gases. Wide range of sizes. May simply be clamped to pipe. Works with dirty or aerated flows. Sensitive to velocity profiles. Flow must contain ultrasound scatterers. Long-term stability unproven. Low accuracy.

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2.9 Summary Differential Pressure (DP) meters Flow rate !p due to restriction in the flow. Long term reliability. Gas and liquid. Extremely well documented standards. Moderate accuracy; 1% - 5% Low dynamic range; 3:1 - 4:1 Sensitive to temperature and pressure changes. Sensitive to upstream flow disturbances.

Orifice Meter: Simple and cheap construction. Large head loss. Error-prone in dirty flows. Venturi: Bulky and expensive. Very low head loss. Not susceptible to sedimentation in dirty flows. Flow Nozzle: Compromise between Orifice and Venturi. Positive Displacement (PD) meters Fluid volume measured directly cumulative volumes measured. Short-term reliability. Clean flows only. Different designs for gases and liquids. Very accurate; better than 1% Moderate dynamic range, up to 10:1 No calibration required. Devices suited to limited ranges of pressures and temperatures. Not affected by upstream disturbances. Introduces pulsation into downstream flow. Rotary Inferential (RI) meters A propeller rotates at a rate proportional to the flow rate. Remote detection possible. Short-term reliability. No standard possible - wide range of designs - calibration necessary. May be very accurate - expensive designs may do better than 1%. High dynamic range; up to 50:1 Designs for extremes of temperature and pressure. Sensitive to upstream disturbance.

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Fluid Oscillatory meters Vortex shedding from a bluff body - flow rate frequency of shedding. Long-term reliability. Suitable for gas and liquid flows. Moderate dynamic range; 15:1 possible No moving parts or seals - suitable for applications where flow cleanliness is important. Insensitive to changes in temperature, pressure and density. Sensitive to upstream flow disturbance.

Electromagnetic meters Faradays Law: Voltage induced across conductor (conducting fluid) moving in magnetic field speed of conductor, ie flow rate induced voltage across duct. Long-term reliability. Can be used only with conductive liquids - no gases. Moderate to good accuracy; better than 1% when installed correctly. Moderate dynamic range; 10:1 Application possible in extreme conditions of temperature, pressure and flow rate. Demanding applications in dirty flows, corrosive liquids, non-Newtonian liquids possible. Wide range of pipe sizes. Bi-directional flows OK. Non-invasive - zero head loss. Insensitive to upstream disturbances. Ultrasonic Time of Flight meters Sound propagated with and against the flow. Difference in time of propagation flow rate. Long-term reliability. Clean gases and liquids. Very accurate. Large dynamic range. Bi-directional flows OK. Extremely large pipe sizes possible. Non-invasive - may be just clamped to pipe. Sensitive to pressure and temperature changes. Ultrasonic Doppler meters Ultrasound scattered from moving scatterers in flow. Shift of frequency speed of scatterer. Non-invasive - zero head loss. Bi-directional applications possible. Liquids or gases. Wide range of sizes. May simply be clamped to pipe. Works with dirty or aerated flows. Sensitive to velocity profiles. Flow must contain ultrasound scatterers. Long-term stability unproven. Low accuracy.

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3. Anemometry / Velocimetry - Point Measurement Methods

3.1 Introduction Section 2 has reviewed a wide range of devices for measuring the total flow rate in pipes. In this Section, we concentrate on methods for measuring the actual fluid flow velocity at a single point in the flow. Methods suitable for velocimetry over a two-dimensional field of points are held back until Section 4. Whereas most applications of the flowmeters of Section 2 are clearly in the industrial arena, the focus tends to shift to the engineering research laboratory as attention is turned to anemometry (UK term) or velocimetry (US-imported term). 3.2 Pitot-Static Tubes The humblest of devices for measuring flow velocity directly is the Pitot-static tube. Figure 3.1 shows the principle of operation. p p 1
2

Figure 3.1: Principle of Pitot-Static tube. We apply Bernoullis equation to a streamline which meets the tip of the tube. The flow is steady, so there is no flow in the tube. Thus there is a stagnation point, so u2 = 0. The pressure difference p2 - p1 is the difference between the impact or stagnation pressure at the tip of the tube, p2 , and the static pressure in the body of the fluid, p1 . From Bernoulli,

u1 =

2(p2 ! p1 )

"

Figure 3.2: Pitot-Static tube; detail. The most common practical design based upon the above is shown in Figure 3.2. A pair of concentric tubes is used: the inner tube measured the impact pressure, the outer tube has a number of tiny tappings, flush with the tube, to measure the static pressure. Accuracy is crude, but these devices do provide a very simple and fast estimate of flow velocity. They are clearly not well suited to dirty flows in which their tappings may become blocked. 3.3 Hot-Wire Anemometry
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The basis of these devices is that the heat transfer away from a small heated wire, placed in a fluid flow, is related to the local flow velocity at the wire. The wire itself is typically only 0.1mm to 2mm long, and of diameter m, so very high spatial resolution is possible. Wires are usually Tungsten, Platinum or Nickel. The wire is mounted on a thin arm inserted into the flow - the method is therefore intrusive. In most designs, the current through the wire is kept constant, and the change in resistance is the measure of the local flow velocity. It is possible to record a time history of the flow velocity at a particular point, and very high time resolutions -up to 50 kHz - are possible - though clearly such rates require highly sophisticated electronics to track wire resistance changes. Two or three wires may be arranged orthogonally to give an estimate of two or all three velocity components. Hot wire anemometry is fundamentally a single point method, so finds most applications in flows whose structure is well known a priori, and where the interest is in the time variation of velocity at a point, eg in wind tunnel studies of vortex shedding, or in measurements of turbulent intensities. 3.4 Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) Introduction The early development Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) dates back to the very end of the 60s, when low power continuous wave (CW) lasers began to become available at costs which were not astronomical. Since then it has developed into a sophisticated and robust tool suited both to research laboratories and industrial applications. Developments in electronic and computer processing have improved data gathering and reduction beyond measure, and optical developments, notably in fibre-optics, have opened up many new application possibilities. The basis of LDA is not complicated, but a short digression into some properties of light and of laser beams will prove useful. Laser Basics All objects emit thermal radiation - a continuous range of frequencies with the peak wavelength of the spectrum depending upon the temperature of the body. Hotter bodies emit a distribution of radiation peaked at shorter wavelengths = higher energy radiation. The radiation from the Sun peaks at about 500 nm wavelength - green light - corresponding to a temperature of around 6000 K. Photons from thermal sources are emitted over a wide range of wavelengths and in all directions. The radiation from a laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is quite different in character. Photons emerge with identical energies, ie identical wavelengths, identical phases, and all travelling in the same direction.

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N2 N1

! E = hf

E=0 thermal source laser source

Figure 3.3: Thermal and Laser light sources. Figure 3.3 illustrates the fundamental difference between thermal and laser radiation. Quantum mechanics dictates that electrons orbiting the nuclei of atoms cannot have any arbitrary energy, but must be in one of a number of discrete energy states. If the electron absorbs a quantum of radiation - just the right amount of energy - then it moves up to the next discrete energy level. Equally, it may emit radiation, and in doing so, lose energy and fall back one or more levels. The energy associated with a photon of light of frequency f is given by

E = h. f
where h is Plancks constant: h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js. In a collection of atoms in a normal state, electrons are continuously jumping between a large number of different states, separated by a range of different energies - they continuously absorb and emit over a range of energies and therefore frequencies. In a laser, it is arranged by some means that a large number of atoms have a higher proportion of electrons in a particular, raised state - a population inversion. There is a tendency for these electrons to drop back to their lower energy state, and in doing so, they all emit photons of exactly the same energy corresponding to the energy difference between the levels. Lasers have a unique ability to form light beams with high energy concentrations. However, the quantum nature of photons means that a small divergence of the beam is always present. The beam cannot be focused to a point, but only to a beam waist of thickness 2wo , Figure 3.4.

2w0

!
lens

Figure 3.4: Laser beam waist. The beam waist thickness is given by

!=

" #. w0

Thus efforts to bring the beam to sharper focus result in increased divergence. Example: = 514nm, w0 = 12mm, = 0.014 mrad w = 25mm at 1000m from waist. = 514nm, w0 = 1mm, = 0.164 mrad w = 25mm at 6m from waist.

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Common Lasers Solid-state lasers Ruby NdYAG Gas lasers He-Ne Argon ion Optics Basics Speed of light in a vacuum: c0 = 3.0 x 108 ms-1 Speed of light in a medium of refractive index n, c = c0 / n . = 632.8 nm = 514.5 nm powers 0.1-50 mW powers 1-20 W phase coherence 300-400mm phase coherence 1-100mm = 669 nm = 1064 nm E up to 1.5 J/pulse (15 ns) E up to 0.3 J/pulse (8-20 ns) phase coherence 2-5m phase coherence 1-3m

c : f = frequency (Hz) independent of medium, = wavelength (m) ! 2! k= : k = wavenumber (m-1) " f =

Interference: Figure 3.5 shows how the wavefronts associated with two laser beams cross. When two peaks coincide, there is constructive interference and a local maximum of intensity results. When a peak and a trough coincide, they cancel and a locally dark area results - destructive interference.
bright

!/2

dark bright dark bright

Figure 3.5: Interference of laser beams. From the geometry of the system, it can be seen that the bright areas form lines, as do the dark areas, giving rise to a pattern of alternating dark and bright fringes. From the geometry of the system,, the separation of the light fringes is given by

!=

" 2.sin # 2

The Doppler Effect The Doppler effect applies equally to light waves as in its familiar form with sound waves, eg the change in tone of a siren as it passes the listener.
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A receiver moving towards a stationary source of a sound wave will encounter the wave crests at a greater frequency than if (s)he were to be standing still. Similarly, if (s)he were to be moving away from the source of the waves, the crests would arrive at the receiver at an apparently lower frequency. The same effect applies to light.

no. of waves per second c/ = c/ " s

Figure 3.6: The Doppler effect - stationary source, moving receiver. When the receiver R is stationary, the number of waves received in a time t is

N0 = f . t =

c t !

However, if the receiver is moving with a velocity u at an angle to the direction of the wave propagation as shown in the Figure, then the catch up speed of the waves is reduced, and the number of waves received in a time t is now

N 1 = (c ! component of u in direction of propagation) ! N1 = 1 $ (c " u. s)t #

t "

$ where s is a unit vector in the direction of the wave propagation. Thus the frequencies for stationary and moving observers, f0 and f1 are given by the number of waves received per unit time, ie

f0 =
and so the frequency shift is

c , !

f1 =

1 $ (c ! u. s) "

!f = f 0 " f 1 =

1 u cos $ $ u. s = # #

where is the angle between the direction of the wave propagation and the receiver.

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The Differential Doppler Method

laser beam splitter

!/2

u photodetector

Figure 3.7: Set up for differential Doppler method. The optical arrangement is sketched in Figure 3.7. A laser beam passes into a beam-splitter from which two beams emerge. Via an arrangement of mirrors, these two beams are made to converge at an angle , crossing at the measurement point. (The purpose of the Bragg Cell is discussed later in the Section). The light from these beams is then scattered by any particle moving with the flow - flow seeding - and the scattered light picked up by a detector, eg a photomultiplier and lens system. Only light scattered in the direction of the detector is recorded - the main, unscattered beams pass through the system. We can consider the scattering particle as first a receiver of the incoming laser light, and then a (re)transmitter of the light to the detector. The first process - transmittal of light from a stationary source to the moving particle - is just the situation shown in Figure 3.6, with = 90o - /2. Therefore the particle receives light at a shifted frequency. The light from the lower beam will be shifted to a frequency

f1 = f 0 !

u sin " 2 #

since cos = cos (90o - /2) = sin /2 . The shifted frequency is lower because a component of the particles velocity is away from the source. The light from the upper beam, when received by the particle will also be shifted, but in this case to a higher frequency since there is a component of the particles velocity towards the source. The shifted frequency is therefore

f2 = f0 +

u sin ! 2 "

The particle scatters the light that is incident upon it: the scattered light is made up of two frequencies, f1 and f2 . The particles velocity has no component in the direction of the receiver, so the light entering the detector is at the same frequencies at which it was scattered from the particle, f1 and f2 . The final stage is to establish the shift in frequency in order to establish the particles velocity. When two waveforms of similar frequencies are combined, a beating effect is seen (demo with overlaying transparencies with lines drawn at spacings differing by 5%). The beat frequency is simply the difference between the component frequencies

f beat = f 2 ! f 1 =

2 u sin " 2 #

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fringe spacing #
!/2

"

Figure 3.8: Fringe pattern formed at beam intersection. A more visual but less rigorous way to view the set up is to think in terms of the fringe pattern formed by the intersecting beams, sketched in Figure 3.8. A particle moving through this volume will be illuminated at intervals given by the time taken to pass from one bright fringe to the next. A particle travelling at speed u through a fringe pattern with spacing will produce flashes of light at a frequency given by

f =
but we know

1 1 u = = ! "u "

!=

" 2 sin # 2
2u sin " 2 !

so we arrive at the same result for the frequency of the light received at the detector:

f =

This visual alternative formulation is useful in visualising the effect of frequency shifting, discussed below. Practical Implementation LDA systems are generally bought off the shelf. Dantec (based in Copenhagen) and TSI Inc. (USA) are the market leaders. The beam splitting and convergence optics are generally packaged into one black box, the detector plus its optics into another, and the signal processing carried out by sophisticated electronics in a third black box, usually linked to a PC or workstation. The seeding of the flow for LDA is not usually a problem: only in the cleanest conditions in water flow experiments are there no suitable scatterers present. In gas flows, corn oil droplets have been used to good effect. Most systems are laid out as sketched in Figure 3.8 - a forward scatter arrangement. This requires optical access to both sides of the test volume. An alternative is to work in back scatter mode, detecting light scattered back in the direction of the incoming beams. This set up has the disadvantage that the much more light is scattered forward than back, so for a given laser power, there is much less light scattered to the detector. However, optical access is required from only one side, making it well suited to use with fibre optics - two fibres are used - one to carry the laser light to the measurement volume, and the second to carry the back-scattered light to a detector. A tiny optical head on the end of the fibre does the beam splitting and alignment.

Multi-Component LDA

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A second pair of laser beams of different wavelength can be arranged to intersect at the measurement volume at right angles to the first pair, and therefore give a measurement of a second component of the flow velocity at that point. Similarly, all three velocity components can be measured with three pairs of intersecting beams which are mutually perpendicular. Two component fibre LDA systems based upon an Argon ion laser make use of the two principal wavelengths of laser light - the beam is split into a green beam and a blue beam, and one used to measure each velocity component. The back scattered light from both components is carried down the one fibre before being separated again by the detector optics. Frequency Shifting - the Bragg Cell In the form described above, it is clear that LDA cannot distinguish the direction or sense of the particles motion and therefore the fluid velocity. Frequency shifting is a trick to overcome this limitation. Basically, the fringe pattern is given its own velocity, and if this velocity is larger than the largest velocity that the flow might have, then particles will always appear to be crossing the fringes in the same direction. Put another way, if the fringes are moving back at a speed greater than the particles backward motion, then the particle will overtake the fringes, ie will be going forwards relative to the fringe pattern. A particle which was going forwards anyway will appear to be going forwards even more quickly, relative to the moving fringe pattern. This apparent shifted velocity is then measured, and the known shift subtracted to give the true flow velocity. The device which supplies this shift is called a Bragg Cell. The new measured frequency is

f beat = f beat + f shift !

so the apparent measured velocity is

u! =

". fbeat ! 2.sin # 2

The actual velocity is recovered by subtracting the shift velocity, ushift , from the measured, shifted velocity, u

u = u ! " ushift =

# (f ! " f shift ) 2.sin $ beat 2

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4. Particle Image Velocimetry

4.1 Summary This chapter reviews the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) flow measurement method. All stages in the process of obtaining PIV flow maps are described. The underlying principles are introduced in Section 4.3. The acquisition phase of PIV is divided into illumination (Section 4.5) and image acquisition (Section 4.6). The analysis phase - extracting the velocity data from the PIV flow record - is discussed in Sections 4.4 and 4.5. The chapter concludes with a review of applications and brief look at the future of the PIV technique. 4.2 Motivation Non-intrusive flow measurement techniques are becoming an increasingly familiar part of laboratory experiments in fluid dynamics. Since its inception in 1966, Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) has progressed, and aided by developments in other technologies, notably in lasers, fibre-optics and computers, it is now a most useful tool under a wide range of conditions. LDA is, however, fundamentally a point measurement technique; the time evolution of flow velocity can be measured with great accuracy at a point, but if a map of an area of the flow is to be obtained, it must be built up point by point. Thus this leads to a requirement that the flow be either steady or accurately repeatable, neither of which conditions holds for most interesting engineering flow problems. PIV gives a quantitative map of instantaneous flow velocities over a large field. 4.3 Basic Principles The basic principle of PIV is very simple: tiny tracer particles in the flow are illuminated and their positions recorded photographically or by video at two successive instants. The photographic or video flow record of the whole 2-d field is then divided into a grid of cells and, in each cell, the distance moved by the tracer particles from the time of the first image being recorded to the second is determined. Knowing this distance travelled and the time taken, the velocity of the flow in that cell is therefore measured. This is done for every cell, giving a 2-d map of the instantaneous velocity field at the time of the recording. Thus it can be seen that implicit in the method are two basic assumptions; that the flow field as a whole does not change over the time between first and second exposures, and that the velocity in each cell is uniform. In any real flow of interest, neither assumption will hold fully and the extent to which they hold is always an important consideration. In the early years of PIV (1980s), the usual approach was to illuminate the flow stroboscopically and to record a double- or multiple-exposure photograph of the flow, ie holding the camera shutter open long enough such that each tracer particle is illuminated twice and therefore gives a pair of images on the flow record. This is PIV using the autocorrelation method. With developments in still image video technology, the complication of arranging for the stroboscopic illumination of a plane within the flow can be avoided by exposing the first and second images as successive frames recorded by a CCD2 camera or on two separate CCD arrays. The movement of the tracer particle images over the time between the exposure of the first frame and the second can then be analysed to give the velocity map. This is the cross-correlation method. Cross-correlation has a number of significant advantages over autocorrelation and is now almost universally the preferred approach.

charge-coupled device - a video array chip 28

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As will be understood by the end of this Section, consideration of the method of analysis of a flow record to give a velocity map dictates much in the selection of the parameters in the experimental set-up for the recording of the flow records. Thus the analysis methods are discussed first - cross-correlation in Section 4.4, and autocorrelation in Section 4.5. This is the reverse of the historical development of the method, but autocorrelation is perhaps more easily explained once the principle of cross-correlation analysis is understood. General objectives for any analysis system can be laid down quite simply. We have a flow record or successive records containing velocity information over a large field. We wish to be able to define a grid of points over this area, and at each point, interrogate a small area of the photograph to establish the most common (most correlated) particle image separation. Additionally, we require that this process be highly accurate, fast (ie hours are not taken to analyse one flow record), and, apart from initialising a run, completely automated. 4.4 Cross-Correlation PIV Analysis The basis for cross-correlation analysis are two PIV flow records taken of exactly the same field in a flow separated by a (usually short) time interval.

Figure 4.1: Typical interrogation areas from successive flow records. Figure 4.1 shows typical interrogation areas from two successive records - selected small cells within base and cross images, in this case of 32 x 32 pixels. A number of approaches may be taken to finding the distance moved by the tracers between frames. For example, if the number density of particle images is low, one approach might be to carry out some image processing to establish the positions of all images and in some way try to pair the images. With a higher density of images a method based on finding the cross-correlation of the images within the interrogation areas is a very efficient and robust approach. The cross-correlation function C(x, y) is arrived at by comparing the base and cross images given by intensity distributions Ibase(x, y) and Icross(x, y). In physical terms, the function is moving the cross image relative to the base image, seeking the best match between the intensity patterns.
C( !x , !y ) =

##IA Ibase ( x, y ). Icross ( x " !x, y " !y )dxdy

The cross-correlation function in Figure 4.2 is a typical result of the cross-correlation of partner interrogation areas in base and cross images.

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Figure 4.2: The cross-correlation function arising from IAs shown in Figure 4.1, above. The clearly visible peak in the function indicates the offset in x and y between the base and cross images at which the best correlation between the images was found. Once the software has calculated the cross-correlation function, it locates this peak and records the x, y values. Knowledge of the optical magnification and the time interval between images allows x, y subsequently to be scaled to give a velocity vector relating to the location of the interrogation area. 4.5 Illumination Systems for PIV Illumination for must usually also define a 2-d plane or sheet through the flow. The source of the light is typically a pulsed laser. Lasers are used because the low divergence of their beams allows thin sheets to be formed, and because the energy density in the beam is very high, eg we may need enough energy to image a 50 m tracer particle with a camera 1 m away within a few microseconds. PIV illumination is usually achieved either by an expanded beam method (Figure 4.3). The pulsing of the illumination may be achieved by employing a pulsed laser or (more historically) combining a high speed shutter with a continuous wave (CW) laser.

Figure 4.3: Expanded beam / pulsed laser illumination for PIV.

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The width of the light sheet generated by either method described above will be a compromise: If the plane is too thick, then the measurement zone is moving away from being a 2-d section through the flow. If the plane is too thin, then even very small out-of-plane motion may make it unlikely that a particle stays in the illuminated plane for long enough to record an image pair. A practical criterion is that the cross plane velocity vz should be small enough such that the cross plane distance travelled between illuminations is less than 1/4 of the thickness of the sheet. This is known as the out-of-plane criterion. 4.6 PIV Image Acquisition 4.6.1 Introduction The process of acquiring good PIV flow records involves two major stages. The first is selecting appropriate hardware for the application eg, illumination, seeding and camera, and the second is using this hardware to best effect. This Section addresses both of these stages. 4.6.2 Hardware The hardware considerations may be divided into three broad (and somewhat interdependent) areas: illumination, flow seeding and camera. The illumination system preferred for the application of PIV to hydrodynamics has been discussed (Section 4.5). Seeding The selection of a suitable flow seeding is very important. The seeding used in hydrodynamics experiments at Edinburgh is conifer pollen. This meets the most important criteria for a suitable seeding: once soaked with water, it is almost exactly neutrally buoyant, quite reflective at the wavelength of the laser, and small enough to follow the flows studied (typical particle diameters are 70m). Importantly, it is also quite inexpensive - the cost to seed a flume containing six tonnes of water is 2 - 5. For air flows of high and low speeds, hollow glass spheres have proved a very successful seeding. Diameters are 10 - 20 m. Such small particles have a tiny terminal velocity in air, and so do not rapidly fall to Earth under gravity. Generally now, a wide range (sizes and densities) of synthetic seed particles are available from PIV equipment suppliers. Camera and Lens (Still Image Video or Conventional Photography) The choice of the camera and lens is also important. The lens should be a flat-field lens in order that distortions of the image plane are minimised. Choosing a lens of longer focal length reduces the apparent effect of any out-of-plane motions of particles in the field, but increases the difficulty of achieving a really sharp focus and makes the process more sensitive to vibrations. In the early years of Edinburgh PIV, a Hasselblad 500 EL/M camera was the mainstay of PIV measurements in hydrodynamics. In the early 90s, it was joined by a Kodak MegaPlus still image video camera (what would now be called simply a digital camera). It was a monochrome camera with 4 Mpixels (2048 x 2048 pixels resolution). It cost over 20k - compare this with the cost of a colour 4 Mpixel digital camera today!

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Over the last ten years, PIV acquisition has become dominated by specialist PIV cross-correlation cameras. These cameras enable pairs of images to be acquired at (at least) conventional video frame rates, ie 25 base/cross image pairs taken per second. These cameras are built to interface easily to the trigger for a pulsed laser so that they synchronise easily with the flow illumination. Standard resolutions are now very good - typically 4Mpixels (2k 2k pixels) with cameras offering up to 10 Mpixels beginning to become available (at a price!). Very high speed digital cameras have also been used successfully for PIV. Frame rates of up to 30kHz have been used, though at some cost in spatial resolution. 4.6.3 Recording the Flow Records After the selection of the hardware, the important issues remaining are the choice of camera position, achieving the correct seeding density, optimising the focus and optimising the exposure parameters to give good, high contrast flow images Seeding The optimum seeding density is determined by considering the subsequent analysis of the photograph. In typical applications in the wave flumes at Edinburgh, the local flow velocity at a point on the flow record is averaged over a 32 x 32 pixel interrogation area (IA). Thus the seeding density should be high enough that there will always be several (5 to 15) tracer particles in each IA on the flow record. Experience is perhaps the best guide to getting an optimum level of seeding; once good results have been obtained, the successful level of seeding can be repeated. The size of the images of the seeding should also fall within reasonable, intuitive bounds. Seeing images which fill a substantial part of the IA would be too large to offer a good correlation between base and cross images. Similarly, if the image is so small as to be less than one pixel in size, then the analysis will only ever be able to see particle image movements of whole units of pixels (ie 1 pixel; 2 pixels; 3 pixels etc) whereas the shift (base to cross) of an image spread over a few pixels can be measured to sub-pixel accuracy. The seeding should also be of a size that forms images of the desired size. The size of a particle image on the recording medium, di is determined by three factors: the particle diameter, dp , the magnification (recorded:actual size) M, and the lens aperture used. defined by its f-number3, f# :

di =

2 M 2 d p 2 + d spot

where dspot is the diffraction-limited image size - the smallest image that can be recorded by a lens working at the given f-number, f# ,

d spot = 2.44(1 + M ) f # !
Thus for larger magnifications, larger particles and larger apertures (smaller f-numbers), the size of the diffraction-limited image becomes less significant, and the size of the recorded image approaches that which would be expected on the basis of the magnification alone. Illumination Interval Like the optimisation of seeding density, the choice of illumination interval is dictated by consideration of the subsequent analysis. The interval should be set such that the largest velocity
3

The working diameter or aperture of the lens is usually given in terms of the lens focal length, f, eg an aperture of f/8 implies that the aperture is 1/8th of the focal length. In this case the f-number f# = 8. flow meas notes 0506 v04.doc 32

in the flow gives a particle image separation on the flow record(s) which is the largest suitable for the analysis system. Typically, if both particle images in a pair are to stand a good chance of falling within a single interrogation area, then the criterion max. image separation < 1/3 dimension of interrogation area serves as a guide. Normally an accurate estimate of the largest velocities can be made, but it may be necessary to try different intervals in order to optimise the choice. Focus Achieving a really sharp focus is extremely important if good PIV photographs are to be obtained, and can be quite difficult, especially when a large lens aperture or long focal length lens are being used. Tests in which the focus is varied can provide a route to optimisation. Photographic Magnification The magnification from the measurement zone to the image depends upon the focal length of the lens and the distance from the camera to the measurement zone. Its selection is in general another compromise. It is often desirable to measure as large a region as possible, but it is again important to consider the analysis phase. The velocities are calculated from averaging particle image displacements over a small (eg 32 x 32 pixel) interrogation region on the flow record. The implicit assumption is that particle image displacements over this small region are uniform: if there is a strong displacement gradient present, errors are introduced and the resulting data point may be at best inaccurate and at worst, spurious. Therefore the size of the area imaged onto the flow record is typically limited to that which will result in displacement gradients of less than 5% over any interrogation area, limiting systematic error from this source to less than 1%. Exposure In general, tests trying various settings of camera aperture and laser power is required for a new application. The quality of the resulting flow records may then be assessed under analysis and the best settings finalised. If there is scope for choosing an aperture setting, it should be remembered that the largest apertures (smallest f numbers) give the poorest depth of field, so focusing is more difficult. However, if the particle image size is diffraction limited, the smaller apertures (larger f numbers) will result in larger particle images. Using f/4 or f/5.6} is usually a good compromise. Camera Positioning and Alignment The geometric relation between the measurement plane in the flow and the PIV image plane in the camera may be generally specified by six coordinates - three positional and three angular (Figure 4.7). The selection of these coordinates corresponds to the positioning and alignment of the camera. The position of the camera in x1 and x2 (Figure 4.4) is determined by the characteristics of the measurement zone. In the simplest cases, the camera field of view will be centred on the centre of the measurement zone. However, if there is some feature in the measurement zone which partially obstructs the view such as a test object or a free surface, then the selection of the camera position may demand some care if as much as possible of the region of interest is to be imaged. The x3 position, the distance from camera to measurement plane defines the magnification. The magnification is chosen as a compromise between the size of the measurement area and the resolution of the velocity map.

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Figure 4.4: Camera alignment Aligning the camera fixes the rotational degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 and 3 . The pitch 1 and yaw 2 axes must be set so that the camera image plane is parallel to the measurement plane. If this is not achieved precisely, not only will a systematic distortion of the image plane result, but also it may prove impossible to maintain a sharp focus over the whole of the plane. The roll axis 3 needs to be set if the object and image planes are not to be rotated relative to one another. Vibration The sharpness of the particle images recorded on the film is an important factor in the signal-to-noise ratio of the resulting data. Therefore it is important to consider possible sources of mechanical vibration in the recording system and how they might be minimised. Two possible sources can, in general, be identified: 1. the mounting of the camera 2. the internal workings of the camera If the camera is mounted on a good quality tripod, itself standing on a solid lab floor, there should be little or no problem from this quarter. However, if the camera is mounted otherwise, eg upon a moving stage in an image shifting system, or if the tripod rests on a floor which vibrates for any reason, related to the experiment or not, then steps may have to be taken to minimise or at least quantify the effect of vibration. Registration In general, it is desirable or necessary to be able to relate a position on the flow image to an absolute position in the real measurement plane. This requires some form of registration mark, visible on the photograph, whose actual real world coordinates are known. If there is an object visible in the flow, eg a cylinder, then this may present few problems. Otherwise, the use of some additional marker in the measurement plane, or even in another known plane, will be necessary. Calibration Finally, provision should be made to measure the photographic magnification from the laboratory frame to the image frame. Again, it may be possible to measure this directly from the image of an object of known size in the measurement zone. However, in most cases, it may be preferable to take a dedicated calibration photograph before the start of a run of experiments, eg of an object or grid of accurately known dimensions.
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4.6.4 Errors in PIV Measurement A summary of the errors inherent in the acquisition phase of autocorrelation PIV is presented in Skyner [1992], from which the table below is reproduced. factor illumination interval photographic magnification photographic distortion illumination plane flatness illumination plane thickness seeding not following flow combined errors typical random error 0.2 % 0.3 % 0.0 - 0.3 % 0.0 - 0.3 % 0.1 % 0.4 % 0.0 - 1.0 % 1.0 - 1.6 % systematic error

4.7 Applications A random selection of applications with which the Edinburgh group has been associated... Combustion Flow in power station coal burners (live flame tests) Flow of pulverised coal into power station combustion chamber Coastal Engineering Beach erosion /accretion Wave impacts on breakwaters Flow around seabed pipelines Offshore Engineering Wave enhancement due to structure blockage Oceanic internal waves Deep water breaking waves Wind Energy Measurement of wake behind a wind turbine Heat Transfer Recirculation in horizontal kettle reboilers Fire Safety Flow of fumes and smoke out of burning buildings

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