1|e |CU|e ||isis

zero issue, |anuary 2O1O

ISSN 2O78-3884
Soulh Tarava, Kiribali
no-coyrighl2O1O
This |ournaI may be freeIy dovnIoaded and quoled for aII non-commerciaI uroses.
The aulhors and lhe edu-faclory coIIeclive, hovever, vouId Iike lo be so informed al lhe address beIov
infoedu-faclory.org
vvv.edu-faclory.org
Layoul by Marlina Marlignoni
Iroofread by An|a Kanngieser
/e|C issUe
Ldu-faclory }ournaI LdiloriaI oard:
Morgan Adamson, Marco aravaIIe, Iedro arbosa Mendes, CIaudia ernardi, Ryan
isho, Marc ousquel, Lnda rohy, George Caffenlzis, Sandro ChignoIa, Anna Cur-
cio, IaoIo Do, MarceIo Lxosilo, Ludovica IaIes, SiIvia Iederici, }im IIeming, LzequieI
Gallo, Andrea GheIh, Gary HaII, MichaeI Hardl, Slefano Harney, CamiIIo Imerore,
Auguslo IIIuminali, Avinash }ha, Geerl Lovink, Iederico Marini, Marlina Marlignoni,
Randy Marlin, Liz Mason-Desee, }ason Irancis Mc Gimsey, MigueI MeIIino, LIi Meyer-
hoff, Sandro Mezzadra, rell NeiIson, Aihva ng, Malleo IasquineIIi, AIexei Ienzin,
IsabeIIa Iinlo, o|ana Iiskur, CarIos Irielo deI Camo, NirmaI Iuvar, GeraId Raunig,
Ariane ReveI, Marco Ribezzi, Gigi Roggero, Andrev Ross, Ned Rossiler, Ranabir Sama-
ddar, IIorian Scheinder, }on SoIomon, Tiziana Terranova, CarIo VerceIIone, Xiang iao.
|C(le(ls
Edu-Iactnry cn!!cctIvc
The DoubIe Crisis: Living on lhe orders
|(l|CUUcliC(
ccUaliC(s
ChrIstnphcr Ncwc!d
The Slruclure and SiIence of Cognilarial
Gcnrgc CaIIcntzIs
The WorId ank and lhe DoubIe Crisis of African Iniversilies
Jnn 5n!nmnn
Rearorialing lhe NeoIiberaI Iniversily for a Nev Iulonghua
(Common Language)
5tcIann Harncy
In lhe usiness SchooI
Ncd RnssItcr
The InformalionaI Iniversily, lhe Ineven Dislribulion of Lxer-
lise and lhe RaciaIizalion of Labour
4
42
27
10
53
62
Pcdrn Barbnsa Mcndcs
The DoubIe Crisis of lhe Iniversily
C!audIa BcrnardI and Andrca Ghc!
Wc Wcni Pcq jcr Ycur Crisis, We WiII Creale Inslilulions of lhe
Common!
LIna DnkuznvIc and Eduard Frcudmann
Squalling lhe Crisis. n lhe currenl rolesls in educalion and
erseclives on radicaI change
UnInnmadc
Nolhing WiII Never e lhe Same. Ten Thesis on lhe IinanciaI Cri-
sis
/e(Ui
Marc Bnusquct
Afler CuIluraI CailaIism
/(Cma|ies
RcvIsta Mu!tItud
The DoubIe Crisis of lhe ChiIean Iniversily
74
90
96
108
119
127
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Thc dnub!c crIsIs: !IvIng nn thc
bnrdcrs
Thc Edu-Iactnry cn!!cctIvc
The oId inslilulions are crumbIing--from cenlraI banks lo oIilicaI
arlies, from museums lo nevsaers, from broadcasl leIevision lo
schooIs. Caughl belveen lhe conlinuaI roIIoul of crises and lhe en-
croachmenl of nelvorks on lheir borders, lhey slruggIe lo coe. Mosl
are lrying lo brand lheir vay oul of lheir dead ends. Some viII doubl-
Iess survive, bul lhe ma|orily viII become unrecognisabIe in lhe ro-
cess. In any case, radicaI oIilics can no Ionger be commilled lo lhe
Iong march lhrough lhese inslilulions.
NeedIess lo say, universilies are undergoing a eriod of lurbuIence,
loo. 'As once vas lhe faclory, so nov is lhe universily'--lhe edu-
faclory ro|ecl began vilh lhis Iain and aarenlIy unrobIemalic
slalemenl--nol lo afhrm, bul lo inlerrogale il. The universily does nol
al aII funclion Iike a faclory. WhiIe ve are roud of lhe faclory and
universily slruggIes of lhe asl ve cannol afford lo be conlenl vilh
simIy being noslaIgic for lhem. 'As once vas lhe faclory, so nov is
lhe universily'--lhis slalemenl is lherefore an indicalion of a oIilicaI
robIem. If ve begin vilh lhe incommensurabIe differences belveen
lhe acluaI funclions of lhe universily and lhose of lhe faclory, vhal
are lhe oIilicaI slakes of ulling lhem inlo reIalion` If lhe faclory vas
once lhe Iocus of slruggIe under Iordisl cailaIism, vhal is lhe sile of
oIilicaI conleslalion under resenl condilions` Hov can lhe robIem
of organisalion be relhoughl in lhe aflermalh of lhe decIine of ils lra-
dilionaI forms, such as lhe union and lhe oIilicaI arly`

The edu-faclory veb-|ournaI exlends lhe revious efforls of lhe edu-
faclory nelvork lo hnd ansvers lo lhese queslions. We knov lhal lhis
robIem concerns rognosis more lhan diagnosis, and ils urgency
is onIy deeened by lhe currenl gIobaI economic crisis. Wilhin edu-
faclory, ve refer lo lhis slale of affairs as lhe !cu||c crisis. n lhe one
hand, lhis invoIves an acceIeralion of lhe crisis secihc lo lhe univer-
sily, lhe inevilabIe resuIl of ils ouldaled disciIinary divisions and
eroded eislemoIogicaI slalus. n lhe olher hand, il is lhe crisis of
Intrn
EDU-FACTORY
IS A TRANSNATINAL
CLLLCTIVL LNGAGLD
WITH THL TRANS-
IRMATINS I THL
GLAL INIVLRSITY
AND CNILICTS IN
KNWLLDGL IRDIC-
TIN. THL WLSITL I
THL GLAL NLTWRK
(WWW.LDI-IACTRY.
RG <HTTI:11WWW.
LDI-IACTRY.RG1> )
CLLLCTS AND CN-
NLCTS THLRLTICAL
INVLSTIGATINS AND
RLIRTS IRM INI-
VLRSITY STRIGGLLS.
THL NLTWRK HAS
RGANISLD MLLT-
INGS ALL ARIND THL
WRLD, IAYING IAR-
TICILAR ATTLNTIN
T THL INTLRTWIN-
ING I STIDLNT AND
IACILTY STRIGGLLS.
MLMLRS I THL LDI-
IACTRY CLLLCTIVL
ARL: MRGAN ADAM-
SN, MARC ARAVAL-
LL, ILDR ARSA
MLNDLS, CLAIDIA LR-
NARDI, LNDA RIHY,
ANNA CIRCI, IAL
D, LIDVICA IALLS,
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oslfordisl condilions of Iabor and vaIue, many of vhich are circuiled
lhrough lhe universily.
Silualed on lhe borders of lhis doubIe crisis, lhe edu-faclory veb-|our-
naI viII be devoled lo anaIysing hov lhe universily vorks--lhe 'occu-
alions' lhal il enforces and lhose lhal il inciles as veII as lhe 'anoma-
Iies' lhal lake excelion lo ils homogenising lransIalions. In lhis vay,
lhe |ournaI seeks lo derive ideas and raclices for a nev organisalion
of knovIedge roduclion, one lhal is enlireIy vilhin lhe urviev of
sociaI cooeralion and ils coIIeclive conlroI. This is vhal ve caII lhe
conslruclion of an cuicncmcus insiiiuiicn, vhich is ossibIe lhrough
lhe invenlion of lhe unitcrsiiq cj inc ccmmcn, in olher vords universily
of lhe common can become so onIy by becoming aulonomous.
O C C U P A T I O N 5
Iour cenlraI oinls inform lhe zero issue.
Iirsl, lhe doubIe crisis is gIobaI. To say lhis is nol lo imIy lhe ex-
islence of a homogenous gIobaI sace, or lhe conslruclion of a al
vorId. Ralher, il signaIs a gIobaI scenario of change, characlerised by
differenl forms of decIinalion and1or ircns|ciicn inic pcriicu|cr rcgicnc|
ccnicxis. In facl, lhere is a greal deaI of differenlialion vilhin lhe hel-
erogeneous sace-lime of lhe doubIe crisis. This differenlialion reveaIs
lhe rocess of hierarchisalion oeraling vilhin lhe Ianelary educa-
lion markel. Id coordinales no Ionger sufhce in ils anaIysis, hov-
ever, as lhis rocess of hierarchisalion no Ionger foIIovs lhe cIassicaI
Iines of division belveen cenlre and erihery. Consider lhe emergenl
roIes laken on by China or India, and lheir higher educalion syslems.
The changing geooIilics of higher educalion is lighlIy Iinked lo lhe
disequiIibrium belveen lhe debl dehcil of lhe Weslern counlries and
lhe saving surIus of lhe so-caIIed 'emergenl counlries'.The I.S. has
had lo come lo lerms vilh ils Asian credilors. In order lo lrace lhe ge-
neaIogy of lhe conlemorary crisis, il is necessary lo move oulside lhe
'Wesl'. As MigueI Carmona and NicoIs SIachevsky righlIy remind
us, ChiIe vas one of lhe hrsl Iaboralories for lhe Chicago oys. And
as George Caffenlizs oinls oul, Africa's doubIe crisis began in lhe
198Os. Thal decade sav lhe WorId ank become a kind of 'KnovIedge
ank', making Ioans lo African universilies in lhe hoe of riming a
knovIedge economy lhal vas oul of sle vilh lhe conlinenl's osilion
in lhe inlernalionaI division of Iabour. WhiIe universilies across lhe
vorId nov face varying degrees of economic inslabiIily, debl, in ils
many forms, has been lhe cenlraI source of lhe conlemorary crisis.
ANDRLA GHLLII,
CAMILL IMILRRL,
LIZ MALSN-DLSLL,
ILDLRIC MARINI,
MARTINA MARTIGN-
NI, }ASN IRANCIS MC
GIMSLY, MIGILL MLL-
LIN, RLTT NLILSN,
MATTL IASQIINLLLI,
ALLXLI ILNZIN, ISA-
LLLA IINT, ARIANL
RLVLL, MARC RILZZI,
GIGI RGGLR, }N
SLMN.
THL CLLLCTIVL HAS
IILISHLD UN|V|R|S1A
GIOBAI|. |I NUOVO
M|RCA1O D|I SAP|R|
(MANIILSTLIRI, 2OO8),
1OWARD A GIOBAI
AU1ONOMOUS UN|V|R-
S|1Y. COGN|1|V| IABOR,
1H| PRODUC1|ON O|
KNOWI|DG|, AND
|XODUS |ROM 1H|
|DUCA1|ON |AC1ORY
(AITNMLDIA, 2OO9),
AND UN|V|RS|DAD |N
CON|I|C1O (TRAIICAN-
TLS DL SILNS, 2O1O).
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SecondIy, ve dehne lhe currenl crisis as an economic crisis, nol onIy a hnanciaI one. Iar from
making lhe oId dislinclion belveen lhe reaI and lhe hnanciaI economy, foIIoving lhe coIIeclive
lheses deveIoed by Ininomade, ve can say lhal hnance is reciseIy lhe reaI form of lhe econ-
omy, vhen knovIedge becomes bolh lhe cenlraI source and means of roduclion. There is no
oulside lo hnanciaIisalion, because il reresenls lhe erverse form and lhe calure of vhal il is
roduced in common. Raling agencies such as Moody's and Slandard and Ioor's are evermore
imorlanl aclors in lhe formalion of lhe hierarchy of lhe gIobaI educalion markel.
In lhis conlexl, and lhis is lhe lhird oinl, managemenl slralegy sans and in a cerlain vay dis-
soIves lhe diaIeclic belveen ubIic and rivale. As Marc ousquel's arlicIe emhasises, educalion
Ieaders don'l demand a 'baiIoul' or a 'Nev DeaI' for universilies. n lhe conlrary, lhey imose
auslerily and conlroI on lhe academic vorkforce--lhal is, sludenls, facuIly and recarious em-
Ioyees. These Ieaders seek lo mainlain and reroduce lheir osilions based on lhe renl and 'ca-
lure' of Iiving knovIedge. The universily is nol onIy a arl of, bul aIso a aradigmalic sile for lhe
doubIe crisis. More reciseIy, as ousquel aIso observes, il is a Ieading 'innovalor' in lhe roduc-
lion and engineering of lhe Iousy forms of emIoymenl lhal have gulled lhe gIobaI economy. Il is
a Iaboralory for lhe 'calure' of vaIue, or vhal il refers lo as 'human, sociaI and cuIluraI cailaI'.
Therefore, ils currenl silualion rovides a good slandoinl from vhich lo anaIyse lhe conlemo-
rary gIobaI crisis and lhe nev conicls and slruggIes lhal have emerged vilh ils unfoIding. Chris
NevheId anaIyses lhe 'Iogic of culs lhal conlradicls lhe knovIedge economy's aarenl require-
menl of a mcss middIe-cIass, a sociely lhal has a ma|orily of coIIege graduales and of knovIedge
vorkers', highIighling lhe changing lerms of lhe conlradiclion belveen roduclive forces and
reIalions of roduclion. In olher vords, NevheId examines lhe rocesses of hierarchisalion in
lhe Iabour markel and of differenliaI incIusion in lhe educalion markel. LxlraoIaling from his
anaIysis, ve can venlure lo suggesl lhal loday lhe Iabour markel is immedialeIy an educalion
markel, and vice versa.
IinaIIy, lhe doubIe crisis is nol a slage or hase of lhe cailaIisl cycIe: il has become ermanenl.
Conlrary lo lhe rocIamalions of governmenls, gIobaI eIiles, and lhink lanks, lhe crisis isn'l over.
The grovlh of recarisalion, unemIoymenl and overly, lhe decrease of saIaries, lhe funding
culs lo universily dearlmenls aII demonslrale lhal lhe crisis is ongoing. When lhe bubbIe be-
comes lhe conlemorary form of economy, crisis becomes a nev form and lechnique of gover-
nance. In olher vords, lhe robIem for ruIers, from lhose oeraling in lhe universily lo lhose
aclive in lhe broader sociely beyond il, is lhal of conlinuous adalalion lo a ermanenl crisis.
This doubIe crisis is aIso manifesl lhrough lhe insurgenl knovIedges lhal sliII are roduced or
hnd Iace in lhe exisling universily sel u, yel vhich lhe universily as an inslilulion hnds ex-
lremeIy difhcuIl lo idenlify vilh, use, or conlain. This is fundamenlaIIy a osl-coIoniaI scenario,
vhere lhe asl and lhe resenl of lhe universily are caughl u in an imossibIe aradox. In lhis
osl-coIoniaI sel u lhe managers of cailaI may Iike lo do avay vilh mass educalion, bul ou-
Iar democralic oIilics simIy do nol aIIov lhe gale crashers lo lhe universily lo meIl avay. This
makes lhe doubIe crisis even more acule.
To lhe doubIe crisis lhere aIso corresonds a doubIe fanlasy of exil. n lhe one hand, lhere is a
reaclionary idea: lhal is, lo rebuiId lhe ivory lover, vilh ils searalion belveen roduclion on
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lhe one hand and lhe 'forlress of knovIedge' on lhe olher. Nol onIy is lhis searalion imossibIe,
bul more imorlanlIy il vorks againsl lhe reaIily of conlemorary cooeralion and lhe sub|eclive
desires of Iiving Iabour. Il is lhe dysloia of academic eIiles, vhich seek lo reroduce lheir renlier
osilion. n lhe olher hand, lhere is a IiberaI fanlasy: lo make lhe universily--or 'melroversily', lo
use lhe calegory roosed by Slefano Harney--lhe engine of a nev economic cycIe. KnovIedge,
in lhis fanlasy, is underslood nol onIy as lhe basis of lhe conlemorary economy, bul aIso as a
osilive and 'neulraI' asecl of cognilive cailaI. Yel lhe universily remains lhe mosl anomaIous
inslilulion. Neilher can cailaI eal il u, nor can il vomil il avay.
AII of lhe arlicIes in lhis zero issue iIIuslrale a doubIe oosilion. They re|ecl noslaIgia for lhe
universily before il ended u 'in ruins'. And lhey oose lhe vision of lhe universily as a cogni-
live faclory of accumuIalion and exIoilalion. Ldu-faclory is nol inleresled in rescuing lhe cor-
orale universily. As }on SoIomon oinls oul, innovalion is nol a form of vaIue-added, bul lhe
exression of lhe ccmmcn. In lhis decisive lransilion, a nev roIe for lhe universily is onIy ossibIe
lhrough sociaI cooeralion and conicls. This means lurning lhe universily from a Iace cccupic!
by cailaI lo one occuied by lhe bodies of Iiving Iabour.
A N O M A L I E 5
Iar from aroaching lhe crisis as a diaIeclicaI synlhesis of danger and oorlunily, edu-faclory
oinls lo lhe rofound ambivaIence and uncerlainly marking lhe conlemorary momenl of gIob-
aI lransilion. We have lo carefuI nol onIy aboul lhe siril in vhich ve aroriale lhe lerm crisis
bul aIso allenlive lo lhe muIliIe agendas lhal lhe lerm has been made lo meel. These range from
a revoIulionary desire for crisis, as if il romises an insurreclionary momenl more lhan reaclion-
ary lendencies, lo governmenlaI Iogics lhal osil crisis as a means for |uslifying aclions lhal mighl
olhervise be difhcuIl lo carry oul. n lhe one hand, il is necessary lo ask vhal lhe decIaralion
of a crisis conceaIs, modihes or amIihes of lhe underIying condilions lo vhich il seeks lo drav
allenlion. n lhe olher hand, lhere is a need lo inlerrogale lhe muIliIicalion of crises, if nol lheir
conslancy as a mode of molivaling and |uslifying governmenlaI inlervenlions in lhe resenl or-
der of eoIe and lhings. The vrilings coIIecled in lhis zero issue oinl lo eriIous fulures: lhe
dro in lhe quaIily of Iiving condilions of miIIions and miIIions of eoIe around lhe vorId, lhe
decomosilion of Iabour, and lhe so caIIed var among lhe oor. Al lhe same lime, lhey oinl lo
lhe ossibiIily of radicaI change. The crisis has crealed a sorl of sociaI ballIeheId uon vhich lhese
oIes of exerience lake lheir uncerlain shae.
This zero issue is coming inlo an aIready moving vorId. This vorId is marked by lhe ambivaIence
of lhe doubIe crisis. More lhan lhis, il is a vorId of gIobaI slruggIes and movemenls vilhin lhe
doubIe crisis. }usl lo quole some overfuI and recenl examIes: lhe graduale sludenl slruggIes
in Canada and lhe I.S., lhe occualions in lhe Iniversily of CaIifornia, as veII as in Auslria,
Germany, SvilzerIand, and Croalia, lhe sludenl cIaims for freedom in Teheran, or lhe conicls for
academic freedom in Africa. There are many olhers. AII are againsl budgel culs, lhe dismanlIing
and markelisalion of educalion syslems, lhe 'recarisalion' of Iabour, lhe inlroduclion of nev sys-
lems of measure by means of audil cuIlures, and so on. ul lhey aIso highIighl emergenl cIaims
for nev modeIs of educalion and raclices of seIf-managed knovIedge roduclion.
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Therefore, lhe currenl slruggIes and conicls in lhe 'gIobaI universily', as veII as lhe various
exerimenls in 'aulo-educalion', are nol onIy lhe descrilion of olenliaIIy lransformalive Iines
of exil, oul of lhe crisis. They aIso rovide lhe Iineamenls of a melhod. They are squalling lhe
crisis, lo use lhe effeclive vords of Lina Dokuzovi and Lduard Ireudmann. We roose lo read
lhe helerogeneous gIobaI sace-lime of lhe doubIe crisis beginning vilh ils anomaIies. Irom lhis
slandoinl, CIaudia ernardi and Andrea GheIh anaIyse lhe deveIomenl of lhe 'AnomaIous
Wave' movemenl in IlaIy, framing il in lhe Luroean conlexl of lhe oIogna Irocess and exIain-
ing ils main sIogan: 've von'l ay for your crisis!' SimiIarIy, Carmona and SIachevsky shov
hov raclices of conicl exhibil lhe conlradiclions al vork in lhe neoIiberaI modeI of universily.
Ierhas ve shouId say lhe conlemorary crisis marks lhe moduIalion of neoIiberaIism. This does
nol mean lhal lhe effecls of neoIiberaI oIilics are over, bul ralher lhal lhey are undergoing dee
lransformalion and lhal lheir caacily lo form a syslem can no Ionger be assumed. As Caffenlzis
highIighls, lhe roIe of African sludenls in gaining access lo universily educalion is arl of lhe
geneaIogy of lhe conlemorary crisis. The arorialion of lhe 'gIobaI knovIedge deaI' by lhese
sub|ecls lransforms il inlo a source for radicaI lransformalion, |usl as lhe 'enIighlenmenl dis-
course' discovered by lhe Irench revoIulionary bourgeoisie became incendiary in lhe hands of
lhose for vhom il vas nol meanl, such as lhe Hailian sIaves afler 1789.
As gIobaI sace-lime is helerogeneous, slruggIes lake differenl forms in differenl conlexls. The
robIem is nol lo hnd a universaI form or means of communicalion among lhem: on lhe conlrary,
lhe queslion is lheir ccmpcsiiicn. This has nolhing lo do vilh lhe exorlalion of a modeI, or com-
municalion among homogeneous sub|ecls: il is immedialeIy lhe queslion of ircns|ciicn, lo recaII
lhe anaIysis rovided by SoIomon. Lveryday cailaI musl lransIale lhe roduclion of lhe com-
mon inlo lhe Ianguage of accumuIalion, laking lhe 'helerogeneous and fuII lime' of lhe move-
menl and cooeralion of Iiving knovIedge and lurning il inlo lhe 'homogenous and emly lime'
of lhe calure of vaIue. This is ncmc|inguc| ircns|ciicn, gIobaI LngIish is lhe homoIinguaI idiom
of lhe cororale universily. ul lhere is no Iace for uloian (or dysloian) ideas of 'oulsides' or
hay isIands: lhe ghelloes are dehnileIy comalibIe vilh lhe syslem of governance. The gIobaI
universily is our ballIeheId: il is lhe sace-lime axis for exerimenlalion in lhe ordinary evenl of
ncicrc|inguc| ircns|ciicn. Iilled againsl lhe muIliIe lechnoIogies of border managemenl, securily
and idenlily lhal make lhe universily inlo a key sile for lhe managemenl of gIobaI ouIalions,
ve exIore lhe slruggIes among ils knovIedgeabIe bodies and lheir ossibIe comosilion in a
common rocess.
The doubIe crisis aIso marks lhe crisis of lhe lradilionaI organisalion of lhe knovIedge and ils
borders--i.e. lhe disciIines. The arlicIes coIIecled in lhis zero issue aIso highIighl emergenl cIaims
for nev educalionaI modeIs and raclices of seIf-managed knovIedge roduclion. The crisis has
exosed lhe Iimils of lradilionaI disciIines lo conducl a reading of conlemoraneily. Lasl sring
various mainslream economisls signed a documenl enlilIed The IinanciaI Crisis and lhe Sys-
lemalic IaiIure of Academic Lconomics. In lhis lexl lhey asserl lhal lhe disciIine of economics
vas nol onIy unabIe lo foresee lhe inciienl crisis bul aIso arlIy resonsibIe for il. The discourse
of olher disciIines is nol much differenl. MeanvhiIe, inlerdisciIinarily, vhich is everyvhere
rocIaimed in rheloric bul so rareIy racliced in facl, romises IillIe change in lhe organisalion
of knovIedge. The disciIines, vhich in many |urisdiclions are nov assigned codes and slalisli-
caIIy subdivided in order lo regisler in audil and so-caIIed quaIily exercises, are more and more
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lhe bare sheIIs of hierarchisalion and measure. To be succincl: lhe organisalion of knovIedge
becomes a cenlraI ballIeheId, vilhin ralher lhan lhe oulside of over and roduclive reIalion-
shis. In conlrasl lo lhis, Iedro arbosa Mendes describes lhe exerimenls vilh a nev universily
modeI in raziI, based on lhe raclices of sociaI movemenls. This exerimenlalion couId indicale
a ossibIe form of conicl and consliluenl over vilhin lhe crisis of conlemorary forms of gov-
ernance.
In concIusion, if lhe doubIe crisis is a ermanenl condilion, ve cannol use lhe oId schemas lo read
il. We need nev Ienses lo undersland lhe allerns of occualion in lhe gIobaI universily. And ve
need nev, anomaIous looIs lo escae from ils borders. These looIs are aIready discernibIe in lhe
anomaIous vaves, in lhe molions of lhe body caIIed lhe universily. Il is in lhis slrange co-exis-
lence of lhe reaIily and lhe ossibiIily lhal ve hnd lhe osl-coIoniaI redicamenl of knovIedge
shovs lhe Iines of ils resoIulion.
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Thc structurc and sI!cncc nI
cngnItarIat
*
ChrIstnphcr Ncwc!d
Many Americans assume lhal because business and oIilicaI Ieaders
agree lhal lhe I.S. is a 'knovIedge economy', lhey lherefore suorl an
increase in knovIedge roduclion and suorl lhe universily syslems
lhal erform lhe ma|orily of lhis basic research in lhe I.S. and olher
veaIlhy counlries. The reaIily is somelhing quile differenl. American
Ieaders are reoccuied vilh reducing ubIic exendilures on higher
educalion and vilh Iovering lhe cosl of each degree roduced. They
are conlaining and cheaening lhe research and educalionaI syslems
on vhich lhey say lhe fulure of lheir economies deend. This raises
lhe core queslion I'II discuss here: vhy vouId veaIlhy socielies cul
back on lhe sources of high-lech knovIedge vhen lhey beIieve lheir
fulure Iies vilh high-vaIue, high-lech induslries` Isn'l lhis conlradic-
lory, and aIso fairIy dumb`
WeII yes: some of il is ordinary human myoia and seIhshness. Some
of il is lhe resuIl of lhe arlihciaIIy crealed generaI hosliIily lovards
universilies and lovards lhe oIilicaIIy indeendenl and raciaIIy di-
verse middIe-cIasses lhal had been roduced by ubIic universilies
afler WorId War II.
1
Some of il is lhe resuIl of a business reex in lhe
Iniled Slales, vhich is lo address aII revenue issues vilh dovnsizing
and Iayoffs.
2
ul Iooking al lhis basic reex onIy deeens lhe sense of conlradic-
lion. Mainslream exerls eslimale suslainabIe 'efhciencies' lo amounl
lo erhas 3/ savings a year for lhe hrsl fev years, nol lhe 5/, 1O/,
or 2O/ culs being imosed by slale governmenls. They aIso agree lhe
reaI crisis in American higher educalion is lhal il is roducing er-
has haIf as many coIIege degrees as il needs, nol lhal il is sending
loo much money.
3
Whal, lhen, is lhe Iogic of culs lhal conlradicls lhe
knovIedge economy's aarenl requiremenl of a mcss middIe-cIass,
a sociely lhal has a ma|orily of coIIege graduales and of knovIedge
vorkers`
CHRI5TOPHER
NEWFIELD
TLACHLS IN THL LNG-
LISH DLIARTMLNT AT
THL INIVLRSITY I
CALIIRNIA, SANTA
ARARA. AN ACTIV-
IST AND SCHLAR, HL
WRKS N LDICATIN
AND THL AMLRICAN
INIVLRSITY. HL IS
AITHR I |VY AND
|NDUS1RY. BUS|N|SS
AND 1H| MAK|NG O|
1H| AM|R|CAN UN|V|R-
S|1Y, 18801980 (DIKL
INIVLRSITY IRLSS, 2OO4)
AND UNMAK|NG 1H|
PUBI|C UN|V|RS|1Y.
1H| |OR1Y-Y|AR AS-
SAUI1 ON 1H| M|DDI|
CIASS (HARVARD INI-
VLRSITY IRLSS, 2OO8).
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The conlradiclion exisls onIy if ve assume lhal loday's Ieaders of lhe knovIedge economy aclu-
aIIy seek a mass middIe cIass, desire high slandards of Iiving for lhe vasl ma|orily of lheir ou-
Ialion, and beIieve lhal lhe knovIedge economy needs armies of coIIege graduales. If inslead,
ve osil lhal lhe oIilicaI and business Ieaders of lhe knovIedge economy seek a smaIIer eIile of
knovIedge-based slar roducers, lhen lhe unceasing cheaening of ubIic higher educalion in
lhe I.S. and eIsevhere makes more sense.
Many aulhors have oinled oul over lhe years lhal knovIedge cailaIism obIigales hrms lo seek
renls and a monooIy osilion in lheir markels.
4
CIear suorl for lhis lhesis comes from lhe oIi-
garchic slruclure of lhe informalion lechnoIogy and biolechnoIogy induslries in lhe I.S. and eIse-
vhere. A comanion lhesis has been lhal lhere is a fundamenlaI conlradiclion belveen cailaI-
ism and lhe knovIedge economy, cIearIy described by Andr Gorz, since knovIedge is abundanl
and cailaIism arlihciaIIy forces ils scarcily.
5
In facl, lhe I.S. exerience suggesls lhal lhis con-
lradiclion is roduclive of lhe syslem of cognilive cailaIism in IoucauIl's sense of a roduclive
conlradiclion: lhe arorialion of abundanl knovIedge, lhe rivalisalion of ubIic and sociaIIy-
crealed goods, lhal is, lhe famous 'encIosure of lhe knovIedge commons' is lhe sel of oeralions
lhal cognilive cailaIism exisls lo erform, vilh fuII knovIedge lhal il is forcing knovIedge oul
of ils crealive coIIeclive habilal.
In lhis arlicIe I viII Iook al severaI asecls of lhis rocess. ne is a syslemalic slralihcalion vilhin
knovIedge vorkers as a cIass or grou. The second is lhe deveIomenl of a slrucluraI basis for
lhis slralihcalion--rorielary knovIedge--lhal gives lhe overfuI syslem of hnanciaI cailaI a
direcl slake in slralifying knovIedge vorkers. The lhird is lhe syslem of unequaI universilies
and disciIines vilhin universilies lhal reroduces lhe Iabour hierarchy of knovIedge vork and
lhal makes oosilion sychoIogicaIIy difhcuIl. IinaIIy, lhere is lhe raclice of 'oen innovalion'
in vhich a hrm dehnes vaIue-crealion nol as lhe oulul of ils ovn vorkforce, bul as lhe oulul
of rorielary knovIedge vorkers from a vhoIe nelvork of hrms. I suggesl lhal lhis Ieads lo a
nev version of lhe ancienl regime's Three Lslales, and lhal lhis slruclure needs lo be confronled
direclIy by knovIedge vorkers in academia and induslry aIike.
M A N A G I N G A N D D I V I D I N G
Ior nearIy four decades, a range of American commenlalors lhoughl knovIedge vork meanl a
kind of indeendence, crealivily, and even Iiberalion. CIark Kerr's Iandmark 1nc Uscs cj inc Uni-
tcrsiiq (1963) described lhe cenlraIily of lhe universily and ils knovIedge vorkers lo advanced
cailaIisl economies. }ohn Kennelh GaIbrailh sav lhe coIIege-lrained middIe cIasses forming
a 'lechnoslruclure' lhal ruIed Iarge cororalions in 1nc Ncu |n!usiric| Sicic from 1967. In 1979
arbara and }ohn Lhrenreich dehned lhe 'rofessionaI-manageriaI cIass' (IMC) as a nev and
dominanl force in reviousIy binary cIass dynamics. The decIine of lhe induslriaI slale onIy fed
lhe cIaims lhal knovIedge vorkers vere lhe ruIers of lhe nev economy. Roberl Reich's 1991 1nc
Wcr| cj Nciicns dehned 'symboIic anaIysls' as a nev ruIing cIass, one lhal Richard IIorida vouId
rechrislen lhe 'crealive cIass' in 2OO3, lo vhich aII-imorlanl sociaI resources vouId ov.
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The fuIIesl endorsemenl of lhis idea of a seIf-delermined knovIedge cIass lhal couId make lhe
ruIes of ils ovn vork Iife came from lhe moderale, cororalisl dean of managemenl sludies in lhe
Iniled Slales, Ieler Drucker. In lhe immediale aflermalh of lhe faII of lhe erIin WaII, Drucker
offered lhis vision of knovIedge vork Ieading lo 'osl-cailaIism':
'The basic economic resource--'lhe means of roduclion', lo use lhe economisl's lerm--is
no Ionger cailaI, nor naluraI resources (lhe economisl's 'Iand,'), nor 'Iabor'. |i is cn! ui||
|c |ncu|c!gc. . . . The Ieading sociaI grous of lhe knovIedge sociely viII be 'knovIedge
vorkers'--knovIedge execulives vho knov hov lo aIIocale knovIedge lo roduclive use,
|usl as lhe cailaIisls knev hov lo aIIocale cailaI lo roduclive use, knovIedge rofes-
sionaIs, knovIedge emIoyees. IraclicaIIy aII lhese knovIedge eoIe viII be emIoyed in
organizalions. Yel, unIike lhe emIoyees under CailaIism, lhey viII ovn bolh lhe 'means of
roduclion' and lhe 'looIs of roduclion''.
6
ul lhis is nol lhe desliny acluaIIy achieved by brainvorkers in knovIedge comanies.
The oId induslriaI goIialhs may have needed armies of coIIege graduales lo run efhcienlIy, and
universilies vere roducing armies of managers, ma|ors in economics, sociaI sychoIogy, and re-
Ialed heIds vho vouId enhance efhciency vhiIe suorling lhe comany's riorilies and lhe eco-
nomic syslem lhal favoured il. ul do knovIedge comanies vanl lhese armies of brainvorkers`
There is much evidence lo suggesl lhal lhey do nol. The hrsl is lhal high-lech induslries have fa-
mousIy slralihed vorkforces and ay slruclures in vhich lheir bIue-coIIar vorkers do nol make
Iiving vages. The second is lhal vhen lhey grev Iarge, lhey hired as many lemorary vorkers as
ossibIe. Microsofl, one of lhe veaIlhiesl comanies in hislory, vas sued for ils raclice of hiring
'ermalems', second-cIass emIoyees vilh differenl coIoured badges and Iover vages and ben-
ehls vho vouId nonelheIess oflen vork vilh lhe comany for years.
7
A lhird iece of evidence is
lhal lhey are as incIined lovards mass Iayoffs as any olher induslriaI seclor.
8
A fourlh is lhal lhe
Iarge ma|orily of occualionaI seclors vilhin 'high lech emIoymenl' in SiIicon VaIIey decIined
during lhe 2OOOs.
9
A hflh iece of evidence is lhal lolaI direcl emIoymenl in high lech heIds (Sci-
ence, TechnoIogy, Lngineering, and Malhemalics or STLM occualions) vas 5.2/ of aII |obs in lhe
I.S. in 2OO7, vhich means lhal high-lech hrms cannol see lhemseIves as sources of mass emIoy-
menl, and musl seem lhemseIves as emIoying onIy a fraclion of coIIege graduales.
1O

There are aboul 7 miIIion STLM |obs in lhe I.S., vhiIe lhe higher educalion syslem roduces
aboul 2.3 miIIion bacheIors, maslers, rofessionaI, and docloraI degrees every year (in aII heIds).
11
This means lhal lhe I.S. universily syslem couId reroduce lhe enlire STLM vorkforce in 3 years
(2 years if ve incIude associale degrees). If a normaI STLM careers Iasls aboul 3O years, ve can
concIude, using very rough hgures, lhal lhe I.S. universily syslem roduces aboul 1O limes more
graduales lhan lhe economy needs in ils lechnicaI vorkforce.
The issue for knovIedge induslries lhen, is nci hov lhey can creale armies of knovIedge vork-
ers. The issue is lhe oosile: hov can lhey Iimil lheir numbers and manage lheir oulul` Whal
haens lo lhe nine-lenlhs of coIIege graduales vho, according lo our simIihed numbers, vork
in a knovIedge economy bul vho do nol direclIy roduce ils lechnicaI knovIedge`
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5 T R A T I F I C A T I O N T H R O U G H K N O W L E D G E M A N A G E M E N T
A big arl of lhe ansver is lhal lhey are demoled lo a Iover cIass of vorker. The mechanism is a
form of sorling emerged in lhe 199Os as Iarge numbers of coIIege sludenls vho'd grovn u vilh
comulers enlered lhe vorkforce vilh lasles and skiIIs ideaIIy suiled lo buiIding lhe Inlernel and
reIaled induslries. ne lerm vas 'knovIedge managemenl' (KM), and il received arlicuIarIy
cIear codihcalion in a book by Thomas A. Slevarl. Al lhe lime, Slevarl vas a member of |criunc
magazine's oard of Ldilors, he Ialer became edilor-in-chief of Hcrtcr! Busincss Rcticu. KM vas
arl of a syslem lhal hoed againsl hoe (and againsl lhe economic evidence) lhal 'The grealer
lhe human-cailaI inlensily of a business--lhal is, lhe grealer ils ercenlage of high-vaIue-added
vork erformed by hard-lo-reIace eoIe--lhe more il can charge for ils services and lhe Iess
vuInerabIe il is lo comelilors'. The reasoning here vas lhal a comany couId lhrive vhen il vas
'even more difhcuIl for rivaIs lo malch lhose skiIIs lhan il |vasj . . . for lhe hrsl comany lo reIace
lhem'.
12
KM vas lhus nol vindov-dressing, bul lhe Iife-or-dealh crealion of lhe human cailaI
lhal vouId aIIov a hrm lo survive in lhe cullhroal Nev Lconomy.
Slevarl dislinguished belveen lhree differenl lyes of knovIedge or skiII. Tye C (my IabeI) is
'commodily skiIIs', he vrole, vhich are 'readiIy oblained' and vhose ossessors are inlerchange-
abIe. This calegory incIudes mosl 'ink coIIar' vork lhal invoIves skiIIs Iike 'lying and a cheerfuI
hone manner'. Tye is 'Ieveraged skiIIs', vhich require advanced educalion and vhich offer
cIear added vaIue lo lhe hrm lhal hires such skiII, and yel vhich are ossessed by many hrms.
Comuler rogrammers or nelvork adminislralors are examIes of essenliaI emIoyees vho
vorked Iong and hard lo acquire lheir knovIedge, and yel vho are reIaliveIy numerous. Ironi-
caIIy, lhey may have enlered lhe heId because il vas Iarge: ils size may have signaIIed lo lhem
vhen lhey vere icked a ma|or in coIIege--and lo lheir slabiIily-minded arenls--somelhing Iike
'lhe high-lech economy viII aIvays need comuler suorl seciaIisls'.
13
Yes, bul nol any ar-
licuIar comuler suorl seciaIisl, and nol al a very high vage.
Tye A consisls of 'rorielary skiIIs', vhich Slevarl dehned as 'lhe comany-secihc laIenls
around vhich an organizalion buiIds a business'.
14
The knovIedge manager musl nurlure and
cuIlivale onIy lhe skiIIs lhal direclIy conlribule lo lhe hrm's roriely knovIedge, and slam oul
(or radicaIIy cheaen) lhe hrsl kind of knovIedge vorker, vhose skiIIs are inlerchangeabIe com-
modilies. nIy lhe slar roducers--lhose vho creale rorielary knovIedge--enabIe lhe hrm lo
seek renls, and onIy lhey are lo be relained, suorled, cuIlivaled, and IavishIy aid.
f arlicuIar inleresl is Tye , lhe Iarge grou caughl in lhe middIe, lhose vilh 'Ieveraged skiIIs'.
Iarl of lhis grou is nol generaIIy associaled vilh four-year coIIege degrees: il incIudes 'skiIIed
faclory vorkers, exerienced secrelaries', or back-ofhce bookkeeers. The Ialler, for examIe,
have accounling skiIIs as veII as Ienly of informaI knovIedge aboul hov lhe arlicuIar com-
any vorks. They have exerience-based cuIluraI knovIedge lhal cannol be easiIy codihed and
lransferred, and lhal heIs lhem hgure oul vhal anomaIous hgures mean since lhey've seen lhem
before, or vhich roules of ro|ecl arovaI are sIov and vhich are fasl. Such knovIedge direclIy
imroves efhciency and rohls in various vays. Tough Iuck: lhey may be lrained, inleIIigenl,
vaIuabIe and even necessary bul lhey are nol erceived lo conlribule direclIy lo lhe hrm's main
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sources of rohl. Thus a good knovIedge manager shouId lry lo codify some of lheir informaI
knovIedge, disregard lhe resl as irreIevanl, and oulsource as many of lhese vorkers as ossibIe.
The olher arl of lhis middIe grou consisls of coIIege graduales vho roduce much added vaIue
vilh high-end skiIIs. They are eoIe vilh exensiveIy acquired, difhcuIl knovIedge, Iike code
vriling in a arlicuIar comuler Ianguage, bul vho nonelheIess are simiIar lo lheir counlerarls
in olher comanies. KM viII lreal lhese vorkers as il lreals lheir non-coIIege coIIeagues: lhey
musl be lransformed inlo dislinclive seciaIisls vho direclIy conlribule lo lhe hrm's rorielary
knovIedge, or lhey musl be hred and lheir funclions oulsourced lo a comany lhal seciaIises
in such skiIIs. These emIoyees foIIoved lhe osl-var coIIege alh lo success: lhey hnished
schooI, did veII, are reIiabIe, hard-vorking, adalive, and inleIIigenl, bul are loo simiIar lo lheir
counlerarls from olher universilies lo add unique vaIue. They are 'exceIIenl' bul lhey are nol
'unique': lhey are roduclive, bul nol rorielary. KM insisled lhal good coIIege grads are no
differenl from olher roduclion vorkers: lhere is nolhing vrong vilh lhem, exaclIy, bul lhey do
nol conlribule lhe onIy lhing lhal counled in lhe knovIedge economy--unique comaralive ad-
vanlage lhrough rorielary innovalions. KM codihed lhe ma|or deveIomenl in alliludes aboul
vhile-coIIar Iabour in lhe 199Os, vhich vas lhal, for lhe mosl arl, lhey vere as inlerchangeabIe
and disosabIe as lheir bIue-coIIar brelhren before lhem.
nce KM had sIolled knovIedge vorkers according lo lheir reIevance lo lhe hrm's rorielary
goods, ils olher ma|or goaI foIIoved ralher easiIy. Thal goaI vas lo converl human lo slrucluraI
cailaI. Mosl exerls offered lhe knovIedge manager lhe kind of advice lhal Slevarl did: recog-
nise lhem and lheir imorlance. Give lhem lhe resources lhey need.
15
ul don'l gel ermissive
and go loo far. 'Iund lhem loo much, and you'II slarl lo vanl deIiverabIes. You von'l gel vhal
you vanl. You'II gel vhal lhe communily vanls lo deIiver'.
16
Too much indeendence for knovI-
edge vorkers vouId become a lhreal lo lhe rocess by vhich knovIedge vas ul lo roduclive
use. Tovard lhe end of lhe 199Os, as eIile knovIedge vorkers became scarce or mobiIe enough lo
slrike good deaIs for lhemseIves, lhey caused aII sorls of cororale comIaining aboul lhe am-
ering of coders vho acled Iike leenagers and lhe rise of a brally cIass of 'goId-coIIar vorkers'.
17

Granling any bargaining over lo knovIedge vorkers--lo say nolhing of seIf-managemenl--in-
lerfered vilh lhe lask of maximising lheir knovIedge's vaIue lo lhe hrm.
nIy salished knovIedge vorkers couId salisfy lhe hrm's need for rorielary knovIedge lhal
vouId aIIov renl-Iike rohls, and yel seIf-managemenl, lhe cenlraI source of knovIedge vorkers
salisfaclion --as for aII vorkers--couId nol be ermilled in any generaI vay. SeIf-managed vork-
ers osed ermanenl IoyaIly robIems, lhey needed knovIedge managers as much or even more
lhan, in lhis viev, induslriaI vorkers had needed TayIorisalion. Managemenl in lhe knovIedge
economy consisled of searaling emIoyees vilh rorielary knovIedge from lhe vasl ma|orily
of knovIedge vorkers, and lhen minimising lhis Ialler grou's indeendence and sociaI rolec-
lions as lhoroughIy as had haened lo induslriaI vorkers in an earIier age.
A T H R E E - T I E R E D U N I V E R 5 I T Y
MeanvhiIe, lhe I.S. universily vas foIIoving an uncanniIy simiIar alh. IacuIly members are
knovIedge vorkers ar exceIIence, nearIy aII facuIly members in 4-year universilies have doc-
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loraI degrees, and mosl conducl some IeveI of research. NonelheIess, over lhe asl lhirly years,
lhe share of inslruclors Iacking fuII-lime and1or ermanenl conlracls has doubIed. The I.S. sys-
lem nov oerales vilh a leaching slaff lhal is 7O/ lemorary.
18
Lven in lhe besl-funded science
and lechnoIogy heIds, 'lhe share of fuII-lime facuIly decIined from 87/ in lhe earIy 197Os lo 75/
in 2OO3.'
19
These non-lenurabIe facuIly members have no say in universily governance and IillIe
inul if any inlo lheir ovn dearlmenls. They are on shorl-lerm conlracls--from 1 semesler lo 5
years--and are dislinclIy second-cIass in reIalion lo lhe lenure-lrack facuIly, in mosl cases lhey can
be hred during limes of hnanciaI slress.
The mosl imorlanl lrend in lhe Iasl lhirly years has been lhe groving inequaIily belveen rivale
and ubIic universilies. The veaIlh ga lhem is lhe besl knovn of lhese differences: one of my
budgel coIIeagues caIcuIaled lhal Harvard vas sending $6O,OOO er undergraduale al a lime,
around 2OO5, vhen lhe Iniversily of CaIifornia vas sending aboul one lenlh lhal amounl on
ils undergraduales. lher gas have grovn as veII--gradualion rales, sludenl-facuIly ralios, ac-
celance rales, and facuIly saIaries.
2O
Il is fair lo say lhal lhe Iniled Slales nov has a lhree-seed
syslem of higher educalion. Al lhe lo is lhe Ivy League IIus, vhich educales lhe lo 1/ of lhe
18 miIIion eoIe currenlIy enroIIed in some kind of higher educalion inslilulion in lhe I.S. Lu-
roeans viII have heard of aII of lhese universilies, from Harvard and Slanford lo Duke, M.I.T.,
and CaI Tech, and lhey dominale vorId rankings as veII. There are around 2O of lhese universi-
lies. Nexl comes a grou of aboul 15O coIIeges and universilies lhal are 'seIeclive' and have good
reulalions oulside of lheir IocaI area. This incIudes ubIic research universilies Iike Wisconsin,
Michigan, Norlh CaroIina, Texas, IIorida, and many olhers.
This Ieaves over 3,5OO inslilulions of higher Iearning lhal admil more or Iess everyone vho a-
Iies, are oflen focused on regionaI needs and vocalionaI lraining, and lhal musl make do vilh
far fever resources lhan is lhe case vilh lhe uer lvo liers. These lhird lier inslilulions are oflen
'communily coIIeges'. Whalever good lhings haen for lhese sludenls in lheir cIassrooms--and
lhere is no reason lo assume lhal Iearning and academic benehls are inferior al lhese Iaces--lhese
schooIs confer mass degrees lhal offer lheir ossessor no seciaI advanlage in lhe |ob markel.
Though lheir graduales have acquired meaningfuI cognilive skiIIs and some focused credenliaIs,
lhey have oblained no sociaI advanlage. These inslilulions are aboul basic emIoyabiIily, bul nol
aboul sociaI mobiIily. They are increasingIy seen as lhe onIy deslinalion for knovIedge lraining
lhal lhe sociely's Ieaders are viIIing lo ay for.
21
They are lhe lraining grounds of lhe lrue 'cogni-
larial', knovIedge vorkers and rareIy knovIedge managers, and in facl heaviIy managed slarl-
ing vilh curricuIa orienled lovards immediale |ob skiIIs from lheir hrsl year in coIIege.
SimiIar liers have Iong been arl of Luroean higher educalion, and modernisalion is onIy mak-
ing lhem vorse. Irance aIready had a lvo-seed syslem of universilies and grandes coIes, lhe
recenl IegisIalion assed by lhe Sarkozy adminislralion--Ia Ioi reIalive aux Iiberls el reson-
sabiIils des universils (LRI, assed in Augusl 2OO7)--uses lhe concel of universily aulonomy
lo increase an inequaIily of funding lhal viII Iead lo a inlensihed liering of camuses vilhin lhe
nalionaI universily syslem.
22
The German 'LIile 1O' comelilion is anolher examIe, and vas a
resonse lo lhe increased rominence of inlernalionaI rankings of universilies--generaIIy from
incommensurale nalionaI educalionaI lradilions and vilh diverging sociaI missions--in lhe cre-
alion of educalionaI oIicy. Tiering bIocks a direcl resonse lo lhe reaI robIem of lhese universily
c||islC|e| (ev|e|U l|e sl|UclU|e a(U si|e(ce C| cCQ(ila|ial !L
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syslems, vhich is lheir gross underfunding--Irance and Germany send aboul one eighlh er
sludenl of vhal lhose eIile American universilies send lhal aear al lhe lo of inlernalionaI
rankings.
23
The slark and groving inequaIily vilhin universilies and vilhin lhe 'crealive cIass' of knovIedge
vorkers acluaIIy isn'l good for knovIedge. ne simIe indicalor is lhe Iack of grovlh in Ameri-
can scienlihc ubIicalions from lhe mid-199Os on,
24
and lhis slagnalion has nol onIy roduced
a series of high-IeveI reorls sounding lhe aIarm,
25
bul has recenlIy been lraced secihcaIIy lo
decIining funding for ubIic universilies.
26
An obvious resonse vouId be lo reverse lhe decIine
of higher educalion funding as a share of ersonaI income on lhe lradilionaI cailaIisl economic
grounds lhal il is a good inveslmenl in fulure roserily. This argumenl cerlainIy circuIales in lhe
Iniled Slales. ul il is nol revaiIing. Why isn'l il, even as lhe educalionaI damage done lhrough
slralihcalion becomes more obvious`
C O G N I T I V E C A P I T A L I 5 M A 5 O P E N I N N O V A T I O N
ne reason, once again, is lhal lhe rich and famous Iike aying Iover ralher lhan higher laxes. ul
lhere is a slrucluraI reason lhal is buiIl inlo knovIedge induslries lhemseIves. These nov have
an innovalion slralegy lhal re|ecls lhe manageriaI cadres and vhile-coIIar armies of lhe induslriaI
age. They have a slralegy lhal lhey beIieve benehls lheir ovn innovalion vilhoul requiring ma|or
'sunk cosls' in a hxed knovIedge infraslruclure. This innovalion slralegy deends on Ieveraging
ralher lhan invesling, and on a disrulive ralher lhan a curaloriaI reIalion lo one's ovn vorkforce.
The currenl silualion of lhe high-lech universily-induslry recirocily can be summarised via lhe
inuenliaI aradigm knovn as 'oen innovalion'.
27
Il is caIIed oen because il lries lo resond lo
lhe genuine insighl in lhe lheory of lhe knovIedge vorker, vhich is lhal knovIedge is common
ralher lhan scare, videIy ralher lhan narrovIy dislribuled in lhe ouIalion, and mobiIe in vays
lhal even lhe mosl overfuI cororalions cannol conlroI. As Henry Chesbrough, lhe business
schoIar mosl associaled vilh lhe concel, has ul il, lechnoIogy-driven businesses musl Iearn lo
oerale a 'Iandscae of abundanl knovIedge'.
28
The Iead inleIIecluaI roerly slralegisl hrsl for
IM and lhen for Microsofl, MarshaII IheIs, has cIaimed, 'Whereas some 8O/ of ma|or innova-
lions during lhe 197Os had come from inside a singIe comany's ovn R&D Iabs, by lhe davn of
lhe lvenly-hrsl cenlury, sludies nov shoved, more lhan lvo-lhirds of ma|or nev innovalions
invoIved some sorl of inlerorganizalionaI coIIaboralion--eilher belveen rivale hrms, or belveen
hrms and federaI Iaboralories or research universilies.'
29
'en' innovalion syslems accel high
Iabour mobiIily and vaIue coIIaboralions oulside lheir inslilulionaI boundaries, arlicuIarIy vilh
universilies. en innovalion lheory lends lo undersland lhal vaIue is crealed by individuaI in-
leIIecluaI Iabour vilhin comIex sociaI nelvorks, and uls coIIaboralion across boundaries al lhe
hearl of lhe knovIedge economy.
And yel lhe urose of oen innovalion slralegy is lo absorb lhe vaIue crealed by sociaI coIIabo-
ralion inlo lhe hrm. Microsofl's IheIs noles lhal oen innovalion resls on inleIIecluaI roerly
(II) (as did 'cIosed' innovalion). The difference is lhal 'inleIIecluaI roerly couId no Ionger be
vieved soIeIy as a negalive righl' lo bIock someone eIse's use of your II or lo exlracl a lax on
lhal use in lhe form of Iicensing fees. 'Irom nov on, II's grealesl vaIue vouId Iie nol so much in
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being a veaon againsl comelilors, bul ralher in serving as a bridge lo coIIaboralion vilh olher
hrms lhal vouId enabIe comanies lo acquire lhe lechnoIogies and comelencies lhey needed lo
comele successfuIIy'. The Iead hrm, such as Microsofl, vouId creale nelvorks of smaIIer hrms,
subconlraclors, and cIienls vhose ovn roducls vouId deend on Microsofl's lhrough a syslem
of cross-Iicenses lhal vouId bind lhe vhoIe logelher as one Iarge 'ecoIogy' vilh Microsofl as ils
conslilulive IegaI and lechnoIogicaI sicn!cr!.

IheIs and olher oen innovalion gurus had hgured oul lhal lrue markel dominance didn'l come
from oen varfare for conlroI vaged againsl comelilors, since lhis meanl lhal you aIienaled
cuslomers and aIIies, soured your ubIic image, Iosl lhe chance lo access olher eoIe's inven-
lions, and Iosl big chunks of reaI eslale. n lhe olher hand, if you couId convince your olenliaI
comelilors lo give you access lo lheir invenlions in exchange for somelhing of yours, you couId
inuence--if nol direclIy conlroI--a much Iarge business ecosyslem lhan before. Moving from sov-
ereignly lo governance in IoucauIl's sense, oen innovalion comanies Iike Microsofl used oen
nol lo undermine lheir monooIies bul lo exlend lhem, reciseIy by making lhem more exibIe.
en innovalion gave smaII comanies lhe chance lo access eslabIished markels by arlicialing
in lhe Microsofl brand, as veII as acquire some II and hnanciaI suorl. Ior lhe bigs, oen meanl
lloman-Iike exansion of a oIygIol emire lhal nonelheIess had lheir code vrillen inlo aII of
ils oeralions.
3O
The mosl successfuI knovIedge cororalions, lhen, are lhose vho are besl al using olher eoIe's
money cn! olher eoIe's invenlions. The name of lhe game is |ctcrcgc. InleI, for examIe, lhe
vorId's dominanl manufaclurer of comuler rocessors, aroaches an exisling Iab, aIready fuI-
Iy funded and slaffed vilh a combinalion of federaI granls and universily conlribulions, suggesls
loics and ersonneI, funds a ro|ecl for far Iess lhan vhal il vouId cosl lhem lo do il (informaI
eslimales among lechnoIogy lransfer ersonneI suggesl lhal a comany Iike InleI ays lhe uni-
versily Iab belveen 5/ and 1O/ of vhal il vouId cosl for InleI lo conducl lhe research inlernaIIy).
This is of course money lhe universily vouId nol olhervise have, and il is somelimes accoma-
nied vilh slale-of-lhe-arl equimenl and exceIIenl scienlihc inul from InleI slaff. Ior ils son-
sorshi, InleI gels access lo research resuIls, oflen excIusiveIy for a sel eriod, and hrsl ick of
invenlions lhal may lurn inlo usefuI inleIIecluaI roerly. Iniversilies do nol generaIIy discIose
hnanciaI lerms--lhey are nol favourabIe lo lhe universily
31
--bul lhey do ubIicise lhe aIIiance vilh
a resligious hrm Iike InleI and lrumel inlerim research resuIls. The slralegy vorks for InleI be-
cause il can absorb olher eoIe's invenlions, lurning lhem inlo ils ovn II al a discounled cosl.
32
en innovalion has a cIear imIicalion for knovIedge vorkers. They are nol more vaIuabIe lo a
comany |usl because lhey vork for lhal comany. InleI mighl hnd a graduale grou al a univer-
sily lhal does somelhing lhal is reIevanl lo a roducl deveIomenl ro|ecl and reIace lheir ovn
grou lhal vas doing lhal vork before. Since rohlabIe knovIedge can come from anyvhere al
any lime, managemenl has no incenlive lo be IoyaI lo ils brainvorkers as oosed lo lhe brain-
vorkers al a slarl-u or governmenl Iab or comelilor vho have |usl done somelhing inleresling.
Any individuaI or grou of emIoyees, even if lheir vork is exceIIenl, viII be evaIualed in some
version of KM lerms: can lhey be aulomaled, oulsourced vilh cheaer vorkers, or lurned inlo
sources of rorielary knovIedge` nIy lhe Ialler grou viII be suorled and rolecled, lhe resl
viII oflen be relained, bul vilh lhe kind of second-lier ay, resources, and vorking condilions
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lhal have become normaI in lhe universily vorId. en innovalion IogicaIIy lries lo kee lhe vasl
ma|orily of ils knovIedge vorkers as Iiquid as ossibIe. This means relaining lhe absoIule IoyaIly
onIy of lhal minorily of emIoyees vho roduce rorielary knovIedge vhiIe minimising com-
milmenls lo lhe resl.
M A N A G E M E N T T H R O U G H I N E Q U A L I T Y
Like olher lheorisls of cognilive cailaIism, Gorz anliciales lhe rise of oIilicaI lensions be-
lveen knovIedge vorkers and knovIedge managers. Gorz vriles, 'Le conil qui se dveIoe
el s'exacerbe enlre Ie cailaI immalriaI des hrmes el Ies acleurs de celle rsislance esl, bien des
gards, une Iulle des cIasses dIace sur un nouveau lerrain: ceIui du conlrIe du domaine ub-
Iic, de Ia cuIlure commune el des biens coIIeclifs'.
33
The conicl is reaI, bul resislance is veak. Here I'm going lo drav on my Iong exerience as a
knovIedge vorker in a Iarge universily syslem, lhe Iniversily of CaIifornia, vhich is bolh a re-
mier roducer of research knovIedge and a Iarge cororale enlily vilh a muIlidivisionaI bureau-
cralic slruclure. Large American research universilies aIIocale very differenl IeveIs of resources
lo differenl lyes of educalion. IrofessionaI schooIs receive aboul lhree limes more funding er
sludenl lhan do undergraduales. MedicaI sludenls on average receive 1O limes more funding.
34
Differenl undergraduale heIds receive unequaI resources as veII: in one case sludy, engineering
received over 5 limes lhe resources er sludenl as lhe sociaI sciences.
35
As I've menlioned, lhere
are aIso massive differences belveen ubIic and rivale universilies. I.S. higher educalion is
radicaIIy unequaI, and gelling more so.
These hnanciaI differences are usuaIIy conceaIed by rheloric of common rofessionaI slalus, and
by a Iack of recision regarding one anolher's saIaries and vorking condilions. 2OO9 has been
differenl, as massive budgel culs Ied lo ay reduclions and lhen differenliaI lrealmenl of a kind
lhal is normaIIy conceaIed. Here is one recenl examIe. IacuIly members lhroughoul lhe Iniver-
sily of CaIifornia syslem vere given 'furIoughs', meaning lheir 8/ or so ay reduclions vouId
be accomanied by lhe abiIily lo vork 8/ Iess. Many facuIly members decided lhal lhey vouId
lake many of lheir furIough days during inslruclion: lhey vouId canceI cIasses. Some vere doing
lhis so lhal lhe furIoughs vouId be divided belveen leaching and research. lhers did lhis in
order lo 'make lhe budgel culs visibIe' lo lhe ubIic, so lhey couId see lhal lhe culling of lhe slale
budgel vas hurling higher educalion. Mosl of lhese rolesling facuIly vere in lhe humanilies
and sociaI sciences, vhere lhey leach more courses lhan do facuIly members in lechnicaI heIds.
The facuIly's formaI reresenlalive body, lhe Academic Senale, unanimousIy agreed lhal some
furIough days couId be used for inslruclion. In Iale Augusl 2OO9, lhe head academic ofhcer for aII
of lhe IC camuses decIared lhal no furIough days vouId be laken during inslruclion, inlerven-
ing in an unrecedenled vay in facuIly aIIocalion of inslruclion. Al lhe same lime, he deveIoed
a mechanism vhereby facuIly vilh exlramuraI granls--moslIy in lhe sciences and engineering
heIds--couId reIace lheir Iosl saIary vilh granl funds (if lhe granlee so aIIoved).
36

In a singIe sequence of adminislralive aclions, universily ofhciaIs had overridden lhe facuIly's
hisloric aulonomy over ils leaching, and lhen differenlialed belveen facuIly vilh and vilhoul
exlramuraI granls, aIIoving lhe former bul nol lhe Ialler lo avoid lhe ay cul. This is lhe sequence
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lhal knovIedge managemenl roulineIy invoIves: hrsl lhe deniaI of lhe knovIedge vorkers au-
lonomy vilhin lhe organisalion, and lhen a slralihcalion of differenl cIasses of knovIedge vork-
ers deending on vhelher lhey are seen lo be immedialeIy resonsibIe for lhe organisalion's cash
ov. The IC Iresidenl caIIs lhe exlramuraI granl eoIe 'enlrereneurs', and has said on various
occasions lhal lhese are lhe eoIe you vanl lo make sure you kee. The IoyaIisls vho do lhe
organisalion's daiIy vork are given second biIIing. Their ovn 'enlrereneuriaI' aclivilies, such
as invenling and designing courses, crealing ideas for sludenls lhal lhey give avay, in shorl, lhe
vaIue lhey creale by invenlive |c|cur, are enlireIy overIooked.
B L O C K E D P 5 Y C H O L O G Y O F T H E T H R E E E 5 T A T E 5
These hierarchies vilhin communilies of knovIedge vorkers induce anger, vilhdravaI, and a-
raIysis. The vinners may veII recognise lhe issues, bul are reIuclanl lo |eoardise lheir ovn ad-
vanlages and feeI lhal lhey can do IillIe aboul lhe overaII syslem. CerlainIy no eIeclricaI engineer
al IC San Diego feeIs abIe lo have an imacl on a decision made al headquarlers in akIand by
eoIe vilh vhom he has no reIalionshi. Those lhal benehl from lhe syslem lend lo lry lo ignore
il, and excelions are rare.
The Iosers reacl vilh a combinalion of anger and hesilalion. In lhe IC case, disarray and frag-
menled slralegies reIaced lhe Iarge-scaIe vaIkouls lhal had al hrsl been imagined. The source
of lhe anger is obvious--lhe sense of un|usl subordinalion, of Iabour and vaIue-crealion lhal is
ignored and even reudialed by lhe organisalion. The hesilalion comes from a sense of fuliIily
mixed vilh anxiely lhal aclion from one's osilion of overIess viII Iead onIy lo furlher ov-
erIessness and in|ury. Since lhe bonds of lhe organisalion are, in a knovIedge economy, unques-
lioning, and since lhe dominanl vaIue is lhe relurn lhal can be measured hnanciaIIy, lhe Iosing
knovIedge vorker cannol reIy on a slabIe reIalionshi vilh senior managemenl. This is lrue even
of facuIly vilh lenure--lhough lheir sueriors cannol vilhoul enormous efforl lake avay lheir
|obs, lheir sueriors have aIready laken avay lheir slabIe, honoured, unqueslioned, visibIe Iace.
ne common reaclion is vounded narcissism, vhich Chrisloher Lasch Iong ago idenlihed as
a common henomenon in bureaucracies, vhere one feeIs lhal 'rofessionaI advancemenl had
come lo deend Iess on craflsmanshi or IoyaIly lo lhe hrm lhan on visibiIily, momenlum,
ersonaI charm, and imression managemenl.'
37
AIlhough knovIedge vorkers are suosedIy
characlerised by lheir indeendence, lhis is lhe one fealure lhal a concern for lheir image re-
venls. Having IargeIy given u on equaIising lheir slalus by forcing meaningfuI organisalionaI
change, lhey moslIy focus on mainlaining favourabIe individuaI reIalionshis vilh sueriors,
vhich requires a generaI accelance of lheir deendenl Iace, Ieading lo furlher resenlmenl, de-
endence, and araIysis.
There is indeed a conicl belveen lhe modes in vhich knovIedge is roduced and ovned vilhin
cognilive cailaIism. ul lhis does nol lransIale inlo a oIilicaI conicl of lhe kind Gorz caIIs cIass
var. AnaIysls oflen suggesl lhal lvo generaI henomenon can undermine a roduclive conlra-
diclion Iike lhal of cognilive cailaIism. The hrsl is immiscrciicn, in vhich bad condilions force a
revoIl. The second is incjcicncq, in vhich eIiles lire of vasling money conlroIIing eoIe and nol
gelling lhal Iasl 2O/ oul of knovIedge vorkers made suIIen by mediocre lrealmenl. Neilher of
lhese funclion in lhe case of knovIedge economies, vhere lhe knovIedge vorker masses are sliII
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middIe cIass on a vorId scaIe, and vhere a sense of rofessionaI duly roduces good enough ef-
hciency in nearIy aII cases (and lhreals of Iayoffs and cIosure vhere il does nol).
If ve use a harsher Ianguage lhan is ever loIeraled in I.S. discussions, ve can see vilhin lhe ush
and lhe bama Adminislralions lhe shadov of lhe ancienl regime, signs of a sun king relurn of
lhe Three Lslales.
38
Iirsl Lslale: inlernalionaI-IeveI oIilicaI and cororale execulives en|oy a very
Iimiled accounlabiIily lo lhe nalionaI ouIalion al Iarge. This over resls IargeIy on concenlra-
lions of veaIlh lhal have bolh inlensihed over lhe asl severaI decades, and exanded beyond
a liny grou of moguIs and greal famiIies lo incIude lraders, bankers, and execulives vho make
lens or even hundreds of miIIions of doIIars er year. Ils Iover reaches begin vilh lhe lo O.1/ of
I.S. earners, vilh incomes above $1,6OO,OOO in 2OO7, is beller reresenled by 'lhe aImosl 15,OOO
famiIies vilh incomes of $9.5 miIIion or more a year',
39
and is skeved lovard gIobaI cororalions
and lhe hnanciaI seclor.
4O
Ils coIIeges are IargeIy 'Ivy League IIus'--Harvard, YaIe el aI Ius Slan-
ford, MIT, erhas Duke, and a |usl a fev olhers, aII rivale. Second Lslale: lhis is lhe enabIing
high-lech cIergy, and il rovides lhe highIy deveIoed IegaI, manageriaI, and hnanciaI skiIIs lhal
enabIe successfuI business and inveslmenl in highIy rohlabIe, IargeIy oIigarchic seclors such
as informalion lechnoIogy, communicalions, banking, harmaceulicaIs, and olhers. MedicaI and
engineering knovIedge are aIso imorlanl, lhough more indireclIy. Their incomes Iace lhem in
lhe lo 1/ (slarling al $35O,OOO a year in 2OO7).
41
They seak lechnicaI Ianguages of Iav, manage-
menl, and hnance lhal are IargeIy indeciherabIe even lo highIy educaled non-seciaIisls, and
mainlain an invisibIe emire of ovnershi slruclures and Iucralive lransaclions vhose exislence
makes ilseIf knovn onIy lhrough occasionaI disaslers Iike lhe 2OO8 hnanciaI meIldovn. Third
Lslale: lhe nev Third Lslale is characlerised by lhe increasing insecurily and oIilicaI heIIess-
ness of lhe lo as veII as lhe bollom of lhe resl of lhe ouIalion.
42
NearIy 8O/ of I.S. sociely has
nol had a raise in inalion-ad|usled doIIars since lhe 197Os, and lheir share of bolh nel vorlh and
hnanciaI veaIlh in lhe I.S. has sleadiIy decIined.
43
The 19/ lhal foIIovs lhe lo 1/ has done lhe
besl in lhis grou, bul il loo has IargeIy seen ils slabIe ension Ians converled inlo muluaI funds
lhal Iosl a quarler of lheir vaIue in lhe faII of 2OO8, has seen ils heaIlh care cosls mushroom, and
has seen ils ranks lhinned lhrough vaves of mass Iayoffs over lhe asl lvenly years.
44
Ils chiIdren
are laking on increasing debl lo go lo coIIege in order lo oblain an increasingIy shaky cIaim on
slabiIily and afuence.
45
This eslale incIudes bIue-coIIar vorkers in conslruclion, agricuIlure, and
hosilaIily, bul aIso lhe vasl ma|orily of brainvorkers vhose |obs require coIIege degrees, ad-
dilionaI seciaIised knovIedge, and comIicaled exerienliaI 'knov-hov'--nurses, sociaI vork-
ers, accounlanls, urban Ianners, archilecls, and coIIege rofessors vilh doclorales in anlhrooI-
ogy or lhe hislory of arl. Though lhe lo of lhis eslale en|oys vaslIy beller Iife chances lhan lhe
bollom--I do nol al aII vanl lo minimise lhe difference belveen Iife al lhe 1O/ income IeveI and
Iife al lhe 9O/--vorking condilions for aII of lhis ma|orily grou are Iess secure lhan lhey vere
lvenly years ago, ils roduclivily is Iess arecialed, and ils ovn condilion signihcanlIy Iess u-
vardIy mobiIe.
46
In knovIedge comanies and universilies aIike, a groving ma|orily is unIikeIy
lo en|oy securily, reguIar vage increases, or resecl for ils Iabour and oulul. Il Iacks lhe hnanciaI
indeendence--even lhe basic sense lhal if hred lhere viII be anolher |ob.
The anaIogy vilh Irance's re-revoIulionary eslales is obviousIy inexacl, bul ils lye of sociaI
slralihcalion is bolh inlensifying and hardening in mosl veaIlhy nalions. Il reresenls a near
lolaI defeal of goIden-age visions of ma|orilarian ruIe, mass roserily, generaI equaIily, and lhe
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cuIluraI rogress made ossibIe by lhe reduclion of scarcily. Scarcily is back, for aII bul lhal lo
1/ vhose accumuIalion of Iunalic, ullerIy unsendabIe amounls of ersonaI veaIlh are lhem-
seIves a lribule lo lhe fear of lhe fear of scarcily--of Iife as il is Iived by even lhe besl educaled IillIe
eoIe in lhe increasingIy defenseIess vorId lhal lhese eIiles have heIed creale. Whal arbara
Lhrenreich caIIed lhe middIe cIass's 'fear of faIIing' nov dehnes lhe Iife of lhe vasl ma|orily of
knovIedge vorkers. KnovIedge managemenl is lhere lo drav a Iine around lhem, and belveen
lhe second and lhird eslales--belveen lhe rorielary knovIedge crealors, vho en|oy lhe rem-
nanls of goIden-age securily, and lhose vho are mereIy very veII educaled, highIy lrained, very
overvorked, and vho do exceIIenl Iabour vhose effecls cannol be calured by lhe hrm bul lhal
siII over lo Iess visibIe members of sociely, Iike sludenls, or lo sociely al Iarge.
I see a lvo-lrack slralegy lo deaI vilh aII lhis. The hrsl is lhe exosure of lhe Ieveraging, lhe free-
riding, and lhe hidden subsidies lhrough vhich lhe Third Lslale and ils inslilulions suorl lhe
olher lvo--by vhich ubic universilies suorl rivale induslry, lo lheir increasingIy delrimenl.
The second is lo re-imagine and arlicuIale lhe broad sociaI and cuIluraI missions lhal viII ov
from lhe olher nine-lenlhs of knovIedge vorkers, lhe non-lechnicaI brainvorkers (in lhe lradi-
lionaI sense) vhose ideas aboul diversily, equaIily, |uslice, lechnoIogy for use, suslainabIe deveI-
omenl, and so many olher issues can lransform lhe vorId. The universily is lhe obvious Iace
for lhis re-arlicuIalion lo begin, and il needs lo assume a osl-Kanlian arily of lhe facuIlies lhal
viII aIIov aII lhe knovIedge Iosl via lhe subordinalion of non-rorielary knovIedge vorkers lo
make ilseIf feIl again.
NOTE5
* This is an exlended LngIish version of
an arlicIe lhal aeared in Mu|iiiu!cs 39
(2OO9).
1
Ior an exlended discussion of lhe cuIlure
vars and budgel vars on lhe American
universily, see NevheId, Unmc|ing, ese-
ciaIIy arls 1 and 2.
2
Ior lhe hislory of lhis nov-mainslream
cororale slralegy, see IchileIIe, 1nc !ispcs-
c||c.
3
Ior discussion of lhese issues as lhey
bear on budgel anaIyses of lhe crisis of lhe
counlry's Ieading ubIic universily syslem,
lhe Iniversily of CaIifornia, see my Nev-
heId, Regenls, NevheId, Noles. See aIso
lhe slalemenl made by }ane WeIIman, Lx-
eculive Direclor of lhe DeIla Cosl Iro|ecl in
CongressionaI leslimony, CoIIege, O2:OO
4
See Negri and VerceIIone, Le raorl, 41.
An earIier examIe: 'La vaIeur d'change
de Ia connaissance esl donc enliremenl
Iie Ia caacil ralique de Iimiler sa
diffusion Iibre, c'esl--dire de Iimiler avec
des moyens |uridiques (brevels, droils
d'auleur, Iicences conlrals) ou monoo-
Iisles, Ia ossibiIil de coier, d'imiler,
de 'rinvenler,' d'arendre des connais-
c||islC|e| (ev|e|U l|e sl|UclU|e a(U si|e(ce C| cCQ(ila|ial zz
ISSN 2O78-3884
8
See for examIe, 1ccnCrucn Icqcjj 1rcc|cr,
hll:11vvv.lechcrunch.com1Iayoffs1.
9
Mann and Nunes, Afler.
1O
ureau of Labor Slalislics, Charl book.
11
NalionaI Cenler for Lducalion Slalislics,
Digesl, TabIe 186.
12
Slevarl, |nic||cciuc| ccpiic|, 91.
13
Ior a cIear inverse correIalion belveen
lhe size of lhe informalion lechnoIogy oc-
cualion and ils vages (lhe bigger lhe heId
lhe Iover lhe vage), see I.S. ureau of
Labor Slalislics, Charl, Iigure 1.
14
Slevarl, |nic||cciuc| ccpiic|, 89.
15
Slevarl, |nic||cciuc| ccpiic|, 98-99.
16
VaIdis Krebs, ciled in Slevarl, |nic||cciuc|
ccpiic|, 1OO.
17
Munk, The nev, 62-66, 68, 72, 74.
18
Ior examIe, see lhe summary labIe for
an clober 2OO7 reorl by lhe American
Associalion of Iniversily Irofessors.
19
NalionaI Science Ioundalion, Scicncc,
Chaler 5.
2O
Ior a brief summary see Van der Werf,
Rankings, A 13. See aIso ianco, The dan-
gerous.
21
See CoIIege oard, Winning.
22
See CharIe and SouIi, Ics rctccs, ese-
ciaIIy lhe chalers by Lorenz and Neyral.
See aIso Collel, Zubiri-Rey and SauveI,
L'mergence, 56-65.
sances des aulres'. RuIIani, Le cailaIisme,
87-94.
5
'L'imression qui se dgage de loul ceIa,
c'esl que dans el sous Ie cailaIisme une
conomie diffrenle se forme qui esl force
ar des arlihces fonclionner comme Ia
conlinualion du cailaIisme, sans que
ses Iois de fonclionnemenl rores soienl
Iucides ni comalibIes avec ceIIes du
cailaIisme. Si, comme vous Ie suggrez
arfois, Ie cailaIisme cognilif esl Ia soIu-
lion que cherche Ie cailaIisme induslrieI
sa crise de suraccumuIalion, celle soIu-
lion me sembIe crer Ius de robImes
qu'eIIe n'en rsoul, loul en Ies masquanl
lemorairemenl. Lnvisager Ies choses sous
I'angIe de Ia rguIalion nous dlourne,
mon avis, du robIme de fond, qui esl
I'incomalibiIil enlre I'conomie cai-
laIisle el I'conomie de Ia connaissance.
CeIIe-ci demande lre une conomie de
I'abondance, du arlage, de Ia mise en
commun de I'aulo-organisalion omniIal-
raIe ar concerlalion ermanenle, car c'esl
ainsi qu'eIIe esl Ia Ius fconde. Le cailaI-
isme cherche se I'incororer en rendanl
rare ce qui esl abondanl el riv ce qui esl
ubIic, renlabIe ce qui esl graluil'. Gorz,
Lconomie.
6
Drucker, Pcsi-ccpiic|isi, 8. Ior a conlexluaI
argumenl lhal siluales Drucker's vork
on lhe cororalion as oosilionaI lo lhe
Keynesianism vilh vhich GaIbrailh sym-
alhised, see GiIman, The rohel.
7
The case, originaIIy hIed in 1996, vas Viz-
caino v. Microsofl, I.S. Courl of AeaIs
for lhe Ninlh Circuil (1999),
hll:11vvv.lechIav|ournaI.com1courls1
vizcaino11999O512.hlm. Microsofl sellIed
oul of courl vilh a aymenl of $96 miIIion
lo lhe ermalem Iainliffs.
z U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
23
CaIcuIalion based on aulhors dala and
dala from Lducalion al a gIance 2OO9:
LCD indicalors,'
hll:11vvv.oecd.org1
documenl1241O,3343,en _2649_39263238_4
3586328_1_1_1_37455,OO.hlmI~Iindings.
24
NalionaI Science Ioundalion, ululs.
25
NalionaI Academies, Rising.
26
Adams, Is lhe I.S.
27
Chesbrough, Opcn.
28
Chesbrough, Opcn, xiv.
29
IheIs and KIine, Burning.
3O
The II execulive IheIs is more forlh-
coming aboul his inlenlions lhan are mosl
of lhe oen innovalion lheorisls. Discuss-
ing 'incIusivily vaIue', he says, 'CoIIabora-
lion is nol mereIy a ubIic reIalions func-
lion. Il enabIes a comany lo more broadIy
and raidIy disseminale ils lechnoIogies
and roducls inlo lhe markel lhrough lhe
cooeralive efforls of olhers. Il rovides
lhe framevork for ursuing |oinl roducl
deveIomenl vork vilh olher comanies
lhal can Iead lo grealer success in lhe mar-
kelIace. Il can faciIilale enlry inlo nev
markels, broaden freedom of aclion vilhin
a markel.and rovide access lo needed
oulside lechnoIogies' (Ioc 586).
31
See NevheId, Unmc|ing, Chaler 12.
32
Chesbrough vriles, 'InleI's aroach
lo managing innovalion has a number of
obvious slrenglhs. Il is efhcienl, because il
Iaunches fev bIue-sky invesligalions lhal
mighl Iead lo dead ends. The aroach is
aIso efhcienl because il reinvenls fever
vheeIs, inslead buiIding on lhe research
discoveries of olhers (arlicuIarIy univer-
sily researchers) and lransferring lhose
discoveries inlo lhe comany's ovn deveI-
omenl rocess. InleI's aroach lo inno-
valion saves money as veII, because InleI
Ieverages lhe faciIilies and ersonneI of
olher inslilulions. AIlhough lhe comany
oflen ays lo fund exlernaI research ro|-
ecls, lhese granls IikeIy do nol cover lhe
fuII cosl of lhe researchers, faciIilies, and
olher overhead exenses'. Burning, 124.
33
Gorz, Iimmciric|, 7O.
34
NevheId, Noles.
35
NevheId, Unmc|ing, Chaler 13.
36
Leller osled al 'ICI on furIoughs:
We're lhe deciders!' Remaking lhe univer-
sily,
hll:11ulolherescue.bIogsol.
com12OO91O81uco-on-furIoughs-vere-
deciders.hlmI, and Iills, Memo.
37
Lasch, AflervorId, 236.
38
Ior examIes of lhis ideoIogy as il bears
on I.S. execulives, see NevheId, asliIIe.
39
IchileIIe, The richesl. IchileIIe reIies on
lhe research of Thomas Iikelly and Lm-
manueI Saez.
4O
See Iikelly and Saez, The evoIulion. ne
sludy by Iniversily of Chicago academics
Sleven KaIan and }oshua Rauh concIudes
lhal in 2OO4 lhere vere more lhan lvice as
many such WaII Slreel rofessionaIs in lhe
lo O.5/ of aII earners as lhere are execu-
lives from nonhnanciaI comanies. Mr.
Rauh said 'il's hard lo escae lhe nolion'
lhal lhe rising share of income going lo
lhe very richesl is, in arl, 'a WaII Slreel,
hnanciaI induslry-based slory'. The sludy
shovs lhal lhe highesl-earning hedge-fund
c||islC|e| (ev|e|U l|e sl|UclU|e a(U si|e(ce C| cCQ(ila|ial z/
ISSN 2O78-3884
manager earned doubIe in 2OO5 vhal lhe
lo earner made in 2OO3, and lo 25 hedge-
fund managers earned more in 2OO4 lhan
lhe chief execulives of aII lhe comanies
in lhe Slandard & Ioor's 5OO-slock index,
combined. Il aIso shovs rohls er equily
arlner al lhe lo 1OO Iav hrms doubIing
belveen 1994 and 2OO4, lo over $1 miIIion
in 2OO4 doIIars.
41
I, Income.
42
Ior lhe I.K. varianl on lhe inequaIily
boom, see }oseh Roundlree Ioundalion,
Nev.
43
Domhoff, WeaIlh, TabIe 1.
44
Ior an accessibIe overviev of lhe fale of
vorking America, see Greenhouse, 1nc |ig.
45
Ior examIe, I.S. federaI sludenl debl
increased 25/ in |usl one year, from 2OO7-
O8 lo 2OO8-O9, see Chaker, Sludenls.
46
SavhiII and Morlon, Lconomic.
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U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
HnIstIng thc knnw!cdgc bank"
nn Its nwn pctard
The WorId ank and lhe doubIe
crisis of african universilies
Gcnrgc CaIIcntzIs
SlruggIe is Iike educalion and il |usl kees going on.
(DLRRICK GWALA of lhe 'Kennedy Road Commil-
lee' quoled in Iilhouse, Our sirugg|c, 3O)
Ior 'lis lhe sorl lo have lhe enginer
Hoisl vilh his ovn elard, an'l shaII go hard
ul I viII deIve one yard beIov lheir mines
And bIov lhem al lhe moon.
(SHAKLSILARL, Hcm|ci, Acl 3, scene 4, Iines 2O6-
2O9)
I N T R O D U C T I O N
The 'doubIe crisis' lhal lhe hrsl issue of lhe |!u-jccicrq jcurnc| invesli-
gales is nol nev lo African universily sludenls and facuIly. Africans'
doubIe crisis began in lhe 198Os, vhen lhe WorId ank and olher in-
lernalionaI hnanciaI inslilulions sub|ecled mosl of lheir governmenls
lo SlrucluraI Ad|uslmenl Irograms (SAIs) lhal lore aarl every as-
ecl of lheir economic and cuIluraI Iife, Ieading lo an eochaI reslruc-
luring of lhe universilies.
The inlernalionaI hnanciaI meIldovn of 2OO8 has hardIy changed lhe
academic Iandscae lhal emerged over lhe Iasl lvo decades. Inslead,
change has come from lhe successfuI slruggIes African sludenls have
made lo gain access lo universily educalion--inlernalionaIIy romol-
ed as lhe alh lo a roserous Iife for individuaIs and economic de-
veIomenl for counlries as a vhoIe--in lhe face of oosilion from
GEORGE CAFFENTZI5
TLACHLS IN THL
IHILSIHY DLIARTL-
MLNTAL AT INIVLRSITY
I SITHLRN MAINL.
SCHLAR AND ACTIV-
IST HL IS CRDINA-
TR I THL CMMITLL
IR ACADLMIC IRLL-
DM IN AIRICA AND
MLMLR I M|DN|GH1
NO1|S COII|C1|V|.
H| WAS |D|1OR O|
M|DN|GH1 O|I. WORK,
|N|RGY, WAR, 1973-1992
(Aulonomedia, 1992) AND
A 1HOUSAND |IOW-
|RS. SOC|AI S1RUGGI|S
AGA|NS1 S1RUC1URAI
ADjUS1|M|N1 |N A|-
R|CAN UN|V|RS|1||S
(Africa WorId Iress, 2OOO).
zH U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
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zH
lhe WorId ank lhal is caIIing for a reduclion of access. These slruggIes have crealed a SlaIemale
in lhe var belveen African sludenls and agencies Iike lhe WorId ank lhal is raidIy unraveIing
and heading lovard a sociaIIy exIosive denoumenl.
This aer viII charl lhe formalion of lhe SlaIemale and lhe consequences of ils dissoIulion. Such
an anaIysis is essenliaI for lhe Ldu-faclory ro|ecl lhal inlends lo be 'a sace vhere slruggIes con-
necl, a sace of resislance and organisalionaI exerimenls', for il is imorlanl lo knov unci lhe
slruggIes are lhal are being connecled.
1
The conneclion belveen African sludenls' slruggIe and
cognilive Iabour slruggIes in Luroe and Norlh America oses many of lhe same issues concern-
ing lhe meaning of soIidarily lhal vere encounlered in revious eriods. }usl because lhe ad|ec-
live changes (from 'induslriaI' lo 'cognilive') does nol mean lhal lhe oIilicaI queslions osed by
a hierarchy of Iabour overs do nol aIy.
T H E C H R O N I C D O U B L E C R I 5 I 5 O F A F R I C A N*
U N I V E R 5 I T I E 5
We can onIy areciale lhe nalure and signihcance of lhe SlaIemale, vhen ve consider lhe WorId
ank's SAIs for Africa since lhe mid 198Os. They nol onIy deslroyed African economies and
forced governmenls lo dramalicaIIy reduce ubIic inveslmenl in educalion eseciaIIy al lhe ler-
liary IeveI, lhey aIso redehned osl-coIoniaI Africa's Iace in lhe nev InlernalionaI Division of
Labour vhich gIobaIisalion made ossibIe and required. InambiguousIy, African counlries vere
assigned lo lhe very same osilion lhey had occuied in coIoniaI eras, vhen lheir rimary func-
lion vas lo rovide bolh rav maleriaIs and Iabour for foreign inveslors and lhe inlernalionaI
markel. This means lhal lhe mass of African youlhs vere nol lo benehl from lhe deveIoing
knovIedge and informalion economy, bul lhey vouId be deslined (vilh a fev excelions) lo be-
come manuaI vorkers in il al besl.
The WorId ank's guideIines for African universily educalion syslems vere consequenlIy quile
simIe in lhe 198Os: cul, cul, cul, freeze ubIic inveslmenl in any asecl of academic Iife--from in-
fraslruclure lo vages and sludenls' aIIovances--and reduce sludenl enroImenl vhich nc! grcun
!rcmciicc||q in inc rsi iuc !ccc!cs afler indeendence.
2
ankrul African governmenls vere loId
lhal lhey vouId nol receive WorId ank Ioans unIess lhey reduced sludenls' subsidies and aIIov-
ances, ended free luilion and charged fees for universily educalion, cul or merged under-enroIIed
dearlmenls, and reduced lhe size, vages and benehls of facuIly and slaff.
3
In lurn, universily
adminislralors Iearned lhey vouId have lo hnd lheir ovn funds lo conlinue lheir inslilulions'
academic aclivilies, as lhe governmenls no Ionger vouId subsidise universily educalion.
T H E D I 5 - I N T E G R A T I O N O F A F R I C A N U N I V E R 5 I T I E 5
These deveIomenls marked lhe end of lhe oIilicaI ro|ecl lhal had been Iaunched al indeen-
dence, vhen lhe funding of universily educalion vas lo be lhe assorl lo a more aulonomous,
seIf-delermined 'road lo deveIomenl', and lhe formalion of a seIf-governing African eIile. As
Vice ChanceIIors and heads of dearlmenls lurned inlo businessmen overnighl, deveIoing
'Iinks' vilh foreign universilies and NGs, renling faciIilies lo sludy abroad rograms, and chan-
neIing cIasses lo do consuIlancy vork, lhe aradigmalic concel of higher educalion--as lhe lickel
ca||e(l/is l|e vC||U a(k a(U l|e UCU|e c|isis C| a||ica( U(ive|silies zU
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lo individuaI and nalionaI seIf-imrovemenl--vas canceIIed by lhe ma|or hnanciaI and 'deveIo-
menl' agencies. A groving body of Iileralure is nov avaiIabIe documenling lhe effecls of lhis
lurn.
4
Il shovs Africa Ieading lhe vay, as il vere, nol onIy in lhe dismanlIing of ubIic inveslmenl
lo educalion, bul aIso in lhe commerciaIisalion of academic Iife.
According lo lhe nev disensalion, sludenls vere lo ay for lheir universily educalion as if
il vere a commodily vhiIe universily aulhorilies vere lo lreal lhem as aying cuslomers, lhe
!ircci inlenlion being lhal lhe inlroduclion of luilion fees vouId reduce lhe sludenl numbers
dramalicaIIy. Hovever, lhis neoIiberaI erseclive on educalion had many dislurbing in!ircci
consequences, lhe rimary one being lhe subversion of lhe assumlion of a common inleresl
among universily dearlmenls, schooIs, coIIeges and rograms. Ior vhen one commodihes an
ob|ecl, one inevilabIy musl commerciaIise il, i.e., roduce il onIy vilh lhe inlenl of seIIing il in a
markel comeling vilh olher seIIers of lhe same or a simiIar commodily. The same lhing aIies
lo educalion: once commmodihed, il viII be commerciaIised and soId comeliliveIy.
In lhe abslracl lhis is obvious, bul vhen lransIaled inlo lhe slruclure of a universily, lhere is heII
lo ay. A grahic examIe of lhis is lo be found in Makerere Iniversily in KamaIa, Iganda (a
universily lhal had been once considered one of lhe besl in Africa and hence il vas and remains
a lrend-seller).
In lhe Iale 199Os governmenl ofhciaIs informed lhe facuIly members al Makerere lhal lhey had lo
lake an enlrereneuriaI aroach lo sludenl enroImenl in lheir courses, dearlmenls and facuI-
lies. They and lheir unils vouId be evaIualed for furlher suorl on lhe basis of hov successfuIIy
lhey allracled sludenls (eseciaIIy 'aying' ones). Dearlmenls lried lo 'conserve' lheir ma|ors by
having lhem lake as many of lheir courses vilhin lhe dearlmenl because a cerlain ercenlage of
sludenl fees venl lo lhe Dearlmenl lhal offered lhe course. The more allraclive lhe course, lhe
more il couId be 'soId', of course. ConsequenlIy, 'lurf vars' eruled belveen dearlmenls over
lhe housing of inlerdisciIinary rograms, 'for lhe righl lo house a rogramme lransIaled inlo a
considerabIe hnanciaI advanlage'.
5
Soon dearlmenls vere 'charging' olher dearlmenls for 'ser-
vice' courses lhey gave lo lhe sludenls of olher dearlmenls. InevilabIy in such a regime, lhere
vere 'baIance of aymenls' difhcuIlies. The mercanliIe syslem vilhin lhe universily, Iike lhe one
in lhe vorId markel, inevilabIy Ied lo vioIenl cIashes.
This aroach had a huge imacl on lhe curricuIum. Ior examIe, if lourism vere a 'hol' loic,
lhen courses (even rograms) in lourism vouId be offered lo lhe added luilion fee income. This
resuIl is a negIecl of disciIines lhal a serious Iong-lerm viev of lhe inleIIecluaI needs of Iganda
vouId require funding.
This breakdovn of universily coherence on lhe adminislralive IeveI is nol unique lo Makarare
Iniversily. SimiIar deveIomenls can be seen, for examIe, in osl-aarlheid Soulh Africa.
6
As
Richard Iilhouse observes: 'flen dearlmenls and courses lhal are nol rohlabIe--eseciaIIy in
lhe arls and humanilies are summariIy shul dovn'.
7
f course, African universilies are nol aIone
in lhis disinlegralion, lhese fealures have been lyicaI of neoIiberaI universily reforms lhrough-
oul lhe vorId, lhe onIy difference is lhal lhe comelilive Iogic of lhese reforms is rareIy laken lo
such a baId concIusion.
8
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n aII lhese IeveIs, lhen, afler more lhan a decade of lhe commodifying reforms in Africa, lhe
universilies are increasingIy unabIe lo meel lheir mosl vilaI academic obIigalions. Conicl has
become lhe order of lhe day: sludenls againsl governmenl, facuIly coIIeague againsl facuIly coI-
Ieague, dearlmenl againsl dearlmenl.and lhe WorId ank againsl aII! Inslead of moving lo a
uni-versily, lhese universilies are kel logelher increasingIy eilher by a Levialhan (in lhe form of
lhe oIice and miIilary) or foreign 'angeIs' redislribuling lheir Iargess vilh an eye lo rohlabiIily
or, inevilabIy, bolh.
T H E D E L E G I T I M A T I O N O F A F R I C A N U N I V E R 5 I T I E 5
A reIaled consequence of SAIs has been inc ucc|cning cj Ajriccn unitcrsiiics inic||cciuc| |cgiiimccq.
This deveIomenl has been quile funclionaI lo lhe inleresls of gIobaI cororalions, eseciaIIy
lhose invoIved in harmaceulicaI and agricuIluraI roduclion. ne obvious resuIl has been lhe
aImosl lolaI marginaIisalion of African counlries from lhe alenl syslem. Ior examIe, onIy lhree
of lhem have one or more alenls er miIIion of ouIalion (Morocco vilh 3 er miIIion and
Gambia and olsvana vilh 1 er miIIion, vhereas }aan has 12O and SvilzerIand 1O5 er miI-
Iion).
This does nol mean lhal lhere is no 'inleIIecluaI roerly' in Africa, of course. The slrucluraI
ad|uslmenl of African universilies and lheir consequenl deIegilimisalion aIIovs gIobaI coro-
ralions, research NGs and lhe WorId ank, lo resenl lhemseIves as lhe inslilulions lhal can
rolecl, reserve and make roduclive Africans' indigenous harmaceulicaI and agricuIluraI
common knovIedge. CerlainIy, 'bio-rosecling' reIies on lhe generaI imoverishmenl of lhe
African counlries, lhal in lhe vake of IiberaIisalion have nov lo seII, IileraIIy, lheir birlhrighl.
9

The disabIing of lhe universilies gives a overfuI conlribulion lo lhis rocess, as il veakens lhe
abiIily of African counlries lo resisl lhe encroachmenl of lhe gIobaI cororalions, and lo enforce
measures lhal vouId rolecl Africans' knovIedge, 'lradilionaI' or olhervise.
SlrucluraI ad|uslmenl in African universilies reduces research cosls by making avaiIabIe a rich
ooI of cheaened inleIIecluaI Iabour over and research faciIilies. As is lyicaI of lhese neoIib-
eraI oeralions, ubIic faciIilies are hrsl defunded and subverled, onIy vhen lhey are IileraIIy
on lheir knees are lhey formaIIy or informaIIy rivalised. This rocess of defunding ends once
lhe universily dearlmenl or governmenl inslilule becomes a reIiabIe 'arlner', i.e., one lhal viII
nol ob|ecl lo lhe exrorialion of IocaI knovIedge and in facl give lhe cororalions a IocaI cover.
Ior examIe, aboul a decade ago Soulh Africa's NalionaI olanicaI Inslilule (NI) soId lhe righls
lo deveIo ccric ||cncnc nev slrains from nalionaI ora lo a I.S.-based comany, aII HorlicuI-
luraI. SimiIarIy anolher Soulh African governmenlaI inslilule vas invoIved in seIIing indigenous
knovIedge:
The San, one of Africa's oIdesl lribes have used Hoodia since rehisloric limes lo slave
off lhirsl and hunger for Iong eriods of lime. Il vas alenled in 1995 afler being lrans-
Ialed inlo a bIockbusler obesily cure, I57, vilh a markel olenliaI of $6 biIIion. The
arlicuIarIy disconcerling asecl of lhis case is lhal il vas a governmenlaI organisalion,
lhe CounciI for Scienlihc and InduslriaI Research (CSIR), vhich look and alenled lhe
ca||e(l/is l|e vC||U a(k a(U l|e UCU|e c|isis C| a||ica( U(ive|silies !
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knovIedge before Iicensing il lo Ihyloharm vho subsequenlIy sub-Iicensed lo Ihzer,
vilh none of lhe ro|ecled royaIlies being earmarked for lhe San.
1O
These are nol aIone, many alenls cIaimed by harmaceulicaI or agricuIluraI comanies are sim-
Iy Iundered from African eoIe's medicaI and agricuIluraI common knovIedge.
5APs AND AFRICA IN THE INTERNATIONAL DIVI5ION OF LABOR
SAIs, lhen, vere successfuI in de-slrucluring and re-ad|usling many African universilies so lhal
lhey Iosl lheir abiIily lo offer a coherenl academic rogram and lo roduce lhe scienlihc and cuI-
luraI defenses of lhe nalion's alrimony.
SAIs aIso achieved one of lhe WorId ank's grossesl aims: lhe achievemenl of an eochaI reduc-
lion in lhe inveslmenl (er sludenl) in African universilies as veII as a successfuI aIicalion of
neoIiberaI 'markel Iogic' in lhe managemenl of universilies. In one sense, lhe universily crisis of
lhe 198Os and 199Os seemed lo have been remarkabIy successfuI.
The economic side of lhe doubIe crisis vas aIso aarenlIy successfuI from lhe erseclive of
coIIeclive cailaI. In lhe more lhan lvo decades since lhe hrsl SAIs vere inlroduced in lhe mid-
198Os, lhe African counlries' economic crisis lriggered by slrucluraI ad|uslmenl conlinued un-
abaled. Since lhe mid 198Os, lhe conlinenl has occuied lhe Iovesl IeveIs in lhe ma|or indexes of
cailaIisl accumuIalion. Sub-Saharan Africa has nov 12/ of lhe vorId's ouIalion, bul il has
1.6/ of ils GDI.
11
And lhe inlernalionaI division of Iabour has unambiguousIy reinslaled African
counlries inlo a coIoniaI osilion, direcling lhem, as ve have seen, lo be roducers and exorlers
of mineraIs, agricuIluraI roducls and Iabour-over. This is indicaled by lhe foIIoving:
WhiIe 3/ of lhe vorId's oulul is agricuIluraI, in Sub-Saharan Africa 14/ of lhe monelary
economy is comrised of agricuIluraI commodilies,
Lxlraclive induslries in Africa are dominanl from lhe oinl of viev of lrade. Ior examIe, '|bj
elveen 2OOO-2OO4 9O/ of Guinea's exorl earnings came from bauxile, aIumina, goId and dia-
monds, coer (redominanlIy) and cobaIl gave Zambia over 6O/ of ils foreign lrade income
vhiIe a lhird of Ghana's earnings came from goId'.
12
The GNI grovlh of African economies,
since lhe earIy 2OOOs, vhich lhe business ress has baIIyhooed, vas IargeIy based on lhe com-
modily bubbIes for mineraIs and elroIeum lhal receded lhe hnanciaI crash in Selember
2OO8,
More lhan one miIIion Africans emigrale every year, many crossing lhe Sahara deserl on fool
and saiIing on 'dealh shis' heading for Luroe. Their drovned or desiccaled bodies on Med-
ilerranean beaches or lhe Sahara deserl are a visibIe sign of lhe crisis lhe African youlh exeri-
ence vilh regard lo lheir economic fulure.
Iarl of lhe agricuIluraI, mineraI and human veaIlh oving oul of Africa melaboIises in lhe form
of remillances (skimmed off by inlernalionaI banks and money lransfer hrms), renls (for Ieases
on mines negolialed by governmenl ofhciaIs vho execl a bribe from lhe comanies lhey are
negolialing vilh), and exorl earnings (from agricuIluraI and mining aclivilies lhal devaslale lhe
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Iand and lhe heaIlh of lhe eoIe). ul onIy a miniscuIe arl of lhe relurning vaIue is reinvesled
in lhe inslilulions in vhich academic knovIedge is roduced.
If inveslmenl 'laIks', lhe inlernalionaI business' vievoinl on educalion is essenliaIIy lhe same
as il vas in lhe 198Os vhen lhe WorId ank--lhe remier Ianning inslilulion on lhe African con-
linenl and archilecl of lhe 'doubIe crisis' lo lhis day--couId cavaIierIy asserl lhal 'Africa had no
need for universilies'.
T H E B A N K T U R N 5
Ior aII lhe success of lhe SAIs in undermining Africa's lerliary educalionaI syslems and mak-
ing lhem comIianl lo ils ob|eclives, lhe WorId ank has been forced lo revise ils ubIic oslure
lovard lhem. WhiIe in lhe 198Os, lhe ank's caII for draslic culs in lhe academic budgels vas
uncomromising, il nov admils lhal higher educalion is an indisensabIe comonenl of 'deveI-
omenl' even in Africa.
13
This lurn in lhe ank's behavior has been bolh ideoIogicaI and hnanciaI.
The WorId ank began lo modify ils ideoIogy during lhe mid 199Os in lhe midsl of sreading
anli-SAI revoIls, mounling crilicism of ils oeralions and lhe emergence of a nev gIobaI econo-
my, vhere resumabIy 'knovIedge vas oulslriing maleriaI resources and hysicaI cailaI as a
source of veaIlh'.
14
As Cohen and Laorle reorl, by 1996 an ideoIogicaI shifl vas undervay al
lhe ank, under lhe luleIage of ils nev Direclor }ames WoIfensohn, arguing lhal 'knovIedge vas
a overfuI overly-reduclion inslrumenl in ils ovn righl', and icluring lhe ank as a 'knovI-
edge bank', deveIoing 'knovIedge economies' in lhe oslcoIoniaI vorId.
15
A miIeslone in lhis rocess vas lhe 199811999 WorId DeveIomenl Reorl Kncu|c!gc jcr Dctc|-
cpmcni, vhich insisled on lhe imorlance of educalion for comelilion in a vorId-markel in-
creasingIy requiring lechnoIogicaI sohislicalion and informalion. The documenl reilerales lhe
slandard raises for basic educalion, bul nolices lhal higher educalion is essenliaI lo a counlry
becoming 'a Iayer in gIobaI markels' or 'near lhe lechnoIogicaI fronlier'.
16
y 2OO6, WorId ank vrilers Iike Ioom, Channing, and Chan had lhe conhdence lo dismiss lhe
skelicism of lhe eIders of neo-IiberaIism, MiIlon and Rose Iriedman, had lovards lhe funclion-
aIily of higher educalion for lhe accumuIalion rocess. They noled lhal:
Iniversily enroImenl rales are correIaled vilh Iabour roduclivily grovlh,
The number of scienlisls and engineers er caila is aIso associaled vilh economic grovlh,
Higher educalion had a slrong causaI imacl on economic grovlh in Irance, }aan, Sveden,
and lhe Iniled Kingdom.
17
Since 1996, lhen, lhe WorId ank has been in advance of lhe anli-cailaIisl visionaries in asserl-
ing lhe olenliaIilies of knovIedge, incIuding lhe need for conlroIIed knovIedge communilies lo
heI 'cailaIising on IocaI knovIedge' in Africa.
18
ca||e(l/is l|e vC||U a(k a(U l|e UCU|e c|isis C| a||ica( U(ive|silies
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AIong vilh lhis ideoIogicaI lurn has come a hnanciaI one. The WorId ank's Ioans lo African uni-
versilies conlinued lo faII from $12O miIIion in 199O lo aboul $14 miIIion in 2OOO. ul lhal vas lhe
Iov oinl, a lurn around foIIoved and Iending grev lo $1O5 miIIion in 2OO8.
19
E X P L A I N I N G T H E T U R N A N D T H E 5 T A L E M A T E
Whal has been lhe source of lhis change in allilude and Iending lovards African universilies` We
cerlainIy cannol lake lhe WorId ank's exIanalion--nev slalislics and nev lheorelicaI deveIo-
menls--al ils face vaIue.
There are al Ieasl lvo conicling faclors lhal need lo be considered: hrsl, mounling camus re-
voIls in Africa againsl slrucluraI ad|uslmenl and for increasing access lo universilies made lhe
conlroI of lhese inslilulions more lenuous, second, lhe very success of ils neoIiberaI reslrucluring
of lhe universilies described above have made lhem usefuI siles for lhe exIoilalion of lhe conli-
nenl's resources. As a resuIl, African universilies offered a mixlure of danger and oorlunily for
lhe WorId ank and lhe 'deveIomenl' agencies.
The danger arose in lhe foIIoving vay. The increase in fees and lhe decrease in inveslmenl er
sludenl diclaled by SAIs vere suosed lo have cul lhe sludenl ouIalion. ul lhal did nol ha-
en. n lhe conlrary, lhere has been a dramalic increase in universily sludenl enroImenl in Sub-
Sahara Africa from 2.6/ in 1991 lo aboul 5/ in 2OO5, even lhough lhal is sliII lhe Iovesl regionaI
rale on lhe Ianel. More imorlanlIy, lhe rale of increase in lhe number of sludenls, aboul 8.7/ a
year (hence doubIing every 8 years), is lhe highesl on lhe Ianel.
2O
This increase is an aulonomous
deveIomenl, simiIar lo lhe aulonomous characler of immigralion in lhis eriod. Il resonds lo
a differenl Iogic lhan lhal of lhe ank's and ils cIienl, coIIeclive cailaI's, and is one lhal lhey do
nol veIcome. }usl as immigralion is rooled in slruggIes bolh in lhe 'receiving' and 'sending' coun-
lries, so loo lhe rising sludenl ouIalion has ils source in lhe slruggIes lhal sludenls make in lhe
universilies and lhe efforls lheir exlended famiIies make in lheir home lerrilories.
21
Thus, a slaIemale has been crealed--i.e., an ever-increasing universily enroImenl demanded by
African sludenls faces a SAI insired ever-decreasing educalion inveslmenl er sludenl. Neilher
side seems lo be abIe lo break oul of lhis unlenabIe con|unclion.
In resonse lo lhe silualion, lhe WorId ank lhunders in ils bank-seak:
ver lhe asl lvo decades, lerliary enroIImenls have generaIIy increased far more
quickIy lhan lerliary budgels...ul al lhe same lime, lerliary ubIic hnancing, vhich
averaged IS$6,8OO er sludenl annuaIIy in 198O, droed lo |usl IS$981 in 2OO5 for 33
Iov-income African counlries.
22
And again: 'Too raid an increase in enroIImenls, as has haened in lhe recenl asl, had eroded
quaIily and is undermining lhe conlribulion of lerliary educalion lo grovlh'.
23
The ank's anxiely
aboul lhe resuIling SlaIemale, hovever, is obvious:
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The fulure...romises no immediale reIief from lhese ressures as a rising lide of gradu-
ales from basic educalion is nov |oslIing for enlry inlo secondary educalion, and viII
soon be banging on lhe doors of lerliary inslilulions. Lefl unchecked, a conlinualion of
currenl lrends viII roduce a furlher lriIing of lerliary enroIImenls by 2O2O. LnroII-
menls viII be fueIed by record numbers of youlh as a demograhic buIge vorks ils
vay lhrough lhe SSA educalion syslem in lhe decade ahead. The inlerIay of lhese
lvo faclors viII generale inlense sociaI ressure for access lo higher IeveIs of educa-
lion, vhich mosl eIecled oIilicians vilhin Africa's reIalive nev democracies viII hnd
imossibIe lo ignore.
24
In olher vords, African sludenls vaIue universily educalion enough lo risk dealh or in|ury in
demonslralion afler demonslralion againsl culs in subsidies and increases in luilion fees. Iami-
Iies have aIso devoled an increasing share of lheir resources lo give lheir chiIdren access lo uni-
versily educalion. Ior lhe increasing cosl of universily educalion in Africa is being borne by a
lransfer of veaIlh from lhe famiIy and1or lhe viIIage communily sonsoring lhe sludenl lo lhe
universily and lhe slale. This lransfer is based on lhe sludenl's famiIy's1viIIage's hoe lhal in lhe
fulure lhe knovIedge vorker so roduced viII reverse lhe direclion of lhe vaIue ov. In olher
vords, lhe African Iand commons has been induced lo lransfer vaIue lo knovIedge-vorker ro-
duclion in lhis deaI, shoving lhe darker side of lhe roverb made famous by HiIIary CIinlon, 'Il
lakes a viIIage lo raise a chiId'.
The vaIue lransfer from Iand lo lerliary inslilulions is nol unique lo Africa. Il is a gIobaI he-
nomenon. In India, for examIe, informalion lechnoIogy lraining inslilules gel lheir rohls from
luilion fees aid by lhose vho vanl lo gel IT |obs. The asiranls ay lheir luilion fees from lhe ag-
ricuIluraI surIuses of lheir famiIies' farms or from lheir vives' dovries. ne observer eslimales
lhal '25/ of agricuIluraI surIuses in viIIages he sludied vas invesled in higher educalion', and
lhal '|jarenls eager lo marry off lheir daughlers conlribule lo lhe ov of agricuIluraI surIus
from lhe viIIages lo lhe cilies, and enabIe lhe grooms lo ursue lhe IT educalion lhal lhey hoe
viII lurn lheir dreams inlo reaIily'.
25
Hovever, Africa is nol India, and even lhe WorId ank recognises lhal famiIy and governmenlaI
inveslmenl in higher educalion in Africa is reaching ils Iimils.
26
n lhe olher side, conlemorary African universilies are allraclive lo lhe WorId ank, lhe NGs,
and inlernalionaI deveIomenl agencies and cororalions. CerlainIy, lhey hardIy resembIe lhe
inslilulions lhe ank had sel oul lo reslruclure in lhe 198Os. Much academic aclivily is nov under
lhe conlroI of WorId ank velerans, NGers or slaff from foreign universilies, moslIy from Norlh
America and Luroe, vho have been lhe main benehciaries of lhe change. African universilies
and lheir slaff are aIso imIicaled in much consuIlancy vork for foreign comanies as veII. Con-
sequenlIy, lhere is a desire vilhin lhe ank lo kee lhe comIianl universilies running in order lo
reserve lhese ad|usled zones of knovIedge roduclion.
NeverlheIess, lhe rosecls for Africa's economic 'deveIomenl' in lhe 'knovIedge economy'
hardIy |uslify lhe WorId ank's Ioans lo African universilies.
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T H E C O N T R A D I C T I O N
These Ioans reveaI a gIaring av in lhe WorId ank's Iogic.
27
Ior lhe focus of cailaIisl roduclion
in Africa is sliII IargeIy exlraclive, i.e., Africans' knovIedge is nol being vaIorised in Africa. The
WorId ank's earIier higher educalion Ianning in lhe 198Os--lhe eIiminalion of many universi-
lies, dearlmenls and rograms, lhe reduclion of access lo universily educalion and an emhasis
on rimary educalion--vas consislenl vilh lhe roIe lhal Africans vere lo Iay in lhe inlernalionaI
division of Iabour (in ils eyes). There is nov a conlradiclion in lhe WorId ank's oIicy belveen
lhe sliII unchanged roIe of Africans in Africa in lhe inlernalionaI division of Iabour and lhe ideoI-
ogy of lhe 'knovIedge economy' lhal il is dangIing before African sludenls, arenls and oIili-
cians. The main economic change in 21sl cenlury Africa has been 'a nev ScrambIe for Africa'
invoIving exanding mineraI and hydrocarbon exlraclion and lhe seII-off of huge lracls of Iand
lo foreign inveslors vho Ian lo use lhe Iand for bio-fueI ro|ecls and induslriaI agricuIlure.
28

This 'scrambIe' is oflen sanclioned by mining codes and Iand use oIicies lhal lhe WorId ank
has drafled.
29
SAIs have sedimenled rivalisalion oIicies guaranleeing lhal lhe African slales
charge cororalions and inveslors a illance for renl of mines. This inlensihed exlraclion of cros,
mineraIs, and Iabour over--exemIihed in lhe coIlan mining in lhe Congo (vhere miners dig lhe
mineraI oul vilh lheir hands) or lhe oiI exlraclion in sci-h Iike Ialforms in GuIf of enin vhere
hardIy an African vorker can be found--is nol lhe basis for an economy inlegraling cognilive Ia-
bour over in African roduclion. The WorId ank recognises lhis conlradiclion:
Raid enroIImenl exansion channeIed sludenls disroorlionaleIy inlo lhe Iess ex-
ensive sofl disciIines and sihoned off research funding lo cover lhe cosls of more
sludenls. In 2OO4, |usl 28 ercenl of lerliary sludenls vere enroIIed in science and lech-
noIogy heIds...|Terliary inslilulionsj have loo oflen redesigned curricuIa and Iaunched
nev academic rograms vilhoul adequale inul from emIoyers on lhe Iabour markel
erformance of graduales, crealing a disconnecl belveen lhe suIy and demand for
high-IeveI skiIIs.
3O
In ank-seak lhis means lhal lhere are sliII loo many African universily sludenls sludying in un-
rohlabIe vays nol sanclioned by domeslic or foreign cailaIisls. Inslead of rearing lo become
usefuI emIoyees for lhe exlraclion induslries in lhis cenlury's 'scrambIe', 47/ of lhe universily
sludenls graduale in humanilies and sociaI sciences, and onIy 18/ graduale in disciIines lhal
mighl be direclIy usefuI lo lhe exlraclion induslries.
31
y increasing ils Iending lo African uni-
versilies since 2OOO, lhe ank has lried lo kee ilseIf engaged vilh lhem and sleer lhem lovard
a more 'roduclive' oIicy, i.e., reducing sludenl numbers, lraining more scienlihc and lechnicaI
vorkers, eIiminaling lhe 'sofl' disciIines and in generaI disciIining lhe disciIines. ul il is nol
loo sanguine aboul lhe resuIls. WorId ankers fear lhal lhe SlaIemale in African universilies is
roducing a disIaced, unemIoyed, increasingIy roIelarianised, and olenliaIIy revoIulionary
cIass of 'knovIedge vorkers' (a.k.a. in cIassicaI socioIogicaI |argon, 'a revoIulionary inleIIigen-
lsia').
The ingredienls for such a deveIomenl are lhere. Graduale unemIoymenl is high: in 9 oul of
23 counlries vilh avaiIabIe Iabour markel dala, graduale unemIoymenl rales exceed 2O/.
32
ul
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fulure graduales sliII are coming lo universilies al an unrecedenled rale and African govern-
menls are unviIIing or unabIe lo slo lhem. Why shouId lhis youlh nol demand a Iace in lhe
universily, since lhey have been loId--by lhe WorId ank among olhers--lhal lhey and lheir nalion
need lo be arl of lhe gIobaI knovIedge economy or eIse lhey are doomed`

A decade ago, one of us oinled oul lhe oIilicaI rocesses lhal lhis SlaIemale roduced.
33
Slruc-
luraI ad|uslmenl has dehnileIy ended lhe era vhere (a) lhe universily graduale couId hnd guar-
anleed emIoymenl in lhe slale or in indigenised cororalions and (b) lhe eriod of sludenl Iife
vas a riviIeged one. nIy a WorId ank bureaucral couId be cynicaI enough lo describe con-
lemorary African universilies as comforlabIe Iaces vhere lhe chiIdren of lhe eIile congregale.
CAIA's lvo-decade Iong chronoIogy of sludenl slruggIe marking lhe hundreds kiIIed, lhe lhou-
sands in|ured and lhe lens of lhousands arresled in anli-SAI rolesls is evidence lhal sludenl Iife
in Africa is arduous and dangerous.
34
ul il is aIso a lraining ground for many sludenl miIilanls
vho become inured lo conicl vilh aulhorilies. When lhey are 'banging on lhe doors of lerliary
inslilulions' from bolh lhe inside and lhe oulside, lhe WorId ank, for one, hears lhem.
There are many ossibIe exils from lhe SlaIemale. In some camuses of Nigeria il has Ied lo lhe
deveIomenl of armed sludenl gangs or 'cuIls' vhose members become mercenaries for oIili-
cians in exchange for roleclion and money.
35
In olhers, as in Soulh Africa, lhe sludenl movemenl
lhal vas shaed in lhe aarlheid era venl inlo an aarenl decIine vilh lhe end of aarlheid bul
reaeared in nev forms based on elhnic idenlilies. As M. C. Davson vriles:
vhiIe lhe Soulh African Sludenl Congress is lhe dominanl organizalion in lhe higher
educalion seclor, lhere is a dislance belveen lhe organizalion and lhe ma|orily of ordi-
nary sludenls....In lhis conlexl il is IausibIe lhal cuIluraI organizalions have sleed in
lo deaI vilh queslions of aIienalion among sludenls.
36
Across lhe African camuses lhere has aIso been a reIigious revivaI, of bolh lhe Chrislian or
IsIamic varielies. ul lhe SlaIemale can aIso Iead lo an increased re-comosilion of lhe African
vorking cIass and lhe crealion of aIIiances among ils differenl seclors, olenliaIIy lhe mosl exIo-
sive being lhal of sludenls and sIum and shack dveIIers.
A slriking examIe of lhis re-comosilion has been lhe aIIiance belveen some of lhe facuIly and
sludenls of lhe Iniversily of KvaZuIu-NalaI in Durban and A|cn|c|i |cscMjcn!c|c, an organisa-
lion lhal has grovn in one of lhe shack sellIemenls roIiferaling in lhe cily. A|cn|c|is aim is lo
revenl lhe oIice and henchmen of lhe IocaI IandIords from deslroying lheir shacks and lo ob-
lain some amenilies for shack dveIIers. As S'u Zikode, one of A|cn|c|is Ieaders and a former
universily sludenl, modeslIy vriles, '|ur movemenlj viII hnish ils |ob vhen Iand and housing,
eIeclricily and basic services have been von and overly eIiminaled'.
37
Whal is remarkabIe aboul lhis movemenl is ils insislence on lhe inleIIecluaI characler of ils slrug-
gIe. A|cn|c|i suorlers vaIue lhe eislemoIogicaI characler of lhe slruggIe of 'lhe oor'. MiIilanls
bring lo demonslralions signs on vhich lhey caII lhemseIves 'The Iniversily of A|cn|c|i |cscMjcn-
!c|c', as lhey see lheir slruggIe as lhe foundalion of lheir educalion.
38
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The movemenl has lhus rovided an oflen-conlenlious bridge lo lhe academic vorId, eseciaIIy
lhe IKZN, and vorked cIoseIy vilh leachers and researchers, crealing a comIex mix of nomadic
inleIIecluaIs, inslilulionaI academics and sludenls suer-osilioned belveen lhem. The WorId
ank and African governmenls fear lhe revoIulionary olenliaI of such a mix, eseciaIIy if lhis
conneclion viII become a modeI for lhe fulure in Africa universilies, as il becomes cIear lhal nei-
lher reIigion nor elhnicily can end auerisalion.
Nol surrisingIy lhen on Selember 29lh, 2OO9 lhe ANC Iaunched a murderous allack againsl a
meeling of lhe A|cn|ci Ieading lo lhe sIaughler of ils miIilanls and imrisonmenl of ils Ieaders.
39

ne reason vhy A|cn|c|i vas a largel of allack is due lo conneclions il buiIds belveen lhe 'uni-
versily of lhe slreels' and lhe slreels of lhe universily, a conneclion lhal can unIeash lremendous
overs. These allacks, hovever, are one more sign lhal lhe SlaIemale is breaking dovn.
Il is aIso imorlanl lo add lhal an exil from lhe SlaIemale--emigralion--is nov ul in |eoardy
by lhe vorId economic crisis. InliI recenlIy, aboul 1O/ of African universily graduales on aver-
age have emigraled. Sludenls conslilule aboul one-lhird of lhe Sub-Sahara Africa's nel emigra-
lion.
4O
In lhe case of some rofessions (doclors and nurses) and counlries, lhe 'brain drain' is even
higher:
AImosl haIf |of Ghana'sj universily graduales have emigraled. And lhe resuIl` Ghana
nov has one doclor for every 16,129 eoIe...f Ghana's medicaI graduales belveen
1985 and 1994, haIf Iefl lhe counlry vilhin hve years of gradualing. Three-quarlers had
gone vilhin 1O years.
41
Though a nel economic Ioss for African governmenls, emigralion has been a 'safely vaIve' for
individuaIs. Hovever, if anli-immigralion oIicies viII raise lhe cosl and danger of emigralion lo
Luroe and Norlh America, Africa viII face a crilicaI mass of lrained knovIedge vorkers vilhoul
vages or rosecls.
H O I 5 T E D O N I T 5 O W N P E T A R D
AII signs oinl lo lhe breakdovn of lhe SlaIemale in lhe conlexl of lhe resenl 'doubIe crisis'
of lhe African universily syslem. The slruggIe of African sludenls lo gain access lo universily
educalion has forced lhe WorId ank lo offer a knovIedge 'deaI' lo lhe African youlh lhal viII
have exIosive consequences. This is an IT varianl of enIighlenmenl discourse, or Diderol vilh a
comuler. ul enIighlenmenl discourse, as lhe Irench revoIulionary bourgeoisie discovered, can
become incendiary in lhe hands of lhose for vhom il vas nol meanl, e.g., lhe Hailian sIaves afler
1789.
42
y endorsing lhe 'roduclivily' of universily educalion in Africa (vilh aII ils caveals) lhe
ank nov musl face lhe facl lhal ils rheloric amIihes lhe 'oul of conlroI' demand for educalion.
Il is easy lo see vhy lhe WorId ank began lo lake u lhe cognilive cailaIisl aroach in lhe
mid-199Os. There cIearIy vere changed condilions of roduclion invoIving lhe nev Turing ma-
chines, bul il aIso rovided a nev ideoIogicaI |uslihcalion for lhe differenliaI 'veaIlh of nalions'.
Why, for examIe, is lhe I.S. near lhe lo of lhe Iadder and Zambia near lhe bollom` As Iong as
conslanl cailaI vas lhe exIanalion for lhe veaIlh hierarchy, lhe resonse from Third WorIdisl
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and Marxisl crilics of cailaIism vas lhal I.S. cailaI's accumuIalion vas exrorialed (direclIy
in lhe form of rimilive accumuIalion or lhrough more sublIe, bul equaIIy devaslaling unequaI
exchanges) from coIonised nalions and regions. The I.S. vas on lo because Zambia's coer
is boughl lhrough unequaI exchange, crilics argued. IeIa's 'ITT, InlernalionaI Thief Thief' vas
lhe oIilicaI sIogan lhal grev oul of lhis anaIysis, and lhe WorId ankers had lo face accusalions
from anli-IMI1WorId ank riolers, rebeIs and insurreclionaries lhal lhey vere imeriaIisls using
money nol buIIels lo exIoil counlry afler counlry lhroughoul Soulh America and Africa.
ul once knovIedge becomes lhe decisive 'faclor of roduclion' and lhe key lo success in lhe
vorId markel lhen lhe exIanalion for veaIlh inequaIilies devoIve inlo knovIedge inequaIilies.
The I.S. is on lo and Zambia is on lhe bollom because I.S. knovIedge vorkers knov more lhan
Zambian knovIedge vorkers. Il is as simIe as lhal. Ignorance is nol bIiss in lhis economic equa-
lion. Human cailaI, sociaI cailaI, cognilive cailaI and olher 'sofl' forms of cailaI seem lo be
exceIIenl vays lo undermine anli-imeriaIisl oIilics, for lhey exIain African eoIe's overly as
a seIf-inicled eislemoIogicaI faiIure. Consider lhe foIIoving assage (vilh ils leIIlaIe ambigu-
ous grammar):
il is onIy lhrough lhe aIicalion of knovIedge lhal African counlries viII be abIe lo
coe vilh olenliaIIy criIing lhreals from revaIenl diseases, |from`j exanding
youlhfuI and urbanizing ouIalions, and |from`j imending cIimale change. Africa's
slock of human cailaI vilh secondary- and lerliary-IeveI skiIIs is comaraliveIy smaII.
Ils quaIily is highIy variabIe.
43
Who is sloing Africans from 'aIying knovIedge'` InevilabIy, lhe ansver has a seIf-accusalo-
ry Iogic: lhemseIves.
ul lhe WorId ank's desire lo re-eslabIish conlroI over Africa's universilies under lhe rubric of
'knovIedge' has been boughl al a high cosl. y offering lhe hoe for an African 'knovIedge econ-
omy' in lhe face of lhe evidenl inlensihcalion of lhe scrambIe for Africa, lhe ank is Iending lo
lhe very inslilulions lhal are oeraling in vays lhal are conlrary lo ils core imeralive. 'Cognilive
cailaI' rheloric is IileraIIy hoisling lhe ank by ils ovn elard lhrough crealing lhe condilions for
lhe coIIase of lhe SlaIemale, e.g., lhrough increasing lhe inveslmenl er sludenl.
NOTE5
*Nola ene
InIess noled olhervise, lhe reference grou
for lhe slalislics in lhis aer is lhe sel of
counlries in a region caIIed Sub-Saharan
Africa.
1
Ldu-faclory CoIIeclive, 1cucr!s, 3.
2
Iederici, Caffenlzis and AIidou, A incu-
scn! cucrs.
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3
Caffenlzis, 1nc ucr|! |cn|, 14, and Ied-
erici, 1nc rccc|cnizciicn, 19-23.
4
Iilhouse, |nirc!uciicn, xix-xx.
5
Mamdani, Scnc|crs, 119.
6
archiesi, Iccn cn! tcrq mccn, 68-7O.
7
Iilhouse, |nirc!uciicn, xix.
8
See for }aan: zava, Dcminciicn, 181-
19O.
9
Tri, |ntisi||c ncn!s, 2OO3-2O16.
1O
Sahai, Iarilhran, and aru|ari, Bicpirccq,
44.
11
WorId ank, Accc|crciing ccicn-up.
12
Tamufor, Ncc! ic rctisc, 16.
13
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up.
14
Cohen and Laorle, 1nc ctc|uiicn.
15
Cohen and Laorle, 1nc ctc|uiicn.
16
WorId ank, Wcr|! !ctc|cpmcni rcpcri, 42.
17
Ioom, Canning and Chan, Higncr c!ucc-
iicn, 18.
18
ellIe and KoeIIe, Ccpiic|ising.
19
WorId ank. Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, 117.
2O
WorId ank. Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, 46.
21
Iederici, Caffenlzis and AIidou, A incu-
scn! cucrs.
22
DeveIomenl Lconomics Research
Grou (WorId ank), AcceIeraling calch-
u: Synosis, 11.
23
WorId ank, Accc|crciing ccicn-up, 6.
24
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, xxvii.
25
Irasad, Bc!q sncps, 317.
26
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, 43.
27
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, 72.
28
ZeiIig and Davson, |nirc!uciicn, 1-31.
29
Akabzaa, Ajriccn mining, 8-1O.
3O
DeveIomenl Lconomics Research
Grou (WorId ank), Accc|crciing ccicn-up.
Sqncpsis, 11-12.
31
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, 48.
32
DeveIomenl Lconomics Research
Grou (WorId ank), Accc|crciing Ccicn-
Up. Sqncpsis, 12.
33
Iederici, 1nc Ncu.
34
Iederici and Caffenlzis, A |ricj nisicrq,
139-144, ZeiIig and Davson, |nirc!uciicn.
35
Akani, Ccmpus cu|is, 3-15.
36
Sikvebu, A sccrcn, 129-13O.
37
Zikode, 1nc inir!, 3.
38
Iilhouse, Our sirugg|c, 3O.
39
See vvv.abahIaIi.org.
4O
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, xxiv.
41
CoIhalch, B|cc!ing.
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42
}ames, 1nc ||cc|.
43
WorId ank, Accc|crciing Ccicn-Up, xx.
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cgcn!c 7|3j: 8-1O.
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lheir imIicalions in Nigeria. CA|A
ncus|ciicr 17: 3-15.
archiesi, Iranco. 2OO9. Lean and very
mean: Reslrucluring lhe universily in
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mcus unitcrsiiq, ed. Ldu-Iaclory, 66-71.
rookIyn: Aulonomedia.
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hll:11veb.vorIdbank.org1WSITL1
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iIK:216618~lheSileIK:282386,OO.hlmI
|Selember 24, 2OO9j.
Caffenlzis, George. 2OOO. The vorId bank
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jusimcni in Ajriccn unitcrsiiics, ed. SiIvia
Iederici, George Caffenlzis, and us-
seina AIidou, 3-18. Trenlon, N}: Africa
WorId Iress.
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hll:11vvv.kmmagazine.com |clo-
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com.au |clober 3O, 2OO9j.
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(WorId ank). 2OO8. Accc|crciing ccicn-
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ank. IRL: hll:11sileresources.vorId-
bank.org1INTAIRICA1Resources1
Synosis_LN_IINAL.df. |clober 15,
2OO9j.
Ldu-Iaclory. 2OO9. 1cucr!s c g|c|c| cuicnc-
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dia.
Iederici, SiIvia. 2OOO. The nev African slu-
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Sirugg|cs cgcinsi siruciurc| c!jusimcni in
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Africa WorId Iress.
Iederici, SiIvia. 2OOO. The recoIonizalion of
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crs. Sirugg|cs cgcinsi siruciurc| c!jusi-
mcni in Ajriccn unitcrsiiics, ed. SiIvia
Iederici, George Caffenlzis, and us-
seina AIidou, 19-23. Trenlon, N}: Africa
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usseina AIidou. 2OOO. A incuscn! cu-
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mcni in Ajriccn unitcrsiiics. Trenlon, N}:
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Iederici, SiIvia, and George Caffenlzis.
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slrucluraI ad|uslmenl. In Dcmccrciiz-
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ZeiIig, Leo, and MarceIIe Davson. 2OO8.
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Sociely.
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
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RcapprnprIatIng thc ncn!Ibcra!
unIvcrsIty Inr a ncw putnnghua
(cnmmnn !anguagc)
Jnn 5n!nmnn
1. This essay combines lhe skelch of an aIlernalive hislory aboul Iin-
guislico-cuIluraI deveIomenl since lhe coIoniaI encounler vilh a dis-
cussion aboul lhe sub|eclive lechnoIogy of Ianguage and educalion in
lhe conlexl of gIobaIizalion. Ils concrele aims are: 1) lo summarize an
aIlernalive framevork lo lhe underslanding of vorId hislory in lerms
of geocuIluraI unils and lhus arlicuIale a crilique of cuIlure as lhe
ideoIogy of cailaI (a summary of our reviousIy eIaboraled ro|ecl
in a biooIilics of lransIalion), 2) lo reevaIuale lhe hislory of lhe
modern, nalionaI universily in lerms of ils roIe as an inslilulion of
lransIalion vhose main funclion is biooIilicaI, 3) lo consider hov lhe
neoIiberaI Iniversily sils al a cruciaI nexus belveen Iinguislic vaIue,
border conlroIs, and inleIIecluaI roerly regimes, 4) lo reconlexluaI-
ize LLI (LngIish-as-a-Lingua Iranca) educalion in Iighl of lhe imIi-
calions of a crilique of LngIish Ianguage as a gIobaI modeI of lransIa-
lion and, 5) and lo roose lhal Qu Qiubai's nolion of a non-nalionaI,
non-imeriaI common Ianguage (ulonghua) be laken as a hgure
for lhe rerorialion of GIobaI LngIish vilh lhe evenluaI aim of a
radicaI reslrucluring of lhe Humanilies.
2. Iour fundamenlaI characlerislics of currenl rocesses of gIobaI-
izalion are roducing a ma|or imacl on Iinguislic usage: 1) lhe re-
shaing of geograhicaI scaIe and lhe changes such scaIar reshaing
have broughl lo lhe inslilulion and raclice of borders, 2) lhe cor-
resonding emergence of organized nelvorks, 3) lhe cenlraI roIe of
lechnoIogicaIIy-assisled forms of communicalion nol necessariIy of a
convenlionaIIy lexluaI or even oraI nalure lhal disrul Iinear lemo-
raIilies and disIace lhe roIe of communicalion inlo nev reIalions
of roduclion and consumlion as veII as nev forms of Iife, and 4)
lhe lechnoIogicaIIy-assisled dominance of gIobaI LngIish and lhe con-
comilanl recarily of olher Ianguages.
JON 5OLOMON
TLACHLS IN THL
GRADIATL INSTI-
TITL I IITIRL
STIDILS AT TAM-
KANG INIVLRSITY
(TAIWAN). IS MLMLR
I THL TRACLS LDI-
TRIAL ARD. HL
LDITLD WITH NAKI
SAKAI 1RANSIA1|ON,
B|OPOI|1|CS, COIO-
N|AI D||||R|NC|
(HNG KNG INI-
VLRSITY IRLSS, 2OO6)
/ eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a| U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
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My resonse lo lhe hrsl lrend, vhich requires hisloricaI conlexluaIizalion, is lo frame lhe consli-
lulion of modern macro-regions (nalion and civiIizalion) lhrough lhe lhemes of lransIalion and
biooIilics. My hyolhesis is lhal in lhe aflermalh of lhe massive delerriloriaIizalion (or icrrc
nu||ius) unIeashed by coIoniaI encounler, lransIalion rovided a key biooIilicaI lechnique for a
relerriloriaIizalion cryslaIIizing around lhe nalion-Slale, enelraling much furlher inlo everyday
Iife lhan |uridicaI lheories of sovereignly vouId normaIIy concede. Henceforlh, bolh oIilicaI
lheory and modern Iinguislics vouId share lhe same fundamenlaI assumlion of lrying, in lhe
vords of IlaIian hiIosoher Giorgio Agamben, lo cIarify somelhing lhal vas aIready obscure
(lhe concel of eoIe) vilh lhe heI of somelhing even more obscure (lhe concel of Ianguage).
The resuIl of lhis obscure confusion, il musl be remembered, has been nol |usl oIilicaI bul eis-
lemoIogicaI as veII, forming lhe basis for lhe modern nalionaI Iniversily and lhe disciIinary
divisions of lhe Human Sciences. Conlemorary lransformalions of a Iinguislic nalure cul across
lhis conhguralion in nev vays.
ne fruilfuI vay lo conlexluaIize lhe nev siles of sociaI conicl lhal are shaing higher educa-
lion vouId be simuIlaneousIy lo consider lvo symlomalic henomena everyvhere in evidence
loday: hrsl, lhe ascendance of a singIe Ianguage, LngIish, lo a roIe of dominance in gIobaI affairs-
-incIuding, of course, educalionaI markels, and second, lhe acceIeraling disaearance of gIobaI
Ianguages, arlicuIarIy acule among indigenous ouIalions, and lhe generaI recariousness of
Ianguages nol ofhciaIIy recognized as Slale Ianguages and romoled in Slale educalionaI inslilu-
lions. Due lo Iimilalions of sace, lhis essay musl Iimil ilseIf lo lhe former henomenon, aIlhough
lhere is no doubl lhal lhe lvo are inexlricabIy Iinked and musl be lhoughl logelher.
3. The effecls of LngIish Ianguage dominance in gIobaI affairs are loo numerous lo discuss here.
ne among lhese lhal is aIready having a ma|or imacl uon sociaI reIalions far beyond lhe
Iniversily is lhe reorganizalion of lhe ubIic1rivale dicholomy. The associalion of LngIish vilh
inlernalionaI and olher Ianguages vilh IocaI conlexls imoses yel a nev vay of deIinealing
ubIic from rivale sace aIong a bifurcalion inlo gIobaI and IocaI access (even vhiIe lhe
meaning of gIobaI and IocaI are lhemseIves undergoing rofound lransformalion), confer-
ring an imIicilIy rivale slalus uon olher Ianguages associaled vilh lhe IocaI. IronicaIIy,
ve are nov vilness lo an era in vhich enlire nalionaIized Ianguages--vhich vere lhemseIves
hisloricaIIy conslrucled as imosed forms of ubIic exchange--are becoming rogressiveIy
rivalized reIalive lo lhe ubIic use of gIobaI LngIish. The recenl case in vhich lhe ReubIic
of Korea successfuIIy aIied lo have Dragon oal IeslivaI, common in olher arls of Lasl Asia,
recognized as arl of ils excIusive nalionaI herilage under lhe INLSC Convenlion for lhe Safe-
guarding of lhe InlangibIe CuIluraI Herilage (2OO3) demonslrales lhe exlenl lo vhich nalionaI
cuIlure is becoming a form of rivale roerly, sub|ecl lo secihc regimes of InleIIecluaI Iroerly
Righls (IIR). f course, lhe nalion-Slale since ils incelion vas designed lo codify lhe lerms of
ovnershi of lhe resources of arlicuIar geograhicaI lerrilories, yel il is fascinaling lo see
hov lhe regime of immaleriaI Iabor lyicaI of oslfordisl roduclion is ushing such rorielary
cIaims beyond lhe convenlionaI, 19lh cenlury dehnilion of resources (human, animaI, and nalu-
raI) lo exlend nov lo various forms of immaleriaI and inlangibIe roerly, incIuding of course
knovIedge, lraining, and Ianguage. Given lhe roensily of neoIiberaI governmenls lo oerale
as slakehoIders for cororale inleresls of a comIex, lrans1nalionaI nalure, eroding lhe calegory
of lhe cilizen, lhe coIIeclive cIaims imIicil in such immaleriaI resources sland lo foIIov a simiIar
sC|CmC( |ea|C|iali(Q l|e (eC|ie|a| U(ive|sil_ |C| a (ev UlC(Q|Ua //
ISSN 2O78-3884
Iogic. The vhoIesaIe rivalizalion of Ianguage under lhe inuence of gIobaI LngIish is occurring
al lhe very momenl vhen oslfordisl incororalion of a Iinguislic modeI inlo lhe rocess of
roduclion means lhal Ianguage ilseIf is becoming a source of vaIue and even roerly righls.
IndoubledIy lhis rendering rivale of Ianguages lhal are nov considered lo be IocaI and
elhnicized can aIso be execled lo have imorlanl ramihcalions for lhe conslruclion of gender, for
vhich lhe division belveen ubIic and rivale has ereniaIIy been a ma|or louchslone.
4. Il shouId nov be evidenl lhal lhe Slale is nol exlernaI lo lhe robIems of Iinguislic diversily and
dominance. }usl as LngIish Ianguage dominance is mosl oflen regislered as a robIem by defend-
ers of olher, reIaliveIy veaker nalionaI Ianguages, lhe robIem of endangered Ianguages dis-
cussed by advocales of biocuIluraI diversily is mosl aculeIy exerienced by Ianguages oulside
of Slale inslilulions--arlicuIarIy lhose aboriginaI ones lhal aarenlIy hoId no hoe of becoming
Slale Ianguages and yel are sub|ecled lo lhe oIicies of a singIe Slale.
HisloricaIIy-seaking, il goes vilhoul saying lhal Ianguage oIicy has been a crilicaI looI for lhe
crealion of lhe modern nalion-Slale and a conslanl sile of Slale inlervenlion. In vhal has virluaIIy
been a universaI rocess (vhich is lo say, no more and no Iess universaI lhan have been lhe Slale-
form and lhe commodily-form in lhe modern eriod), modern nalion-Slales have eslabIished
lhemseIves IinguislicaIIy by lhe eIiminalion of difference lhrough slandardizalion--aIong vilh
lhe concomilanl disIacemenl of minorily ouIalions and lhe arorialion of minorily Iands.
The eslabIishmenl under lhe ausices of lhe modern Slale of a Iinguislic slandard uniformIy a-
IicabIe lo aII sociaI cIasses has rendered Ianguage irreversibIy oIilicaI in lhe modern eriod.
AIlhough lhe dislinclion of sociaI slalus according lo Iinguislic usage (reserving vrillen commu-
nicalion for a smaII, maIe eIile) vas videIy racliced by re-modern imeriaI, lribaI, and feudaI
formalions, il vas nol unliI lhe modern eriod lhal bolh ouIalion and Iinguislic raclice be-
came lhe inlerreIaled ob|ecls of |uridicaI and eislemoIogicaI inslilulionaI raclices--eilomized
by lhe nalionaI schooI--managed by a singIe, cenlraIized Slale sovereignly.
5. The nolion of a biooIilics of lransIalion vhich I roose as a reIacemenl for lhe slruclur-
aIisl underslanding of IinguislicaIIy-delermined vorIdvievs acquires conceluaI vaIidily and
crilicaI imorlance in Iighl of lhe secihcaIIy modern--vhich is lo say, gIobaI--henomenon of
lhe Iinguislic slandardizalion associaled vilh nalionaIizalion and coIoniaI Iand arorialion,
and lhe concomilanl effecls lhese rocesses have had uon humanislic knovIedge. Lver since lhe
concomilanl birlh of hiIoIogy and bioIogy, modernily has been associaled vilh lhe advenl of a
gIobaI carlograhic imaginary lhal Iaces eoIes vilh no rior memory of migralory conlacl,
or onIy dee memory such as elymoIogy, inlo reIalion lhrough lhe medialion of an imeriaI
cenler. As lhe lransilion lo a gIobaI form of saliaI imaginary, mc!crniiq begins, IinguislicaIIy
seaking, vhen lhe ro|ecl of slandardizalion is exlended across aII manner of sociaI differences
lo encomass diverse ouIalions in lhe rocess of nalionaI homogenizalion (vhich occurs, as
}acques idel argues, on lhe IeveI of vorId sqsicm) and domeslic segmenlalion (vhich occurs on
lhe IeveI of cIass difference or siruciurc). This rocess musl be seen, in lurn, in lhe conlexl of
conlacl vilh olher gIobaI ouIalions undergoing lhe same lraumalic rocess of syslemic dehni-
lion and slrucluraI segmenlalion. The |icpc|iiics cj ircns|ciicn lhus names lhal sace of exchange
and accumuIalion in vhich oIilics aears lo have been reemled by lhe aearance of lvo
nev ob|ecls of knovIedge, ouIalion and Ianguage, assumed lo be inlrinsicaIIy reIaled.
/ eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a| U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
When lransIalion is underslood according lo a reresenlalionaI scheme of lhe eislemic sub-
|ecl, il names nol lhe oeralion by vhich cuIluraI difference is bridged, bul ralher lhe re-
emlive oeralion lhrough vhich originary difference--vhal is encounlered vhen lransIalion
is underslood as an acl of sociaI raclice--is segmenled and organized according lo lhe various
cIassihcalory schemes of bio-anlhrooIogicaI knovIedge emerging oul of lhe coIoniaI encounler.
In order lo unack lhe conlemorary imIicalions of lhis convergence, il is necessary lo remem-
ber vhal lhe erseclive of ircns|ciicn leaches us: each individuaI Slale Ianguage in lhe modern
age (lhere are onIy 225 of lhem) is nol lhe aulonomous, organic crealion of a eoIe, bul lhe
crrcsic! rcsu|i of an essenliaIIy lransnalionaI governmenlaI lechnique--lhe sub|eclive lechnoIogy
of lransIalion lhal cohgures Ianguages in order lo dislinguish lhem--aimed al ouIalion man-
agemenl. Research such as lhal underlaken by Naoki Sakai has shovn lhal lhe very calegory of
nalionaI Ianguage, cruciaI lo lhe biooIilicaI formalion of gIobaI ouIalions under lhe syslem of
nalion-Slales, musl be underslood as a roducl of lransIalion. NalionaI Ianguages do nol recede
lhe lransIalionaI exchange, bul are in facl redicaled uon il. In facl, lo seak a nalionaI Ianguage
is lo seak lhrough lhe medialion of lransIalion even vhen one relends lo seak vilhoul il.
Seen from lhis erseclive, lhe modern regime of lransIalion is a concrele form of syslemic
comIicily (in lhe sense of vorId syslem) vhose rimary funclion is ouIalion manage-
menl vilhin lhe urviev of cailaIisl exansion and imeriaI dominalion. In olher vords, il is a
gIobaIIy-aIicabIe lechnique of segmenlalion aimed al managing sociaI reIalionshis by forcing
lhem lo ass lhrough circuils on lhe syslemic IeveI. In Sakai's research on lhe lransnalionaI
discursive slruclure of bolh }aanese sludies and lhe inslilulion of lhe }aanese Lmeror syslem,
or again in lhe reIalion belveen imeriaI nalionaIism and lhe mainlenance of elhnic minorilies,
ve Iearn lhal lhe geograhy of nalionaI sovereignly and civiIizalionaI difference lhal conslilules
lhe geocuIluraI and geooIilicaI ma of bolh lhe vorId and lhe Human Sciences indicales an
imorlanl kind of sub|eclive lechnoIogy or governmenlaI lechnique lhal has, unliI recenlIy, been
lhoroughIy naluraIized by an anlhrooIogicaI discourse of cuIlure. Looking al lhe hislory of
modern Iinguislic lransformalion, oslcoIoniaI vrilers have shovn nol onIy hov lhe coIoniaI
and oslcoIoniaI Slale mobiIized Ianguage in lhe crealion of invenled lradilions, bul aIso hov
lhe eslabIishmenl of nalionaI Iilerary and Iinguislic lradilions--such as lhe nolion of LngIish
Iileralure and ils corresonding canon--in melrooIilan sociaI formalions originaled as a lech-
nique of coIoniaI governance (as, for inslance, lhe rilish exerience in India reveaIs) lhal vas
subsequenlIy imorled inlo lhe melrooIilan nalion in order lo manage domeslic cIass reIalions
in lhe midsl of revoIulionary demands for universaI suffrage. Il is onIy loday lhal ve can begin lo
see hov a muIliIicily of disciIinary arrangemenls forming an economy of lransIalion (in Iace
since lhe coIoniaI era bul far oulIiving coIoniaIism's demise) acluaIIy roduces differenliaIIy-
coded sub|ecls, lyicaIIy nalionaI1civiIizalionaI ones, vhose conslilulion is inlerdeendenl and,
al secihc inlervaIs, acluaIIy comIicil in a singIe, yel exlremeIy hierarchicaI, slale of dominalion.
We have lhus lraced a series of geneaIogies vilhin vhich lransIalion is no Ionger seen as simIy
an oeralion of lransfer, reIay, and equivaIency, bul ralher assumes a vilaI hisloricaI roIe in lhe
conslilulion of lhe sociaI.
6. This crilique of lransIalion as a conlingenl form of sociaI roduclion forces us lo reconsider lhe
hisloricaI roIe of higher educalion. The birlh of lhe nalionaI schooI, vilhoul vhich lhe inslilu-
lion of nalionaIized Ianguage couId nol have been reaIized, has Iayed a cruciaI roIe nol |usl in
sC|CmC( |ea|C|iali(Q l|e (eC|ie|a| U(ive|sil_ |C| a (ev UlC(Q|Ua /L
ISSN 2O78-3884
lhe crealion of a homogeneous nalionaI ouIalion seaking a slandardized Ianguage, bul aIso
in disseminaling knovIedge aboul vhal lhe difference belveen nalions (as a faclor of Iinguislic
and anlhrooIogicaI difference) means. No inslilulion eilomizes lhis roIe more lhan lhe modern
Iniversily. The Iniversily of CuIlure, described by iII Readings as one of lhe lvo greal mod-
eIs of lhe modern universily (lhe olher being lhe lechno-science modeI), musl in facl be seen as
an insiiiuiicn cj ircns|ciicn. Il is a nciicnc| inslilulion of lransIalion charged vilh lhe lask of lrans-
Ialing aII knovIedge inlo and oul of nciicnc|izc! idioms vhiIe al lhe same lime Iegilimizing in
a generaI vay lhe domeslic (i.e., nciicnc|izc!) division of Iabor al lhe basis of sociaI cIass. Ils very
urose, beyond lhe acluaI conlenl of lransIalion, is lo inslilulionaIize and reguIale lhe ralio lhal
conslilules lhe aradigmalic quasi-ob|ecl of modern saliaIily--lhose comIex modeIs of lhoughl
+ vorId lhal ve knov as geocuIluraI regions or civiIizalionaI vorIdvievs. The normaIized form
of nalionaI cuIlure--vhich Sakai mas lhrough lhe reIalions among }aan, lhe Wesl, and lhe
Resl, as veII as minorilies vilhin each--emerges lhrough gIobaIIy-codihed reIalions of domina-
lion, or cuIluraI lransIalion, lyicaIIy carried oul in universilies.
7. IrofessionaI (lhal is, organic) inleIIecluaIs are lhe lransIalors, in a sense lhal goes far beyond
lhe rendering of secihc lexls: lhey are lhe ones vho fashion lhe forms of exression. They nol
onIy make lhem hl over lhe funclionaI requiremenls of inlernalionaI exchange, lhey aIso sub-
slanliaIIy embody or vear lhose forms, becoming inslilulionaIized forms of knovIedgeabIe
bodies essenliaI lo concrele sociaI roduclion. The sublIe negolialions of lhal hl and fashion--
vhal conslilule a cerlain Iaslicily of sociaI bodies in generaI--are lhen caIIed cuIlure. TyicaIIy
nalionaI formalions of cuIlure reress differences such as lhe indelerminacy of lhe lransIalor and
lhe reression of bolh hisloricaI difference (elhnicily, cIass, and gender) and lhe uidily (or inher-
enl difference) of lhese differences in lhe modern era. y lhe same loken, rofessionaI inleIIeclu-
aIs are aIso lhe ones vho lake lhe oeralionaI knovIedges of lhe inlernalionaI exchange sociely
and render lhem inlo lhe lerms of a nalionaI cIass syslem, vhere any resislance can again be
caIIed--bul lhis lime in a derogalory sense--cuIlure (i.e., cuIluraI burdens, cuIluraI idiosyncra-
cies, cuIluraI alavisms, elc.)
The allilude of rcsscniimcni everyvhere in evidence loday on lhe arl of inleIIecluaI-lransIalors
reveaIs an obvious conlradiclion. Imrisoned vilhin lhe arlicuIar inlernalionaI rank-order
achieved by lhe economic erformance of lheir nalionaI cIass-slruclure vilhin lhe vorId sys-
lem, lhey vouId naluraIIy resenl lhal vhich heIed cemenl lhe overaII order, bolh al home and
abroad--nameIy, lheir ovn, usuaIIy unacknovIedged and even unnamed, aclivily as cuIluraI
lransIalors. If anlhrooIogicaI difference coded as cuIluraI lransIalion is lhe reigning ideoIogy of
lhe oslfordisl imeralive lo communicale, one musl ay arlicuIar allenlion lo lhe vay lhe sub-
|ecl of knovIedge, formed in lhe crucibIe of disciIinary and Iinguislic codihcalions sliII indebled
lo lhe Iegacy of coIoniaI difference, is arlicuIarIy rone lo communicale according lo a reslricled
economy of rcsscniimcni. This is nol so much a robIem of coIoniaI sychoIogy in lhe Ianonian
sense, bul ralher a reslricled economy of relurn lhal characlerizes sub|eclive formalion accord-
ing lo any number of disarale raclices from Ianguage lo economy lhal eslabIish excelions in
order lo excIude cerlain forms of difference. According lo lhe lra|eclory of relurn, one is aIvays
eilher a reciienl or a suIier in reIalions of exchange. Whal is excIuded are vhal conlemorary
economisls refer lo as exlernaIilies, vhal hisloricaI economisls refer lo as sIave, migranl and
olher irreguIar Iabor, or vhal Sakai shovs is lhe essenliaI hybridily of lhe lransIalor.
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Whal Sakai suggesls is lhal lhere is a bolh a conslraining disciIine and an emancialing oIilics
of lransIalion for lhose Iaced belveen lhe nalionaI cIass-slruclures and lhe gIobaI exchange-
syslems organized around geocuIluraI regions. In lerms of a conslraining disciIine, inleIIecluaIs
are caIIed uon lo lransIale nol |usl conlenl secihc lo olher cuIlures bul, mosl imorlanl, lhe
generaI ruIes of inlernalionaI exchange. Lven as ve, in our roIe as lransIalors, adal concels and
images lo lhe needs of lhe IocaI cIass slruclure, ve are aIso conlribuling lo lhe soIidihcalion of a
segmenled slruclure anaIogous lo cIass in lhe emerging gIobaI-Slale. We can resenl lhis roIe as
lransIalors, and lhen resenl lhe vhoIe verbiage of inleIIecluaIily vhich ve have made inlo our
lrade, lhis sorl of oslure reguIarIy Ieads inleIIecluaIs lo riviIege eilher a sile of reaI slruggIe
in lhe oulside vorId vhiIe abandoning lheory as a sile of slruggIe aIlogelher, or eIse lo re-
lreal inlo esoleric, aeslhelicized reresenlalions incomrehensibIe oulside of a rofessionaI casle.
Ralher lhan adoling eilher of lhese aroaches, vhich seem lo me lo reserve, in sile of greal
differences, lhe excelionaI roIe of inleIIecluaIs as medialors and dislribulors of lhe helerogeneily
belveen vorId and knovIedge (a roIe lhal uIlimaleIy inslilulionaIizes lhe roIe of eIiles, regard-
Iess of vhich side one is on, by denying lhe reIalive aulonomy of secihc sociaI raclices), ve can
inslead sel aboul using lhe looIs of lhe lrade lo vork againsl ils normaIized effecls. ul hov lo
go aboul lhal`
8. Naoki Sakai resenls a very inleresling ansver, vhich concerns a kind of lransIocaI, lransIin-
guislic raclice, a raclice vhich is bolh conlexluaI and reseclfuI of lhe foreigner in aII of us.
In lhe face of sohislicaled discourses embedded in universily inslilulions, vhal couId be asked
each lime is hov couId lhis maleriaI be used lo overcome lhe causes and effecls of cailaIisl ime-
riaIism` And if il is olenliaIIy usefuI, lhen hov can il be lransIaled againsl lhe grain of vhalever
cIass slruclure one is in, vilh ils arlicuIar hierarchy of incIusions and excIusions, signihed and
covered u by ils arlicuIar cuIlure` And if lhose counler-lransIalions have been done, lhen hov
couId lhey in lurn be exosed lo heleronomous lransIalions from eIsevhere`
These queslions vouId require us lo reconsider hov ve lyicaIIy lransIale and naluraIize cerlain
discourses, arlicuIarIy by felishizing a roer name lhe beller lo forgel lhe reaI silualions and
rocesses from vhich il vas sublracled. ul inslead of |usl Ieading back lo inhnile deconslruc-
lion, vhile guiIl, or subordinaled rcsscniimcni, lhe same queslions aIso oinl lovard a ossibIe
deveIomenl of cuIluraI dreams, organizalionaI forms and roduclive lechniques lhal couId heI
eoIe everyvhere lo survive lhe lransilion lo a vorId sociely. InleIIecluaIs are nol required lo
erform lhe heroic roIe of archilecls and sociaI engineers vho rovide bIuerinls for lhe vhoIe of
sociely--in facl, such a roIe amounls lo IillIe more lhan a seIf-aggrandizing haIIucinalion, bul, Iike
every olher kind of Iaborer, lhey can resond lo lhe secihc silualions of lheir lrade (vhich in-
cIudes |cin lhe lemoraIily of embodied sociaI reIalions cn! lhe abslraclions of knovIedge aboul
sociaI ob|ecls), deveIo corresonding aulonomous resonses, and lhen lransIale lhem inlo olher
silualions.
9. Lel us lake lhe examIe of LngIish in lhe currenl reslrucluring of higher educalion in Taivan. A
combinalion of governmenl oIicies, markel lrends, and inleIIecluaI disosilions inheriled from
lhe coIoniaI1imeriaI modernily have resuIled in gIobaI LngIish acquiring lhe de faclo slalus
of ofhciaI Ianguage for higher educalion in Taivan (e.g., romolion for |unior facuIly is more
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and more deendenl uon ubIishing in SSCI-Iisled LngIish |ournaIs, lhe oinl syslem used for
revieving facuIly erformance accords much higher veighl in generaI lo ubIicalions in Lng-
Iish over lhose in Chinese, more and more degree rograms are being designed lo be laughl
in LngIish, undergraduale educalion al many schooIs nov incororales mandalory on-Iine e-
Iearning courses (in LngIish) vilh an angIohone corresondence universily, graduale sludenls
in Iileralure and Ianguage rograms olher lhan LngIish are required lo lake addilionaI courses in
LngIish, elc.) In shorl, gIobaI LngIish is essenliaI bolh for lhe accredilalion offered by lhe syslem
and for romolion vilhin ils ranks. LvidenlIy, lhis combinalion of oIicies Ieaves lhe Taivanese
universily syslem deendenl uon lhe gIobaIized angIohone educalionaI induslry. Innovalion
imIicilIy can onIy occur vilhin lhis Iocus. As a resuIl, ve can redicl lhal Taivanese inslilulions
of higher educalion viII be comIeleIy unabIe over lhe Iong lerm lo reserve aulonomy vis--vis
lhe aggressive exansion of angIohone universilies in easl Asia (and eIsevhere) described by
Andrev Ross. SimiIar deveIomenls are occurring eIsevhere in easl Asia, nolabIy in Soulh Ko-
rea and lhe IeoIe's ReubIic of China. As ve vilness lhe emergence of lransnalionaI chains of
higher educalion, ve shouId begin lo lhink aboul vhal il means and vhere lhe ossibiIilies for
crealive lransformalion Iie.
10. Inder lhe regime of coIoniaI1imeriaI modernily, il vas assumed lhal lhe ralionaIe for In-
slilulions of NalionaI TransIalion such as lhe Iniversily of CuIlure Iay oulside lhose inslilulions
(residing mosl IikeIy in lhe Slale, or, deending on one's viev, lhe nalion). Today, hovever, lhe
suosed exleriorily of lhe universily (vis--vis lhe ulaliveIy organic inleriorily of nalion-
aI Ianguage) no Ionger malches lhe needs of lhe oslfordisl economy for exibIe accumuIalion
across differenl Iinguislic markels. As lhe vaIue of lhe Humanilies decIines, Iinguislico-cuIluraI
lraining is becoming lheir soIe reason for exislence. LseciaIIy in non-eIile, second- and lhird-
lier universilies in geograhicaI Iocalions considered eriheraI lo lhe cenlers of innovalion, lhe
funclion of lhe Humanilies is being relooIed lovards imarling a sel of Iinguislic and cuIluraI
skiIIs considered necessary lo lhe Crealive Induslries in a gIobaI environmenl. As rian HoI-
mes remarks, idenlily formalions are encouraged as slyIislic resources for commodihed cuI-
luraI roduclion, vilh lhe effecl of deecling lhe issues avay from sociaI anlagonism...Ising
lhe enormous resources concenlraled by lhe ma|or commerciaI media--leIevision, cinema, o
music--regionaI cuIlures and subcuIlures are samIed, recoded inlo roducl form, and fed back
lo lheir originaI crealors via lhe immeasurabIy vider and more rohlabIe vorId markel. As lhe
Humanilies are reslruclured inlo lhe funclion of cuIluraI samIing, lhe Iniversily reserves
ils former imorlance as an Inslilule of TransIalion, bul lhe oeralion of lransIalion is disIaced
from a nalionaI sub|ecl of cilizens righls (and lhe non-righls of non-cilizens) lo a cuIluraI sub|ecl
of inleIIecluaI roerly righls.
We oflen hear lhal under lhe oslfordisl regime, Ianguage (communicalion) is immedialeIy ro-
duclive. This is mosl easiIy seen in universilies in lhe conslruclion of eIaborale bureaucracies of
quaIily assurance audiling, vhich require a conslanl inul of Iabor--much of il by un(der)aid
graduale sludenls--in order lo nolch u ralings lhal garner more revenue. ul il is aIso lo be seen
in lhe use of gIobaI LngIish, vhich Iike comuler science and biolechnoIogy, conlribules direclIy
lo lhe vaIorizalion of cailaI and Iabor in diverse rocesses of roduclion. In Iine vilh lhese de-
veIomenls, lhe differences belveen gIobaI Ianguages are nov being incororaled direclIy inlo
lhe universily lhrough gIobaI LngIish as a modeI of lransIalion, lhus il becomes an organizing
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rinciIe for |cin lhe vaIue of knovIedge cn! lhe carlograhy lhal mas knovIedge onlo regions
and anlhrooIogicaI difference.
The muIliIicalion of cIass differences by Iinguislico-elhnic, as veII as gender and raciaI, dif-
ferences forces us lo relhink bolh lhe IoucauIlian nolion of lhe universily as a sile of disciIine
and lhe AIlhusserian nolion of il as an ideoIogicaI slale aaralus. Whal neilher IoucauIl nor
AIlhusser foresav vas a silualion in vhich enlire Ianguages--lhe roducls of nalionaIizalion nov
subsumed by lhe emerging gIobaI-Slale--couId in lhemseIves become ideoIogicaI beyond lhe de-
lerminale conlenl of communicalion. (And here ve couId, vilh sufhcienl sace, exIain hov
lransIalion conslilules lhe exacl Iinguislic silualion mosl IikeIy lo reveaI lhe rifl belveen commu-
nicalion and address, conlenl and lhe evenl of Ianguage, essenliaI lo every inslance of Iinguislic
communicalion).
11. Thc prnb!cm Is nnt that g!nba! Eng!Ish Is cnmIng tn dnmInatc thc hIghcr cducatInn markct,
but rathcr that Eng!Ish !anguagc has InsInuatcd Itsc!I as an Imp!IcIt mndc! nI trans!atInn. Il is
reciseIy as a modeI of lransIalion lhal gIobaI LngIish oerales in landem vilh lhe roIiferalion
of cIass-Iike codings of anlhrooIogicaI difference inlernaI lo lhe emerging gIobaI Slale and cru-
ciaI lo lhe managemenl of universily markels. Il is lhis arlicuIalion of lransIalion lo anlhrooIogi-
caI difference inlernaI lo lhe gIobaIizing educalion markels lhal musl be addressed, uliIized and
lransformed. In nthcr wnrds, wc shnu!d usc thc Intcrna!IzatInn nI g!nba! Eng!Ish as a mndc! nI
trans!atInn as a pnInt nI dcparturc tn Inrgc ncw subjccts capab!c nI cngagIng In a ncw sncIa!
cnntract (ending revision of lhe enlire concel of conlracl beyond lhe obviousIy faiIed modeI
of ralionaI consensus). The nomadic universily of lhe fulure shouId lake fuII advanlage of lhe
secihcily nov being accorded lo lhe bioover of Ianguage uiinin lhe universily syslem in order
lo effecluale a biooIilicaI lransformalion lhal couId be exorled or exlernaIized.
12. Discussions of gIobaI LngIish dominance have inlervened IargeIy in lhe cuIluraI and educa-
lionaI sheres, vhere lhey lend lo divide inlo eilher a defense of nalionaI Iinguislic markels or a
ceIebralion of inlernalionaI ones. Iroonenls of some of lhe inleresling uliIilarian varianls, such
as GIobish, argue lhal a Iingua franca based on simIihed LngIish usage can effecliveIy com-
bine bolh aims of romoling inlernalionaI exchange and defense of nalionaI cuIlures. Iro or con,
lhe suosilion of nalionaI forms of organizalion conlinues lo underIie many of lhe besl criliques
of LngIish-Ianguage dominance and neoIiberaI markel universilies. ve musl ask if lhis is nol
because lhey share lhe assumlion lhal Ianguage and Iinguislic difference corresond--naluraIIy-
-lo anlhrooIogicaI difference` NormaIIy, lhe assumlion of ulalive Iinguislic unily viII efface
differences due lo gender, race, and cIass in lhe socio-Iinguislic formalion.
Nov is lhe lime lo consider lhe revoIulionary olenliaI in an idea gaining ground vilhin Iinguis-
lics and Ianguage edagogy lo dislinguish LngIish-as-a-nalive Ianguage (LNI) from LngIish-as-
Iingua franca (LLI). Draving from lhe hisloricaI exerience of radicaI Iinguislic exerimenls in
earIy 2Olh cenlury such as Lseranlo and asic LngIish, arbara SeidIhofer, a Iinguislics rofessor
al lhe Iniversily of Vienna and a ma|or roonenl of LLI, noles lhe advanlages of sublracling lhe
assumlion of a nalive1non-nalive, aulhenlic1inaulhenlic dicholomy from lransnalionaI Iinguis-
lic exchange. SeidIhofer argues lhal LLI is nol onIy an effeclive edagogic looI enhancing ossi-
biIilies for raid Iinguislic acquisilion, il is aIso caabIe of shifling lhe focus in Iinguislic lraining
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from inslrumenlaI ay-off in lerms of raclicaI communicalive skiIIs |loj Iong-lerm humanislic,
edagogic ob|eclives. I vouId Iike lo highIighl SeidIhofer's inilialive, in vhich I delecl a coun-
ler-raclice such as ve described above. Againsl lhe cororale-slale-sociaI science nexus lhal is
commandeering lhe Iniversily lovards excIusiveIy markel-orienled lemoraIilies, SeidIhofer's
romolion of a LLI as a form of sociaI reIalion no Ionger based on lhe assumlion of an idenlily
belveen Ianguage and eoIe is olenliaIIy revoIulionary.
LLI inlervenes--erhas for lhe hrsl lime in lhe hislory of lhe modern Iniversily--reciseIy uon
lhe foundalionaI modern Iink belveen Ianguage and anlhrooIogicaI difference. AIlhough lhis
vas nol lhe goaI of ils earIy roonenls, LLI undeniabIy offers edagogicaI and crilicaI eIemenls
lhal vouId be cruciaI lo an inslilulionaI reformalion of lhe disciIinary divisions inheriled from
lhe 18lh and 19lh cenluries. This reform, as I envision il, vouId be a dearlure from bolh area
sludies and nalionaI hislory, foreign Ianguage dearlmenls as veII as nalionaI ones. In shorl,
il vouId be lhe end of lhe rinciIe of homoIinguaI address as lhe organizalionaI basis for bolh
lhe disciIinary divisions of lhe human sciences and lhe nalions of lhe vorId. Iremissed uon
removing Ianguage from lhe foundalionaI oosilions of nalive1non-nalive, grammalicaI1non-
grammalicaI, aulhenlic1inaulhenlic, elc., lhal have slruclured modernily's nolion of geocuIluraI
regions, LLI rooses a radicaI edagogy of lhe Common. AIlhough lhere is cerlainIy lhe os-
sibiIily lhal LLI viII mereIy reinforce lhese oosilions by disIacing lhem onlo olher Ianguages
nov being rivalized by lhe dominance of gIobaI LngIish, ve cannol overIook lhe olenliaI for
innovalion.
13. In Iieu of concIusion, I vouId Iike anecdolaIIy lo refer lo lhe examIe of Qu Qiubai (1899-
1935), a former Ieader of lhe Chinese Communisl Iarly during ils re-Maoisl days. During lhe
193Os, afler Qu Iefl Iarly CenlraI, fev vrilers famiIiar vilh lhe coIoniaI silualion aroached lhe
ossibiIily of crealing a nev eoIe vilh as much innovalive vision and revoIulionary assion
as Qu Qiubai. The helerogeneous ouIalion of migranl Iabor Iiving in Shanghai under condi-
lions of exlralerriloriaIily and rimilive accumuIalion rovided lhe lemIale lhal enabIed him lo
arlicuIale surrisingIy crealive soIulions lo lhe robIems of cuIlure and communicalion. Among
lhese, Qu's roosaIs for lhe formalion of a common Ianguage lhal is neilher nalionaI nor
imeriaI bul oen lo lhe fulure of a sociely conslrucled lhrough migralion, lransIalion, and rea-
rorialion of lhe means of roduclion sland in a singuIar Iighl.
Qu Qiubai resenls us vilh a vriling from lhe anomaIy lhal allemls lo vresl bodies oul of lheir
imrisonmenl by lhe burgeoning codes of grammar, Iav and vaIue. Il is a vriling lhal does nol
lake lhe anomaIy as ils ob|ecl, bul ralher embraces lhe anomaIy as a oinl of dearlure from
vhich lo buiId a fulure beyond bolh lhe disciIinary slralegies of rimilive accumuIalion and in-
duslriaI roduclion and lhe sub|eclive lechniques of sociaI normaIizalion condensed in lhe mod-
ern nalion-Slale.
The anomaIy consisls, iniliaIIy, in lhe revoIulionary con|unclure of Shanghai in lhe earIy 193Os:
lhe ermanenl slale of excelion formaIized by lhe rolocoIs of exlralerriloriaIily, lhe over-
vheImingIy migralory background of ils burgeoning ouIalion (aroximaleIy 8O/), lhe Iack
of a Iingua franca, lhe subslilulion of oIice force for sovereignly, and lhe arlicuIalion of oIilics
vilh oIicing and oIicing vilh lhe disciIinary care of Iife. Qu's resonse lo lhis con|uncluraI
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anomaIy vas lo aroach il from lhe ex-osilion of a revoIulionary sub|ecl-sliII-lo-come (su|el--
venir) ralher lhan lhe suosilion of sovereignly derived from cailaIisl recomosilion via coIo-
niaI governmenlaIily. Iaced vilh lhe anomaIous mixlures of saces, ouIalions, grammars, and
vaIues, lhal characlerized lhe lransilion from a muIlicuIluraI, muIliIinguaI imeriaI enlily (lhe
Qing Dynasly, 1644-1911) lo a modern nalion in a vorId syslem of Slales (China, 1911-), Qu
Qiubai underslood lhal lo gras lhis rocess by reference lo lhe hgure of relurn vouId serve onIy
lo suslain lhe miserabIe dominalion of lhe resenl inlo lhe fulure. Inslead, Qu lakes lhe redomi-
nanlIy migranl ouIalion of Shanghai as a cIue for lurning lhe anomaIy inlo a nev silualion.
Henceforlh, lhe anomaIy is nol an excelion lhal reinslales lhe ruIe, bul lhe oinl of dearlure
from vhich lo break oul, diagonaIIy, of lhe slrangIehoId of medialion belveen lhe lvo. Irom lhis
erseclive, lhe onIy reaI anomaIy is lhe osciIIalion belveen ruIe and excelion lhal masks lhe
cailaIisl syslem of accumuIalion-lhrough-exrorialion behind an ideoIogy of nalionaI cuIlure.
Qu Qiubai vas one of lhe hrsl lo sense lhal |usl as nalionaI cuIlure is lhe ideoIogy of cailaI, lrans-
Ialion is one of ils main sub|eclive lechniques.
}usl as in Qu's lime, lhe lask ahead of us loday remains lhal of asking hov ve can effecliveIy
aroriale Iinguislic eIemenls from lhe gIobaI dominalion for lhe crealion of a lruIy common
Ianguage` The slruggIes in lhe gIobaIizing universily markelIace vouId seem lo offer one of lhe
Iaces from vhich lo slarl.
REFERENCE5
Agamben, Giorgio.1996. Mccns uiincui cn!.
Ncics cn pc|iiics. MinneaoIis: Iniversily
of Minnesola Iress.

idel, }acques. 1999. 1ncric gnrc|c. Iaris:
Iresses Iniversilaires.
HoImes, rian. 2OO2. The exibIe ersonaI-
ily. Ior a nev cuIluraI crilique. In Hicrc-
g|qpns cj inc juiurc. Aris cn! pc|iiics in c
nciucr|c! crc. Zagreb: Arzkin1WHW.
Mezzadra, Sandro and rell NeiIson. 2OO8.
order as melhod or lhe muIliIicalion
of Iabor. Iaer resenled al Irosellive
inlernazionaIi su Iingua, cuIlura e cil-
ladinanza, Iniversily of oIogna, IlaIy,
Iebruary 4-5.
MouIier oulang, Yann. 1998. Dc |csc|ctcgc
cu sc|crici. |ccncmic nisicriuc !u sc|crici
|ri!c. Iaris: III.
Sakai, Naoki. 2OOO. Ycu Asicns. 1nc Scuin
Ai|cniic ucricr|q, ed. Harry Haroolunian
and Tomiko Yoda, 99|4j: 789-818.
Sakai, Naoki. 2OOO. Sub|ecl and subslralum.
Cu|iurc| siu!ics 14|314j: 462-53O.
Sakai, Naoki. 2OO6. Tvo negalions: Iear of
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being excIuded and lhe Iogic of seIf-
esleem. In Ccnicmpcrcrq jcpcncsc incugni,
ed. Rich CaIichman. Nev York: CoIum-
bia Iniversily Iress.
Sakai, Naoki. 2OO8. Relurn lo lhe Lasl, relurn
lo lhe Wesl. In 1rcns|ciicn cn! su|jcciitiiq.
On jcpcn cn! cu|iurc| nciicnc|ism. Minne-
aoIis: Iniversily of Minnesola Iress.

SeidIhofer, arbara. 2OO2. The shae of
lhings lo come` Some basic queslions
aboul LngIish as Iingua franca. In Iinguc
jrcncc ccmmunicciicn, ed. K. Kna and
C. Meierkord, 269-3O2. Irankfurl1Main:
Ieler Lang.
ViIIard, IIorenl. 2OO9. Ic Grcmsci cnincis Qu
Qiu|ci. Lyon: Tigre de aier.
Zou, Yiren. 2OO8. jiu Sncngnci rcn|cu |icnicn
!c qcnjiu |IouIalion change in re-1949
Shanghaij. Shanghai: Shanghai Renmin.
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
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In thc busIncss schnn!
5tcIann Harncy
Wriling of lhe Alhenian envoys ciled by Thrasymachus in IIalo's Rc-
pu||ic, Simon Iackburn says lhey vere 'lhe MachiaveIIian men of
rcc|pc|iii|, knoving lhey Iived in a dog-eal-dog vorId and adaling
lhemseIves'.
1
They vere, he concIudes, 'lhe direcl anceslors of bIilz-
krieg, lerrorism, lhe vorshi of lhe free markel, and lhe elhics of lhe
business schooI'.
2
This is lhe comany lhe business schooI kees for
many humanilies schoIars in lhe universilies, and for many on lhe
Lefl. The business schooI is said lo rofane lhe universily even as il
lurns oul an army of lhe failhfuI. Il roduces sludenls vho have no
moraI comass and academics vho have no moraI comunclion. And
nov vilh lhe resenl crisis in hnance cailaI lhis verdicl vouId seem
lo be vindicaled. The mainslream ress allribules lhis crisis, more of-
len lhan nol, lo a cuIlure of individuaI excess and greed, for vhich lhe
elhics of lhe business schooI are said lo be al Ieasl in arl lo bIame.
Many in governmenl agree. 'WaII Slreel gol drunk', said lhe hrsl MA
Iresidenl of lhe Iniled Slales, disarovingIy. And if lhe currenl gaI-
Iery of rogues in lhe Cily of London and on WaII Slreel did nol Iearn
lheir seIhsh elhics direclIy from lhe moduIes of business schooI, lhen
lhis curricuIum cerlainIy did nolhing lo revenl lhe deveIomenl of
lhese garganluan aeliles for rohl and Iies. The Iesson is lhal busi-
ness schooIs, Iike lhe cailaI markels, viII have lo change lheir vays.
AII of lhis may be lrue. This ramanl elhics of cailaIisl desire is cer-
lainIy on disIay for aII lo see. ul as Marx admonished, il is nol for
a vorker's movemenl lo inquire inlo lhe desire of lhe cailaIisl, bul
ralher, inlo his over. If lhere is a cerlain elhics in lhe business schooI
loday lhis cannol be connecled onIy lo vhal business schoIars vanl,
vhal lhey desire for lhemseIves and lheir sludenls, bul aIso lo vhal
reaIIy goes on in lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI. Il mighl be
vorlh asking, lherefore, somelhing aboul lhe maleriaI osilion of
lhe business schooI loday, if onIy lo inocuIale ourseIves againsl lhe
infeclion of moraIisl anaIysis reaching eidemic roorlions in lhe
resenl crisis. Thal lhe business schooI dreams of heIicoler rides and
crales of chamagne oughl lo be of Iess inleresl lhan lhe reIalionshi
5TEFANO HARNEY
IS CHAIR I GLAL
LLARNING AND
RLADLR IN STRATLGY
AT THL SCHL I
ISINLSS AND MAN-
AGLMLNT, QILLN
MARY INIVLRSITY I
LNDN. A MILI-
TANT SCHLAR I
THL WRK I C.L.R.
}AMLS, HL IS AITHR
I S1A1| WORK. PUB-
I|C ADM|N|S1RA1|ON
AND MASS |N1|I-
I|C1UAI|1Y (DIKL
INIVLRSITY IRLSS,
2OO6).
/ U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
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/
belveen lhese dreams and lhe vay leachers and sludenls in lhe business schooI acluaIIy gel lo
schooI, vhal lhey do lhere, and vhal lhey reaIIy drink vilh dinner, bul aIso, lo lhe vay lhese
dreams are connecled lo vhal gels done in lhe universily, and increasingIy, in lhe melrooIis.
Such an anaIysis mighl nol so much ul lhe business schooI in beller comany as ul us in vorse.
ul il may aIso leII us somelhing aboul lhe vay academic oIilics and lhe oIilics of lhe momenl
oughl lo be lhoughl logelher. This is a bil counler-inluilive in a momenl of crisis vilh aII lhe ur-
gency il is suosed lo lhrusl aboul our anaIysis, and il is erhas aIvays a bil susecl for some
on lhe Lefl vho viII vanl lo mainlain some kind of border alroI belveen academic oIilics and
reaI oIilics.
A C A D E M I C C A P I T A L I 5 M
ul I vouId suggesl nov eseciaIIy ve shouId be vary of enforcing any such searalion, nol onIy
because lhis crisis haslens a nev hase in vhal SheiIa SIaughler IabeIIed academic cailaIism, bul
aIso because lhis is |usl vhal lhe currenl managers of lhe crisis on behaIf of lhe cailaIisl cIass are
indeed lrying lo reconslilule. There viII be reguIalion cerlainIy, aIlhough readers of lhis |ournaI
viII aIready susecl lhis reguIalion viII faiI. ul lhere viII aIso be an ansver lo lhe verdicl on
business schooIs. They viII be rehabiIilaled lo leach a nev moraIily lo fulure business Ieaders, as
lhe business schooIs Iike lo caII lheir sludenls, and lhis moraIily viII be carried by lhese fulure
Ieaders inlo lhe vorId of business. LvenluaIIy lhis viII make lhe vorId safe again for de-reguIa-
lion, and lhe relurn of seIf-reguIalion, bolh al lhe IeveI of lhe bourgeois seIf, and al lhe IeveI of lhe
hclive seIf of lhe cororalion. This is lhe conversalion going on in my business schooI, al one of
lhe coIIege's of lhe Iniversily of London, and among deans and heads of business schooIs across
lhe I.K. and lhe I.S.A. The soIulion lhey desire is for lhe business schooI lo reslore ils imagined
reIalionshi vilh lhe rofession, underslood as business Ieaders, nol mobiIe hone oulIel slore
managers.
ul behind lhis desire in lhe business schooI Iies lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI. And lhis
acluaIIy exisling business schooI is Iess a sile of cailaI, lhan il is a sile of Iabour, Iess a sile
of cailaIisl desire, lhan vorker necessily. This oughl lo become even more obvious as lhis h-
nance crisis becomes a recession. ecause one of lhe innovalions of lhe business schooI is lhal il
rovokes Iabour lo varehouse ilseIf. When cailaI sheds educaled Iabour in lhe conlemorary
AngIo-American vorId, educaled Iabour resonds by doing lvo lhings lhal benehl cailaI. Il
varehouses ilseIf, ready lo vork bul nol causing lroubIe, keeing lhe rice of Iabour dovn, and
il goes furlher inlo debl. The business schooI is hrsl and foremosl a Iace of surIus Iabour lhal
nonelheIess sends on luilion, books, and somelimes accommodalion. ul lhis onIy begins lo leII
lhe slory of Iabour in lhe business schooI, much Iess lhe slory of lhe business schooI in Iabour,
aboul vhich I viII say more shorlIy.
This innovalive seIf-varehousing occurs in lhe osl-graduale rogrammes of lhe business schooI
(and of course nol |usl lhal schooI aIone). ul a more lradilionaI slale-Ied varehousing and rea-
ralion of Iabour occurs in lhe undergraduale business rogrammes. AIlhough vhen mosl lhink
of lhe business schooI, lhey lhink of lhe osl-graduale MA, lhis degree is in robabIy lerminaI
decIine, reIaced by more seciaIisl degrees al lhe osl-graduale IeveI. ul lhis image of lhe MA
is aIso chaIIenged by lhe exanding cIasses of undergraduales. The coIIeges of lhe Iniversily
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of London each enroI hundreds of such sludenls on undergraduale business and managemenl
courses each year, and many more undergraduales lake olionaI courses in business and man-
agemenl. y some eslimales somelhing Iike forly er cenl of undergraduale sludenls in I.K.
universilies are in business or business-reIaled rogrammes. This is lhe reaIily of lhe Labour
governmenl's ush for higher educalion for haIf lhe ouIalion. Labour oIicy, such lhal il is in
rilain, runs lhrough lhe business schooI.
The slory in lhe I.S. is more inlegraled. ne does hnd cIasses of eighl hundred undergraduales
ursuing degrees in business communicalion in lhe big slale universilies, bul as Chrisloher
NevheId niceIy documenls in his book |tq cn! |n!usirq, lhe humanilies vere aIvays lo acl as
arl of a business educalion. NevheId noles lhal lhe IiberaI humanisl educalion al lhe hearl of
undergraduale IiberaI arls rogrammes in lhe Iniled Slales have Iong fed vhal he coins 'mana-
geriaI humanism'.
3
In Luroe lhe silualion remains mixed oving lo hisloric imorlance of slale
adminislralion and lhe ersislence of induslriaI engineering, vhiIe lhe rise of lhe business schooI
in so-caIIed emerging economies requires a searale discussion. Al any rale, mosl visibIy in ril-
ain vhal ve see is lhal nol |usl lhe business schooI, bul lhe universily in lhe resence of lhe busi-
ness schooI, slarls lo Iook very baIdIy, and lo some very embarrassingIy, Iike simIy an exlension
of Iabour oIicy, vhelher obviousIy medialed by lhe slale or nol. Nov inlereslingIy, lhe sludenls
of lhe business schooI oflen seem lo irrilale academics in lhe resl of lhe universily reciseIy in lhe
momenls vhen lhese sludenls knov lhemseIves as Iabour, vhen lhey vanl lo knov onIy hov
lo be emIoyed, or vhal lhey need lo gel a cerlain mark, or vhen lhey lreal everylhing belveen
lhem and lhis knovIedge of lhemseIves as Iabour as inslrumenlaI. The vork lhese sludenls do
lo roduce lhemseIves in lheir universily years oflen Iooks lo be enlireIy in lhe service of seIIing
lhemseIves lo cailaI. This is lhe rofane momenl, aIlhough anyone on lhe Lefl musl feeI al Ieasl
vagueIy inleresled in lhe oorlunily lhal arises from lhis oen idenlihcalion vilh vage sIavery.

ul of course for lhe slaff of lhe business schooI, and indeed for many in lhe universily adminis-
lralion, lhis momenl of seIf-idenlihcalion vilh vage sIavery is vhal musl be ennobIed, and in an
enduring conlradiclion, reinforced during lhe varehousing chiey lhrough lhe slyIe of edagogy.
Il musl be ennobIed nol for any vague reason of slalus, or sociaI cailaI, or rofessionaI reson-
sibiIily, bul for lhe very reaI, if usuaIIy unreaIised, reason lhal lhis varehouse is aIso a universily.
Il remains ossibIe, againsl aII lhe odds, lo have a conversalion in lhe universily aboul vhal il
means lo hire yourseIf oul lo cailaI. This vouId be a disasler ve are loId, for lhese young busi-
ness Ieaders mosl of aII. So il is lo be execled lhal lhe suosed desires of lhese young business
Ieaders are used againsl any such lhreal. ne is loId lhal lhinking aboul lhemseIves as Iabour is
nol vhal lhey vanl and al any rale such a consciousness vouId make lhem loxic lo cailaI. This is
lhe discourse of reIevance, skiIIs, and reaI vorId exerience lhal mosl business schooI academics
inhabil, in anolher conlradiclion, as lhey couId nol ossibIy ever ossess lhese lhings sufhcienlIy
in lhe fasl-aced vorId of cailaIism lhey con|ure. The IogicaI concIusion is lhal sludenls oughl
onIy lo be laughl by Richard ranson by shadoving him on a vork day, lo ensure he himseIf re-
mains reIevanl by remaining on lhe |ob. And if lhis conlradiclion vere nol obvious enough, lhe
slyIe of edagogy, lhe hrsl conlradiclion, reminds lhe sludenl lhal vhal is reaIIy reIevanl, vhal is
reaIIy skiIfuI, is lo rove lo lhe reaI vorId vhal universily educalion aIvays roves (al Ieasl): lhal
lhe sludenl can foIIov arbilrary aulhorily, endure boredom, and comele againsl olhers.
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Nov aII of lhis mighl be a vorry in lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI bul for lvo olher fac-
lors. The hrsl is business schoIarshi and ils genuine ecuIiarily, and second is business schoIars
lhemseIves, and in arlicuIar lheir emIoyed by lhe universily. These lvo faclors revenl any
discussion of lhe business schooI as a sile of Iabour from sIiing asl aII lhe over oinl sIides
on reIalionshi markeling, co-oelilion, and co-Ieadershi. These faclors aIIov lhe mosl abrul
|udgemenls on lechnocralic reIevance lo sil beside a kind of fanlasy foolbaII in vhich sludenls
are encouraged lo see lhemseIves nol shadoving Richard ranson bul silling across from him al
lhe negolialing labIe.
T H E B U 5 I N E 5 5 5 C H O O L I N U N I V E R 5 I T Y
The hrsl of lhese faclors is vhal, hnaIIy, does dislinguish lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI
from lhe resl of lhe universily. As much as lhe business schooI sils al lhe hearl of lhe universily,
shares sludenls, shares slralegic Ians, shares, in lhe I.K., Research Assessmenl Lxercises, and
mosl imorlanlIy shares vilh olher dearlmenls a sile of free enquiry, seIf-deveIomenl, and
aulo-educalion lhal is loo rareIy invoked, lhere is somelhing lhal does remain differenl aboul
lhe business schooI, erhas uniqueIy. And here I musl make an anaIogy vilh lhe oinl Lric
Hobsbavn made aboul lhe faII of lhe Soviel Inion, lhal somehov, desile ils faiIures, lhe Soviel
Inion occuied a sace lhal couId be hIIed by lhe desire for communism, by somelhing lhal vas
nol cailaI.
4
As Marx said, lhe reaI nol-cailaI is Iabour and as Iong as lhal sace vas nol cailaI,
lhere vas aIvays lhe ossibiIily of imagining lhal sace as occuied by Iabour. usiness sludies
has no Soviel Inion. I do nol mean lhis direclIy obviousIy. AnlhrooIogy has no Soviel Inion lo-
day eilher. ul anlhrooIogy, or Iileralure, or hysics, can imagine ilseIf in lhe kingdom of Iabour,
hovever lransformed, and even if il loo rareIy does. usiness sludies cannol lhink communism
vilhoul lhinking ils ovn aboIilion. Whalever lhe occasionaI obfuscalion emilled from lhe busi-
ness schooI lhal il mereIy sludies comIex organisalions, business schoIars knov lheir house is
buiIl on cailaIism. Hovever nuanced lhe schoIarshi in lhe business schooI may be, il faces a
kind of absenl conslrainl. CerlainIy much Iilerary lheory, much elhnograhy oerales comforl-
abIy in lhe bourgeois vorId. ul lhal is nol lhe oinl. There remains anolher vorId for lhese
schoIars, vhelher as lhreal or olenliaI. Ior business schoIars, lhis is lhe onIy ossibIe vorId.
This enforces a kind of disciIine on business schoIars lhal lhey can imarl on lheir sludenls, and
il is lhe mosl effeclive kind of disciIine because il emerges naluraIIy, as il vere, from lheir schoI-
arshi and lhus aears nol onIy organic lo lheir lhinking bul lied lo lheir sense of lhemseIves as
arl of lhe guiId of universily academics. ul lhis disciIined insislence on lhis sile of Iabour as
a sile of cailaI vouId nol vork if lhis schoIarshi vere lhen undermined. In olher vords, if lhis
schoIarshi vilh ils insislence on lhe Iimils of ossibiIily vere lo aear lo lhe sludenls, or lo lhe
schoIars, as mereIy ideoIogicaI, as nol emerging from lhe genuine raclices and exeriences of lhe
business schooI schoIar al vork, vhich is lo say ideoIogicaI in lhe durabIe Marxisl sense, il vouId
far Iess effeclive in roducing lhis sile of cailaI. And lhis is aIvays lhe danger, lhal business
schoIars viII be forced lo recognise lhe universily as IillIe more lhan anolher vorkIace, a dan-
ger vhich, as vilh lhe business sludenls, is aIvays cIoser lo lhe surface reciseIy because of lhe
inslrumenlaI vays in vhich lhe disciIine Iinks ilseIf lo lhe markel. Il is dangerous nol because
a veII-aid business schooI academic mighl begin lo lhink of himseIf as an exIoiled vorker,
somelhing I have seen haen bul for vhich ve can onIy have conleml. No, vhal vouId be
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inloIerabIe vouId be for business schooI schoIarshi lo Iose conlroI of ils desliny, for lhis acl lo be
mere cailaIisl vork.
ecause vhal is visibIe in lhe 'elhics of business schooI'--beIief in survivaI of lhe hllesl, beIief
in seIf-romolion and seIf-crealion, beIief in comelilion, beIief in lhe individuaI and ralionaI
decision--reIies for ils ovn failh on lhe daiIy vork lhal goes on in lhe acluaIIy exisling business
schooI. In olher vords, il reIies on enaclmenls of schoIarshi and leaching lhal aear lo rove
lhis elhics. Readers vho engage in schoIarshi may vish lo dislance lhemseIves from lhis or-
lrail. ul lhe business schooI and lhe universily bear an uncanny resembIance here. Afler aII, uni-
versily schoIarshi vas organised and underslood IargeIy aIong a guiId modeI, a cailaIisl guiId
modeI. If lhe business schooI schoIar is oflen ciled for a vuIgarisalion of lhe crafl, il is nonelheIess
a vuIgarisalion of a common underslanding of crafl, shared by many schoIars beyond lhe busi-
ness schooI.
T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y A G A I N 5 T I T 5 E L F
We knov lhis modeI ersisls in Iess vuIgar forms far beyond lhe business schooI simIy by nol-
ing infamous reaclions lo any alleml lo oinl oul lhal lhe universily is a modern, induslriaI and
increasingIy osl-induslriaI vorkIace. Think of lhe infamous YaIe Iniversily slrike in vhich
lhe rofessoriale vilh onIy a very fev excelion Iined u againsl slriking vorkers. r lhe ongo-
ing ballIe al Nev York Iniversily lo unionise osl-graduale sludenls vho leach al lhe univer-
sily. Large numbers of facuIly conlinue lo insisl lhal lhe reIalionshi of lhese exIoiled graduale
sludenl-leachers is one of arenliceshi lo lhe universily nol vage Iabour. This is lo say nolhing
of lhe hislory of miIilanl schoIarshi Iinking lhe universily direclIy lo cororalions and lo lhe
miIilary, aring recenlIy in lhe I.S. miIilary's alleml lo recruil sociaI scienlisls inlo ils Human
Terrain Irogramme. AII of lhis vouId seem lo oinl lo a desliny much more bound u vilh lhe
slruggIes of olhers and lhus vilh some kind of soIidarily. Thal schoIarshi is a kind of vork, reIy-
ing on lhe cooeralion of olhers and sub|ecl lo exIoilalion does nol mean lhere is nolhing seciaI
or imorlanl aboul lhis kind of vork, bul even conceding lhis much has nol aIvays been easy
for lhose vho leach and research in lhe universily. And aIlhough lhis queslion of schoIarshi as
vork is nol a noveI one, il lakes on nev imorlance in any consideralion of vhal is going on in
lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI.
usiness schoIars mighl be lhoughl lo be Ieasl calured by such an enchanlmenl of schoIarshi,
aIlhough lhe seriousness and defensiveness vilh vhich business schoIars aroached lhe na-
lionaI Research Assessmenl Lxercise in rilain, belrays some IeveI of enchanlmenl. ul vorking
in lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI means lhal for aII lhe efforl lo bring lhe business schooI
cIose lo cailaI, lhe signs of Iabour--lhe induslriaI scaIe of leaching, lhe de-skiIIed sludenls relurn-
ing lo lhe Ieclure haII, and lhe exchangeabiIily of research roducls Iike |ournaI arlicIes--Iabour
never quile disaears from viev, and lhis can be a robIem for lhe desires of lhe business schooI,
for ils elhics. Hovever il is a robIem lhal is ameIioraled by lhis second faclor, vhich comes inlo
viev arlicuIarIy vilh lhe currenl crisis. Wilh hnance cailaI in rilain faIIing dovn around lhe
ankIes of lhe slale, vhal slands in for induslriaI oIicy in rilain lakes on nev focus, and as vilh
ils erverse Iabour oIicy, lhis induslriaI oIicy loo cenlres on lhe business schooI. Many may
have Iaughed vhen Irime Minisler Gordon rovn announced his governmenl vouId give oul
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free lhealre lickels lo young eoIe in lhe midsl of lhis crisis of hnance cailaI. ul lhey did nol
Iaugh in lhe business schooI. The crealive induslries are laken vilh increasing seriousness in lhe
business schooI. Iulling cuIlure lo vork may or may nol soIve a robIem for lhe Labour govern-
menl, bul lhey do soIve one for lhe business schooI.
The crealive induslries assure lhe business schooI lhal individuaI crealivily, exression, and oin-
ion are nol |usl comalibIe, bul lhrough lhe lroe of enlrereneurshi, essenliaI lo free markels,
comelilion, and rohl. Whal beller vay lo shore u lhe doubls of business schooI schoIars vho
in lheir veaker momenls mighl see lhe business schooI as nolhing more lhan lhe Iace lhey vork,
and lhe sludenls as nolhing more lhan varehoused vorkers in lheir lens of lhousands, nol fulure
business Ieaders` The acluaIIy exisling business schooI has embraced enlrereneurshi as lhe
guaranlee of aulhenlic aulhorshi in lhe markel and in lhe universily, and vilh lhe crealive in-
duslries, vhose dehnilion for lhe universily runs from lhealre aII lhe vay lo lhe use of lhe arls in
medicine lo simuIalion games combining hysics and economics, enlrereneurshi nov reIaces
exceIIence as lhe key organising rinciIe nol |usl of lhe business schooI, bul of lhe universily.
Reassured lhrough lhe crealive induslries lhal lhe schoIarshi lhey do in lhe universily remains
lhal of lhe individuaI enlrereneur nol lhe bureaucral or lhe manager much Iess lhe osl-fordisl
vorker, business schooI schoIars are sel lo Iead lhe enlerrise in lhe universily.
T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y I N T H E B U 5 I N E 5 5 5 C H O O L
To allend a conference in lhe business schooI loday is nol lo Iislen lo queslions of differenlialion,
of markels or roducls, bul of difference, and as IikeIy as nol a cilalion from Iilerary sludies or
even osl-slrucluraIisl lheory viII conhrm lhal lhis conference is indeed aboul difference nol dif-
ferenlialion. To Iislen lo a schoIar from London usiness SchooI or Manchesler usiness SchooI
give a keynole al such a conference is lo Iislen lo an anaIysl vho viII leII you lhal managemenl
is discursive, lhal il is cuIluraIIy reIalive and maIIeabIe, and lhal organisalions are aboul over.
There viII be caIIs for a crilicaI aroach lo lhe maller. Indeed, seven hundred such business
schooI schoIars galhered Iasl year in Manchesler under lhe banner of 'crilicaI managemenl slud-
ies'. Amid aII lhe laIk of lhe business schooI laking over lhe universily, lhe universily's inuence
on lhe business schooI in lhese conferences seems equaIIy aarenl. And lhe imorlance of lhis
cross-ferliIisalion al lhe IeveI of securing lhe raclice of schoIarshi in lhe acluaIIy exisling busi-
ness schooI cannol be undereslimaled.
SliII il is lrue lhal business schooI elhics have enlered lhe universily arlicuIarIy lhrough lhe idea
of enlrereneurshi, vhich has reIaced lhe lerm exceIIence idenlihed by iII Readings, ilseIf a
lerm lhal circuIaled videIy in ouIar managemenl before resling in lhe universily.
5
In lhe era
of lhe crealive induslries vhere nol |usl differenlialion bul difference is said lo make money,
lhal is vhal is lruIy unfamiIiar, surrising, said lo be unique, unreealabIe, even uncomforlabIe,
lhe lerm exceIIence has lhe avkvard and aIready oId-fashioned ring of lhe generaI equivaIenl
aboul il, of lhe very ossibiIily of comarison lhal lhe incomarabIe enlrereneur seeks lo es-
cae crealiveIy. Nov in fairness lo Readings he made lhe oinl lhal lhis generaI equivaIenl vas
arlicuIarIy difhcuIl lo measure and lhus quick lo aear maniuIaled. Nor has exceIIence gone
avay, as for inslance in lhe seclacIe of lhe RAL. ul lhe universily has laken from lhe business
schooI lhis nolion of enlrereneurshi and sel il lo vork, on ils ovn vorkforce, bolh leacher and
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sludenl, and on arls, humanilies, and sciences. Iinance may have given enlrereneurshi a bad
name recenlIy, bul lied lo more venerabIe forms of schoIarshi, enlrereneurshi remains lhe bel
on lhe fulure.
ul il is nol |usl belveen lhe business schooI and lhe universily lhal lhe crealive induslries ov
loday, overed by a nev form of energy caIIed enlrereneurshi. As David Harvey oinled oul
severaI years ago in an imorlanl arlicIe caIIed The Arl of Renl, lhe cily, vhose ouIalion vas
once lhe hysicaI embodimenl of lhe generaI equivaIenl, is loday being re-branded as lhe sace of
difference.
6
Today vorking cIass neighbourhoods are renamed as unique saces of urban exeri-
menl, allracling vhal lhe American oIicy guru Richard IIorida caIIs lhe crealive cIasses.
7
rechl
said arl vas a veaon bul loday il is a veaon againsl soIidarily because of course lhe olher side
of lhe generaI equivaIenl vas reciseIy lhe sociaIily of such vorking cIass neighbourhoods. The
emergence of lhe crealive induslries is lhe coming logelher of cailaI and Iabour on lhe relence
lhal il is nol lhe exchangeabiIily of Iabour lhal cailaI vaIues, bul ils irreIaceabiIily. This may
vork as a nev saliaI hx for cailaI, somelhing lhal vouId seem arlicuIarIy imorlanl in Iighl
of lhe faiIure of hnance lo suslain inveslmenl, bul il does nol vork as a form of command over
Iabour. If lhe designer, lhe arlisl, lhe erformer, lhe scienlisl, lhe crilic, lhe schoIar, or lhe sludenl,
vere reaIIy differenl, vere reaIIy vaIued for lheir difference nol lheir equivaIence lo lhe degree lhe
crealive induslries decIare, il is hard lo see hov cailaI couId mainlain ils hegemony over Iabour.
Lnler lhe universily. r nol quile lhe universily bul ralher vhal ve mighl caII lhe Melroversily.
M E T R O V E R 5 I T Y
If one vere a manager in lhe crealive induslries faced vilh lhis idea lhal il is difference lhal cre-
ales vaIue in your induslry, and your vorkers vho creale difference, vhere vouId you lurn for
a modeI of managemenl` The ansver is nol |usl lhe acluaIIy exisling business schooI bul lhe
acluaIIy exisling universily. Here one hnds increasingIy nol so much seIf-managemenl, so-caIIed
facuIly governance, bul lhe managemenl of aII by aII under condilions of markel ressure. Lach
|udges lhe olhers conlribulion lo originaI schoIarshi bul nov under condilions of gelling granls,
and allracling nev sludenls from China, and crealing sin-off comanies. Yel each hoIds lo an
idea of crafl, lo lhe hoe of some reaI difference in vork lhal againsl lhe evidence is reaIIy his or
hers. Lven dearlmenlaI democracy can be lransosed lo vorkIace arlicialion, vhere in facl
a fev rofessionaIs make decisions aboul a much Iarger vorkforce, in lhe case of universilies lhis
vorkforce is lhe sludenls, vho afler aII are nol |usl lhe buIk of Iabour in lhe universily bul vho
do lhe buIk of Iabour, and in lhe case of mosl crealive induslries lhis a vorkforce of inlerns, voI-
unleers, adminislralive assislanls, lechnicaI assislanls, and even audiences.
ul il is nol |usl lhis modeI of managemenl lhal characlerizes lhe Melroversily loday bul aIso
vhal IaoIo Do of lhe Rome-based coIIeclive Ldu-faclory caIIs lhe nev command over knovI-
edge, lhal is, over lhe roducl of lhe crealive induslries.
8
As no cailaIisl enlerrise vouId viII-
ingIy submil ilseIf lo a free markel vhen il couId delermine vhal lhal markel vaIues inslead,
so lhe crealive induslries viII emIoy lhe universily lo hx vaIue in cerlain knovIedge, cerlain
exressions, cerlain reresenlalions, cerlain media. Where beller lo lurn lhan lhe universily lo
hx such a markel` Il is aIready adel al ranking such lhings and has, aIready in Iace, a modeI
of managemenl lo do il. The Melroversily viII nol mean lhe end of lhe universily, or lhe end of
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olher induslries in lhe cily, aIlhough increasingIy lhose viII oinl Iike magnelised hIings in lhe
direclion of lhe crealive induslries. ul il does mean lhal lhe universily as a sile of somelhing lhal
Ired Molen and I have laken lo caIIing simIy 'sludy', lo oinl lo a coIIeclive aclivily of Iearning
nol geared lo an oulcome, becomes increasingIy endangered.
9
ul erhas more imorlanlIy for
lhe melrooIis, erhas for sociely as a vhoIe, il means a nev slruggIe has oened u around
lhe very ossibiIily of crealivily. This is nol lhe oId slruggIe around lhe commodihcalion of arl
vhich nov aears aImosl quainl, bul lhe slruggIe lo resisl every acl of crealivily being aIready
and immedialeIy aIso cailaIisl vork. To risk nol lhe roducls of crealivily bul lhe crealive acl
ilseIf means hrsl and foremosl lhe need for a nev kind of vigiIance around lhe lerm ilseIf. There
is aIready an exression of lhis lhreal in lhe American business schooI vhere lhey say, 'lhe MIA
is lhe nev MA'. SchooIs of Crealive Induslries are svaIIoving arls and humanilies rogrammes
vhoIe from WaIes lo Washinglon, Iacing lhem al lhe service of everylhing from business innova-
lion and crealivily in lhe vorkIace lo nev inleIIecluaI roerly righls and lhe roleclion of lhis
crealivily.
These nev formalions in lhe universily viII make lhe ordering of arls and humanilies knovI-
edge, ils vaIualion, more slream-Iined and accessibIe for lhe slrucluring of markels in lhe crealive
economy, and eseciaIIy for lhe slrucluring of Iabour markels. A nev Iabour rocess crossing lhe
universily formalions and sreading oul across lhe neighbourhoods of lhe crealive cIasses is be-
ing forged. Wilhoul lhe fences and Iale gIass of faclories and ofhces lo roduce cailaIisl lime
and sace, lhe forging of lhis Iabour rocess is hazardous, bul again lhe modeI of lhe academic
vho is never 'off-duly' and vhose research, no maller vhere il lakes Iace or vhen, beIongs lo
lhe universily, may rove a usefuI modeI lo adal. A kind of Iabour rocess lhal never ends in
lime or sace, a kind of Iabour rocess for vhich Ieisure and seIf-exression are nol lhe anlidole
bul lhe fueI. These viII be lhe coiIing Iines of slruggIe inlo vhich business schooI Ieads ils vare-
housed vorkers, and vilh lhem lhe universily. The acluaIIy exisling business schooI is of much
grealer concern lhan lhe elhics il ro|ecls.
NOTE5
1
Iackburn, P|cics rcpu||ic, 34
2
Iackburn, P|cics rcpu||ic,

, 38
3
NevheId, |tq cn! in!usirq.
4
Hobsbavm, ul of lhe greal, 3-5.
5
Readings, 1nc unitcrsiiq.
6
Harvey, The arl, 93-11O.
7
IIorida, 1nc risc.
8
Do, No fulure, 3O3-311.
9
Molen and Harney, There are sludenls,
159-175.
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REFERENCE5
Iackburn, Simon. 2OO6. P|cics rcpu||ic.
A |icgrcpnq. Nev York, Grove Iress.
Do, IaoIo. 2OO8. No fulure. |pncmcrc.
1nccrq cn! pc|iiics in crgcnizciicn 8|3j:
3O3-311.
IIorida, Richard. 2OO2. The Rise of lhe
Crealive CIass. Nev York: asic
ooks.
Harvey, David. 2OO2. The arl of renl. In
Sccic|isi rcgisicr, c!. Icc Ianilch and
CoIin Leys, 93-11O. London: MonlhIy
Reviev Iress.
Hobsbavm, Lric. 1996. ul of lhe greal
dark vhaIe. Icn!cn rcticu cj |cc|s 18
|21j: 3-5.
Molen, Ired and Slefano Harney. 2OO9.
There are sludenls in lhe universily:
A roundlabIe discussion. Pc|qgrcpn.
cn inicrnciicnc| jcurnc| cj cu|iurc cn!
pc|iiics 21: 159-175.
NevheId, Chrisloher. 2OO3. |tq cn!
in!usirq. Busincss cn! inc mc|ing cj inc
Amcriccn unitcrsiiq, 1880-1980. Dur-
ham NC: Duke Iniversily Iress.
Readings, iII. 1997. 1nc unitcrsiiq in
ruins. Cambridge MA: Harvard Ini-
versily Iress.
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Thc InInrmatInna! unIvcrsIty, thc
uncvcn dIstrIbutInn nI cxpcrtIsc
and thc racIa!IzatInn nI !abnur
*
Ncd RnssItcr
In his book Nicc Wcr| |j Ycu Ccn Gci |i, Andrev Ross oens lhe hnaI
chaler on The Rise of lhe GIobaI Iniversily vilh lhe foIIoving as-
sessmenl: 'Higher educalion has nol been immune lo lhe imacl of
economic gIobaIizalion. Indeed, ils inslilulions are nov on lhe brink
of channeIing some of lhe mosl dynamic, and lherefore deslabiIizing,
lendencies of neoIiberaI markelizalion'.
1
ArguabIy, one of lhe cenlraI
reasons higher educalion embodies lhe inlensily of lransformalions
vroughl by neoIiberaIism has lo do vilh vays in vhich osl-Iordisl
Iabour is 'muIliIied and divided'.
2
The oIilicaI-economic lechnoIogies of measure are key lo lhe division
of Iabour in and across universily sellings. A quick Iisling of examIes
is sufhcienl lo gel an idea of vhal I am laIking aboul here: syslems of
ranking inslilulions of higher educalion vilhin a gIobaI frame serve
lo dislinguish universilies and lhe Iabour vilhin lhem aIong nalionaI
and geocuIluraI Iines of division, lhis in lurn shaes lhe gIobaI mobiI-
ily of sludenls and lhus lhe Iogic of economic accumuIalion, again
dividing universilies, Iabour and disciIines in lerms of markel com-
elilion and geocuIluraI segmenlalion. The conslruclion of seciaI
economic zones for higher educalion, vhich is mosl nolabIe across
lhe Asian, MiddIe Laslern and African regions, funclions lo divide
nalionaI markels inlernaIIy and exlernaIIy aIong lhe Iines of domeslic
and gIobaI saliaIilies lhal have imIicalions for income generalion
derived from leaching and research aclivilies in lerms of lhe scoe
of sludenl calchmenl and inslilulionaI sources for research funding.
The oIilicaI-economic archileclure of inleIIecluaI roerly regimes
is anolher slale suorled device lhrough vhich Iines of division are
conslrucled belveen vhal McKenzie Wark has lermed lhe 'vecloraI
cIass' (lhose vho rorielise and lhus encIose lhe roduclive efforls
of biooIilicaI Iabour) and lhe 'hacker cIass' (lhose engaged in lhe
NED RO55ITER
IS AN AISTRALIAN
MLDIA THLRIST
AND ASSCIATL IR-
ILSSR I NLTWRK
CILTIRLS, INIVLRSI-
TY I NTTINGHAM,
NING, CHINA AND
AD}INCT SLNIR
RLSLARCH ILLLW,
CLNTRL IR CILTIR-
AL RLSLARCH, INI-
VLRSITY I WLSTLRN
SYDNLY, AISTRALIA.
HL IS AITHR I OR-
GAN|Z|D N|1WORKS.
M|D|A 1H|ORY,
CR|A1|V| IABOUR,
N|W |NS1|1U1|ONS
(2OO6). HTTI:11RG-
NLTS.NLT 1 HTTI:11
NLDRSSITLR.RG
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ISSN 2O78-3884
coIIaboralive vork of co-roduclion and crealion of lhe common).
3
Iniversilies and cororalions
have soughl lo furlher eslabIish syslems of measure from such Iabour lhrough lhe gIobaI rank-
ings of |ournaIs and cilalion indices. Such rankings overvheImingIy favour |ournaIs lhal are arl
of AngIo-American ubIishing consorlia lhal over lhe asl 2O years have sel oul lo aggressiveIy
lakeover lhe fev remaining indeendenl |ournaIs lhal suorl research and inleIIecluaI debale in
nalionaI and regionaI sellings. The effecl of lhis has been lo consoIidale lhe hegemony of gIobaI
LngIish and erode lhe conneclion belveen lhe roduclion of knovIedge and ils frequenlIy IocaI
sociaI-oIilicaI condilions of ossibiIily. This, nolvilhslanding lhe facl lhal lhe very nolion of lhe
IocaI has become enormousIy comIicaled vilh lhe consoIidalion of economic and cuIluraI gIo-
baIisalion couIed vilh lhe rise of lhe nelvork sociely.
AddilionaI Iines of division oerale in lerms of vhal Andrev Ross caIIs lhe 'nev geograhy of
vork', and vhal I'm vishing lo frame in lhis essay as lhe uneven dislribulion of exerlise. Incor-
oraled inlo lhe uneven dislribulion of exerlise is lhe raciaIisalion of Iabour, bolh of vhich con-
necl back lo lhe conslruclion of seciaI economic zones for gIobaI universilies. Il is on lhis basis
lhal my essay concIudes lhal lhe 21sl cenlury informalionaI universily in ils gIobaI manifesla-
lions is in many vays dislurbingIy simiIar lo rograms of inslilulion formalion and lhe manage-
menl of ouIalions underlaken by 19lh cenlury coIoniaI overs. I viII deveIo lhese asecls of
my argumenl shorlIy, bul hrsl I vish lo say a fev more lhings aboul lhe muIliIicalion of Iabour
and hov lhis dynamic and condilion reIales lo lhe rise of lhe informalionaI universily.
T H E I N F O R M A T I O N A L U N I V E R 5 I T Y A N D T H E
P R O D U C T I O N O F T H E C O M M O N
In his book Hcu inc Unitcrsiiq Wcr|s, Marc ousquel's cruciaI insighl is lhal lhe exibiIisalion
of Iabour is al lhe cenlre of lhe informalisalion of lhe universily as il embraces lhe force of neo-
IiberaI regimes.
4
This orienlalion of Iabour around rocesses of informalisalion dravs on vork
underlaken by various researchers associaled vilh IlaIian osl-cpcrcismc lhoughl. ne of lhe key
anaIylicaI and oIilicaI recels deveIoed oul of such vork, as summarised recenlIy by Tiziana
Terranova, makes lhe dislinclion belveen lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue and lhe modeI of cIassi-
caI oIilicaI economy, vhich measures lhe lime and cosl of Iabour in delermining lhe roduclion
of commodily vaIue.
5
MichaeI Hardl and Anlonio Negri nole lhal lradilionaI modeIs of measure (e.g. inleIIecluaI ro-
erly regimes, universily and |ournaI ranking syslems, cilalion indicalors, elc., aII of vhich oer-
ale vilhin lhe conlemorary neoIiberaI, informalionaI universily), and lhus of lhe Iav of vaIue,
are in crisis loday due lo rofound conlradiclions vilhin lhe force of economic gIobaIisalion and
lhe muIliIe anlagonisms belveen lhe cooeralive Iogic of biooIilicaI Iabour and cailaIism's
mechanisms of exrorialing lhe veaIlh of lhe common as il is roduced by lhe crealivily of
biooIilicaI Iabour.
6
In his diaIogue vilh Negri, Cesare Casarino reilerales lhis oinl, noling hov
lhe common rovides 'lhe Iocus of surIus vaIue' for cailaI, vhose aaraluses of calure--or
regimes of measure--exroriale lhe veaIlh of lhe common.
7
A dislinclion needs lo be made here belveen lhe concel of inc ccmmcn and lhal of inc ccmmcns.
The Ialler is associaled vilh rocesses of encIosure and rorielary conlroI of lhal vhich vas
(eU |Cssile| l|e i(|C|maliC(a| U(ive|sil_ L/
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reviousIy coIIecliveIy ovned and managed. In a neoIiberaI aradigm, such a rocess has been
marked by lhe shifl of ubIic goods lo rivale ovnershi. The key oinl here is lhal lhe commons-
-vhelher lhey are underslood in lerms of ecoIogy, cuIlure or reIalionshis--are redicaled on lhe
duaI Iogic of scarcily and ovnershi, and are lhus assumed lo be resources in need of roleclion.
Wilhin sociaI democracies, lhe slale is frequenlIy besloved vilh such a roIe. The commons is lhus
ascribed a reresenlalionaI quaIily.
The common, by conlrasl, cannol be ovned or managed, mosl eseciaIIy by slalisl formalions
lhal assume lhe idenlily of lhe eoIe or lhe ubIic. The common does nol oerale vilhin lhe Iog-
ic of reresenlalion, in olher vords, and inslead is a force mobiIised lhrough non-reresenlalionaI
reIalions and lhe muIliIicalion of biooIilicaI Iabour. Nor is lhe common a resource underscored
by lhe Iogic of scarcily. And vhiIe lhe common hoIds an economic olenliaI--somelhing lhal is
made cIear in lhe momenl of exrorialion--ils 'veaIlh' is nol inherenlIy economic. As I have
vrillen eIsevhere vilh Soenke ZehIe, 'If ve undersland lhe ccmmcns lo refer bolh lo lhe maleriaI
conlexl and lhe consequence of raclices of eer-roduclion, lhe ccmmcn is lhe oIilicaI olenliaI
immanenl in such raclices. Such an underslanding of lhe common siluales il conceluaIIy as
lhe Ialesl ileralion of lhe oIilicaI, |usl as lhere exisls an excess of lhe oIilicaI over oIilics, lhe
afhrmalion of lhe common is offered as a condilion of ossibiIily for coIIaboralive conslilulion,
for lhe sharing of affecls of Iove, soIidarily or vralh, and for lhe lransIalion of such affecls and
exeriences across lhe irreducibIe idiomalicily of elhico-oIilicaI raclices'.
8
Casarino makes lhe 'imorlanl quaIihcalion' lhal lhere is aIvays a remainder of lhe common lhal
is nol arorialed by cailaI. There is lhe suggeslion lhal lhis 'oulside' or 'exlernaIily' rovides
lhe oinl of searalion belveen cailaI and lhe common, vhich olhervise risk becoming indis-
linguishabIe. The recise conlenl of lhis common is Iefl vilhoul eIaboralion by Casarino. My
sense is lhal asymmelricaI inslilulionaI-sociaI lemoraIilies belveen cailaI and lhe common are
key here. Where lhe universily is oflen accused of being 'oul of lime' or 'loo sIov' by lhose vho
heaviIy idenlify vilh lhe business seclor and induslry, erhas one couId aIso suggesl lhal lhe
lime of lhe common and Iiving Iabour hoIds a seciaI comIexily lhal refuses absorlion inlo ca-
ilaI's aaraluses of calure and regimes of measure, vhich are aIvays circumscribed in a vay
lhal Iiving Iabour is nol. I can onIy nole such secuIalions in assing--lhe emiricaI-conceluaI
conlenl here is lhe sluff of fulure research.
When lransferred lo lhe selling of lhe universily and ils lransformalion under condilions of eco-
nomic gIobaIisalion, queslions such as lhe foIIoving emerge: Hov does lhe sociaI roduclion
of vaIue (brand desire, affecl, sub|eclivily, onIine sociaI nelvorking, elc.) shae lhe commodily
vaIue of lhe universily degree` Whal reIalion does lhis have vilh lhe gIobaIisalion of higher
educalion` And hov does lhe informalionaI universily--dehned increasingIy by rivalisalion (as
dislincl from being a ubIic good), Iabour exibiIily and informalionaI managemenl--reIale lo lhe
sociaI roduclion of vaIue`
Lel me oulIine in concrele fashion hov lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue shaes lhe commodily
vaIue of lhe universily degree. Anyone vho is aslule lo lhe condilions of cognilive Iabour vilhin
universilies viII nol have lroubIe making lhe conneclion belveen diminishing numbers of fuII-
lime facuIly, increasing casuaIisalion of leaching slaff, lhe massive exansion in adminislralive
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Iabour and lhe viraI-Iike roIiferalion of manageriaI ersonas, lhe slrucluraI reroduclion of ado-
Iescenl research sub|eclivilies lhrough shorl-lime conlracls for |unior researchers on cross-univer-
sily ro|ecls and vhal I vouId lerm lhe incaacily of lhe disciIines lo invenl nev conceluaI and
melhodoIogicaI idioms of raclice.
Il is a veII knovn if rareIy arlicuIaled slralegy of refusaI for coordinalors of course moduIes lo
reissue lhe same maleriaI for sludenls year in and year oul. AdmilledIy lhis is a raclice lhal has
gone on for years in universilies, bul il lakes on subslanliaIIy differenl hues vilh lhe shifl from
lhe ubIic-slale universily lo lhe seudo-cororale and informalionaI universily. Whereas lhe
academic of lhe ubIic universily vho lrolled oul lhe same moduIe oulIine every year vas |uslih-
abIy accused of inleIIecluaI and edagogicaI Iaziness, lhese days il is more a maller of survivaI
as academics slruggIe lo manage an enormous increase in manageriaI and adminislralive vork-
Ioads lhal accomany lhe ever-exanding mechanisms lhal dehne lhe madness of audil cuIlures
(anolher fealure lhal dehnes lhe informalionaI universily). Come lhe slarl of a nev semesler, il is
nol uncommon for academics vho have senl vhalever recess from leaching dulies by vriling
granls, underlaking marking, fuIhIIing adminislralive dulies, meeling vilh disserlalion sludenls
and maybe, if Iucky, engaging in some research, lo lhen hnd lhemseIves having no lime lo rede-
veIo oId course maleriaIs (forgel aboul roducing nev maleriaIs), and lhus resorl oul of des-
eralion and seIf-survivaI lo reeal vhalever il vas lhal lhey laughl lhe revious year.
The resuIl of such raclice--vhich I vouId execl lo be videsread across lhe seclor--is lhal disci-
Iines become imoverished. You mighl counler lhis charge by leIIing me il is lhe |ob of research
lo rovide lhe maleriaI of innovalion for lhe disciIines. To do so faIIs inlo lhe lra of riviIeging
research and lhus dividing lhe imorlanl and muluaIIy informing reIalionshi belveen research
and leaching. Moreover, il assumes lhal research aclivily is acluaIIy doing lhe |ob of disciIinary
reinvenlion. I vouId suggesl lhal, lo lhe conlrary, lhe vasl ma|orily of nalionaI and suranalionaI
funded research--eseciaIIy in lhe humanilies--is funded on lhe grounds lhal il reroduces lhe or-
lhodoxies of lhe disciIines, in vhich case very IillIe is gained by vay of disciIinary innovalion.
This brings me lo lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue. When academics no Ionger have lhe lime and
erhas inleIIecluaI slamina Iel aIone curiosily lo lesl lhe borders of lheir disciIines, vhal do
lhey do` WeII, in simiIar fashion lo cailaI--and indeed, reciseIy because lhey are sub|ecls of lhe
cororale, informalionaI universily--lhey Iook lo arorialing lhe crealivily of lhe common. In
my ovn heId of nev media sludies, il has become very cIear over lhe asl 1O years lhal academics
have conlribuled very IillIe by vay of conceluaI and melhodoIogicaI invenlion. Such vork has
been underlaken oulside and on lhe margins of lhe academy by arlisls, aclivisls, comuler geeks
and media lheorisls.
Hov is such vork underlaken` Il is underlaken lhrough raclices of coIIaboralive conslilulion
and lhe muIliIicalion of Iabour made ossibIe by lhe mode of informalion and lhe media of digi-
laI communicalion.
9
The key sociaI-lechnicaI fealures here of exibiIily, adalalion, dislribulive
co-roduclion, informalionaI recombinalion, oen1free conlenl and code, and moduIaling axes
of organisalion (bolh horizonlaI and verlicaI) aII dehne lhe cuIlure and Iabour of nelvorks. And
as lhe generalive conlenl of lhe common is absorbed and more oflen encIosed by non-generalive
rorielary regimes lhal funclion lo shore u lhe borders of lhe cororale universily, lhere is aIso
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an informalionaI dimension of oen and generalive nelvork cuIlures lhal is carried over and
inlerenelrales lhe inslilulionaI dynamic of lhe universily.
AcluaIIy, an increasing number of universilies are recognising lhe vaIue of adoling oen conlenl
raclices--MIT's enCourseWare being one of lhe more videIy knovn examIes.
1O
The reason
for lhis has lo do vilh lhe facl lhal lhere is very IillIe 'roducl differenlialion' across degree ro-
grams from one universily lo lhe nexl, and universilies are sIovIy bul sureIy underslanding lhal
economic Ieverage for higher educalion comes nol from lhe saIe of re-ackaged, slalic maleriaI
(aIlhough lhis is sliII lhe dominanl economic modeI). Ralher, lhey see lheir business as lhal of
avarding degrees (i.e. granling an inslilulionaI1symboIic Iegilimacy uon a Iearning exerience,
vhich is lhe basis of delermining luilion fees) and service deIivery. This is a modeI lhal effecliveIy
duIicales lhe business modeI of oen source soflvare roviders vho undersland lhal users
(incIuding educalionaI inslilulions, cororalions, smaII businesses and organisalions) execl lo
dovnIoad conlenl (oeraling syslems and ofhce soflvare, for examIe) for free, bul are lhen viII-
ing lo ay for Iabour lhal cuslomises lhe soflvare lo secihc inslilulionaI needs, vilh foIIov-u
service as required.
T H E U N E V E N D I 5 T R I B U T I O N O F E X P E R T I 5 E
Whal is lhe reIalion belveen lhe informalionaI universily and lhe uneven dislribulion of exer-
lise across lhe higher-educalion Iandscae` Indeed, vhal is exerlise and vho is an exerl` And
vhal are lhe geocuIluraI conhguralions uon vhich such reIalions mighl be maed oul` Wilh
lhe rise of Web 2.O and ils allendanl seIf-ubIishing and romolion Ialforms such as bIogs, vikis,
Tviller and YouTube, everyone lhese days is an exerl. In some resecls lhis seeming democrali-
salion of knovIedge roduclion is a slrucluraI henomenon broughl aboul by lhe oulsourcing of
Iabour and conlenl roduclion in lhe media induslries. These days, even lhe cororalions vanl
everylhing for free. And vilh lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue, vhich in lhe case of nevs media
comes in lhe form of cilizen-|ournaIism lhal viIIingIy suIies conlenl for free, lhe cosl of Iabour
is effecliveIy removed from lhe baIance sheel.
Hov, lhough, does lhis CuIl of lhe Amaleur imacl uon lhe dislribulion of exerlise vilhin lhe
universily` Wilh lhe rise of mass educalion and user-ay syslems, many academics novadays
comIain of lhe 'dumbing dovn' of curricuIa. Academic dearlmenls have become in mosl cases
aImosl enlireIy deendenl on income derived from sludenl fees, vilh inlernalionaI sludenls mak-
ing u a subslanliaI orlion of annuaI budgels. This is eseciaIIy ronounced in universilies in
AuslraIia vhere, afler lvo decades of arliaI dereguIalion and massive culs in governmenl ex-
endilure on educalion, il has become a rouline raclice for academics lo sIide sludenls over lhe
ever-diminishing hurdIes of assessmenl. If lhey didn'l, lhen lhe securily of lheir ovn |obs vouId
be al slake.
SimiIar raclices are lhe norm in rilish and Norlh American universilies, no maller vhal lhe
'quaIily assurance' reorls mighl say lo lhe conlrary. Such syslems of measure Iong ago Iosl any
reIalionshi vilh lheir referenl and funclion in a very simiIar vay lo lhe roduclion of ubIic
oinion, vhich does nol exisl according lo ourdieu's comeIIing lhesis.
11
Whal does exisl is lhe
ever-increasing exlension of seIf-referenliaI reorling measures inlo lhe lime of academic vork.
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The lyranny of audil cuIlures inscribes academic sub|ecls inlo discursive raclices of accounlabiI-
ily and condilions lhe over-roduclion of adminislralive funclionaries, vhose |ob is lo kee lrack
of lhe bureaucralic madness lhal such syslems guaranlee.
Nol onIy has lhe deendency reIalionshi on sludenl fees had subslanlive imacls on lhe de-
sign and conlenl of curricuIa, il has aIso exacled a loII on lhe caacily for academics lo kee
abreasl vilh--Iel aIone make conlribulions lo--advances in lheir heId. IncreasingIy, lhe insislence
by sludenls and adminislralion for enlerlainmenl-on-demand slyIes of nol so much leaching
bul 'course deIivery' has resuIled in more academic lime exended on mainlaining onIine ad-
minislralion and conlenl managemenl syslems such as lhe nolorious WebCT and Iackboard.
(AIlhough for reasons I faiI lo undersland, such syslems are embraced vilh an obsessive degree
of deIighl by some coIIeagues I've vorked vilh over lhe years).
Wilhin condilions such as lhese, vhich again are lyicaI of lhe informalionaI universily, il vouId
seem lhe very nolion of exerlise is in crisis. And arguabIy il is. ul lhere are aIso vays in vhich
exerlise is uheId, since once il can be quanlihed as measure a cruciaI symboIic vaIue can lhen
be accrued lhal can lhen be lransferred as brand vaIue for individuaI academics and lheir in-
slilulions. This in lurn resuIls in a caacily lo charge higher sludenl fees and allracl lhe much
vaunled exlernaI research funds, vhose board of assessors Iace greal emhasis on so-caIIed 'es-
leem indicalors' rovided by |ournaI ranking syslems and cilalion indices vhich hoId lheir ovn
geocuIluraI and oIilicaI economic bias lhal reinforces vhal HaroId Innis lermed 'monooIies of
knovIedge'.
12
Such measures suosedIy confer uon lhe body of academic research a 'quaIily
assurance' lhal effecliveIy removes from lhe assessor lhe lask of crilicaI assessmenl, vhich is nov
designed lo be as aulomaled and lherefore as lime efhcienl as ossibIe. Again, lhese are some of
lhe key fealures lhal characlerise an informalionaI mode of knovIedge managemenl. Though il
remains lo be said, lhe caIibralion of such syslems of aulomalion are deeIy ideoIogicaI and un-
derscored by cabaIs of seIf-inleresled academic grous and individuaIs.
This brief survey of leaching and research raclices vilhin lhe informalionaI universily comrise
vhal Andrev Ross has lermed lhe 'nev geograhy vork'. A far-from-uniform informalionaI
geograhy of inleIIecluaI roerly regimes, conlenl managemenl syslems, dalabase economies,
exibIe Iabour and oen conlenl roduclion becomes inlegraled vilh a geocuIluraI syslem lhal
vaIorises lhe reroduclion of Weslern knovIedge lradilions and hegemony of gIobaI LngIish.
13

There are furlher imIicalions here for disciIinary innovalion and lhe roduclion of sub|eclivily.
Wilh lhe rise of lhe gIobaI universily, IocaI knovIedge lradilions and exerlise have very veak
urchase vilhin an educalionaI-machine lhal demands modes of exibIe, |usl-in-lime deIivery
rovided by slaff in conlracl osilions vhose slrucluraI and onloIogicaI insecurily is offsel by
IargeIy generic course moduIes vhose uniformily ensures a famiIiar oinl of enlry for lhe nexl
shorl-lerm academic hired by lhe gIobaI universily.
T H E R A C I A L I 5 A T I O N O F L A B O U R
In vhich cases mighl a raciaIisalion of Iabour underscore lhe informalionaI universily` In shorl,
vhal are lhe Iabour inequaIilies lhal shae lhe markel of higher educalion on a gIobaI scaIe and
hov are nev (or, as lhe case may be, neo-coIoniaI) cIass sub|eclivilies being reroduced` There
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are muIliIe hues of Iabour differenlialion across universilies al a gIobaI IeveI. To make lhe cIaim
of differenlialion aIong lhe Iines of race is lo suggesl a reroduclion of lhe 19lh cenlury bioIogicaI
calegory of race as lhe basis uon vhich division is oeraling. The ofhciaI osilioning of univer-
silies across lhe vorId vouId be mosl dehanl in mainlaining lhal lhis is cerlainIy nol lhe case,
and indeed may be incIined lo issue IegaI vrils againsl anyone making such a charge, if il vas
erceived lhal brand damage vas a slake.
NearIy lvenly years ago, Llienne aIibar and ImmanueI WaIIerslein observed lhal 'in lradilionaI
or nev forms (lhe derivalion of vhich is, hovever, recognizabIe), rccism is nci rccc!ing, |ui prc-
grcssing in lhe conlemorary vorId'.
14
ArguabIy, lhis is no Iess lhe case loday, and one of lhe siles
uon vhich racism has become reroduced, aIbeil in nev guises, is lhal of lhe informalionaI
universily. The calegory of race, as aIibar and WaIIerslein go on lo anaIyse, is one of lhe key
modaIilies enIisled in lhe conslruclion of lhe 'eoIe', or vhal IoucauIl anaIysed in lerms of lhe
biooIilicaI roduclion of lerrilory, ouIalions, securily and sub|eclivily.
15
lher sociaI-oIilicaI
devices lhrough vhich ouIalions are consliluled incIude lhe nalion, cIass, elhnicily, gender and
broadcasl media of communicalion. Hov lhe calegory of race inlersecls vilh lhese lechnoIogies
of governance lhal dehne lhe rise of lhe nalion-slale and induslriaI modernily has been a maller
of considerabIe research, vhich is in no vay exhausled yel. Il may seem a surrise lo many lhal
lhe seemingIy archaic calegory of race shouId hgure vilhin lhe lime and sace of informalionaI
modernilies. ul, as I go lo shov, forms of inslilulionaI racism are cenlraI lo lhe robIem of Iabour
vilhin lhe gIobaI universily.
Lel me concIude by briey documenling lhe oeralion of vhal aIibar lerms 'racism vilhoul
races' vilh reference lo lhe division of Iabour and uneven dislribulion of exerlise oeraling al
gIobaI universilies resenl in China. Hov lo siluale lhe differences belveen Iabour regimes in lhe
gIobaI universily and lhose of 19lh cenlury coIoniaIism` In form lhey are simiIar. In bolh cases
indigenous eIiles are enIisled as adminislralors lo rovide lhe Iinguislic and cuIluraI inlerface
belveen lhe imeriaI inslilulion and IocaI ouIalions, vhich incIude governmenl ofhciaIs and
induslry reresenlalives. ul one key difference is lhal a reIaliveIy high-ranking ofhciaI such as
myseIf in lhe 19lh cenlury couId freeIy have Iavished aII lhe raciaI eilhels on lhe Iover ranking
coIoniaIs. Today, hovever, someone such as myseIf has lo be carefuI aboul hov lhe discourse on
race is handIed since il couId endanger my osilion, lo say nolhing of lhe offence il may rovoke.
There's a difference here vilh lhe 21sl cenlury varianls of differenliaI racism lhal needs lo be ana-
Iysed. And lhe concel of 'racism vilh race' heIs such anaIysis arl of lhe vay. Racism vilhoul
race is redicaled on modes of division lhal vhiIe nol invoking lhe bioIogicaI calegory of race are
nonelheIess reroducing lhe Iogic of racism--nameIy, lo divide and excIude on lhe basis of race--
lhrough olher means bul vhich al lheir hearl are racisl in orienlalion, no maller hov unconscious
or uninlenlionaI lhal may be.
16
A nolabIe fealure across gIobaI universilies oeraling in China loday is lhe subslanliaI resence
of domeslic Chinese in lhe adminislralive ranks, vilh considerabIy fever Chinese vorking as
academic facuIly. WhiIe smaIIer scaIe oeralions may combine academic and adminislralive roIes
and have lhose carried oul by foreigners on casuaI conlracls famiIiar vilh lhe 'cuIlure' of lhe
nalionaI syslem vilhin vhich lhey are vorking, lhe Iarger universilies emIoy IocaI Chinese
for adminislralive vork on an aImosl excIusive basis. These slaff oflen hoId an undergraduale
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degree from a I.S., rilish or AuslraIian universily, and many viII aIso have oslgraduale quaIi-
hcalions from an overseas universily. In many cases lheir degrees viII have been avarded from
lheir currenl emIoyer, vhich again ensures famiIiarily vilh lhe cuIlure and adminislralion of
lheir arlicuIar inslilulion.
In rinciIe, lhe Chinese adminislralors vorking vilhin gIobaI universilies in China are nol lhere
because lhey are Chinese bul because lhey have mel lhe |ob seIeclion crileria--reIevanl degree or
diIoma, comelency in LngIish Ianguage, good inlerersonaI skiIIs, reIevanl exerience, elc. The
ofhciaI osilioning is lhus dehnileIy nol aboul race in ils cIassic 19lh cenlury arlicuIalions. n
lhe olher hand, if lhese adminislralive slaff vere nol Chinese, lhen lhey mosl IikeIy vouId nol be
vorking in lhese universilies. Why, lhen, are lhere so fev and in enough cases no non-Chinese
slaff comrising lhe adminislralive ranks al lhese gIobaI universilies`
If il vas |usl a maller of hoIding lhe aroriale quaIihcalions and skiIIs, lhen lhere couId be
eoIe from any number of raciaI and elhnic backgrounds vorking as adminislralors in lhese
universilies. As noled earIier, vhiIe lhe rimary adminislralive and leaching Ianguage of lhese
universilies is LngIish, lhere is a need for al Ieasl some adminislralive slaff lo have a high roh-
ciency in Iulonghua in order lo inlerface al Iinguislic and cuIluraI IeveIs vilh IocaI and nalionaI
governmenl dearlmenls and businesses. ul lhere is no obvious reason or need for aII adminis-
lralive slaff lo be of Chinese origin. Il vouId seem lhal lhere's an imorlanl sub|eclive desire al
vork for Chinese adminislralive slaff vilh IargeIy AngIohone quaIihcalions lo hnd vork back
home. Whal emerges from lhis henomenon is a duaI-Ianguage syslem vhere inlra-inslilulionaI
and lransnalionaI adminislralion and engagemenl vilh academic slaff is conducled in LngIish,
vhereas lhe informaI sociaIisalion among adminislralive slaff and lheir inleraclion, lo some ex-
lenl, vilh Chinese sludenls is conducled in Iulonghua or IocaI diaIecls.
To nol be Chinese, in olher vords, means lo nol be arlicialing in lhose inslilulionaI and sociaI
circuils conducled excIusiveIy in Chinese. This enIisling of lhe (middIe-cIass) eIile 'IocaIs' in ad-
minislralive osilions slrikes me as very simiIar lo lhe coIoniaI slralegy of engaging indigenous
eIiles lo adminisler coIoniaI inslilulions (India being lhe cIassic examIe) and in so doing rero-
duce and reinforce (or in some cases roduce) a IocaI cIass syslem. My underslanding of such
oeralions is lhal raciaI dislinclions delermined lhe inslilulionaI osilions and condilions of lhe
Iabouring sub|ecl. Inslilulions of gIobaIised higher educalion rovide lhe inslilulionaI sellings
and organisalionaI cuIlures lhrough vhich lhe Iogic of differenliaI racism is Iayed oul loday.
Moving lo lhe queslion of academic facuIly and lhe inlernalionaI slaff lhal comose ils ranks, lhe
oosile disIay of raciaIised Iabour becomes nolabIe: nameIy, lhe lendency for Chinese lo nol
be among lhose hoIding academic osilions. Ierhas lhis is even more remarkabIe lhan lhe case
of lhe Chinese ma|orily vilhin adminislralive osilions. The oorlunily for movemenl vilhin
adminislralion from a I.S. or rilish universily lo a gIobaI universily oeraling in China, or some
olher counlry, for lhal maller, is Iess IikeIy lhan in lhe case of academics, vho lend lo be much
more mobiIe vilhin bolh nalionaI and gIobaI sellings. Why, lhen, do so fev Chinese academics
comrise lhe ranks of facuIly vilhin gIobaI universilies in China` ne reason has lo do vilh
remuneralion. LocaI Chinese are aid subslanliaIIy Iess lhan lheir inlernalionaI coIIeagues, and
in lhis resecl lhe economy of Iabour in gIobaI universilies reroduces lhal of mosl olher busi-
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nesses in China. InIike olher business seclors, hovever, lhe gIobaI universilies do nol--al Ieasl
nol yel--hII lheir academic ranks vilh IocaI Chinese in order save on Iabour cosls. Key lo lhe
brand vaIue of lhe gIobaI universilies is lhe assurance lhese inslilulions make lo sludenls lhal
lhey are receiving a roducl and exerience lhal essenliaIIy reroduces vhal lhey couId execl if
lhey vere enroIIed al lhe 'home' inslilulion. An imorlanl arl of lhal assurance lhus resls on a
signihcanl orlion of academic slaff vho are eilher on secondmenl from or al Ieasl famiIiar vilh
lhe vorkings of lhe home inslilulion. There are aIso adminislralive raclicaIilies for lhis raclice
associaled vilh lhe running of equivaIenl rograms, submission and moderalion of grades, es-
labIishmenl of academic and adminislralive commillees, and so on and so forlh.
Irom lhe erseclive of lhe Chinese academic vho may give lhoughl lo shifling from a Chinese
universily lo one of lhe increasing number of gIobaI universilies selling u sho in China, a
number of raclicaIilies need lo be considered. The Iinguislic barrier resenled by lhe necessily
lo have a vorking command of LngIish is |usl one of various faclors lo lake inlo accounl. WhiIe
lhe Iov ay may be equivaIenl belveen Chinese and gIobaI universilies, lhe Chinese academic
viII have lo forego lhe frequenlIy informaI vays in vhich income is suIemenled vilhin lhe
Chinese syslem. The househoId ilems and food arceIs suIied by lhe nalionaI leacher's union,
for examIe, vouId nol be arl of academic Iife in a gIobaI universily. Moreover, lhey viII have
lo suffer lhe knovIedge lhal for effecliveIy lhe same Iabour lhey are being aid a fraclion of lhe
amounl received by lheir inlernalionaI coIIeagues. Il musl be said lhal such differenlialion of
remuneralion IeveIs is nol based on vhelher one is Chinese or nol. The same aIies for lhose
inlernalionaI leachers vho have enlered lhe gIobaI universily from vilhin China, and lhus are
slrucluraIIy osilioned as arl of a domeslic Iabour force. NonelheIess, lhe maleriaI effecl of lhese
muIliIe forces resuIls in an academic body lhal is IargeIy absenl of Chinese slaff.
WhiIe lhe differenlialion of vork across lhe seclrum of academic and adminislralive Iife oinls
lo slandard divisions of Iabour in universilies around lhe vorId, oflen enough bolh lhe individ-
uaI vorker and coIIeclive exerience viII embody lhese dislinclions in singuIar vays and lhus
becomes a sub|ecl vho muIliIies ralher lhan divides lhe borders of Iabour. This rocess vhereby
lhe borders of Iabour become muIliIied is made cIear in lhe reIalion cognilive Iabour hoIds vilh
lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue, as skelched earIier in lhis essay. The raciaIisalion of Iabour, on lhe
olher hand, serves as a lechnoIogy of division in lhe case of gIobaI universilies currenlIy oeral-
ing in China.
olh lhe muIliIicalion and division of Iabour are fealures of lhe informalionaI universily and ils
exrorialion of lhe sociaI roduclion of vaIue. Cognilive Iabour incIudes modes of eer-lo-eer
roduclion lhal make avaiIabIe resources in lhe form of an informalionaI ccmmcns. WhiIe more
immedialeIy underslandabIe as a lechnoIogy of division, lhe raciaIisalion of Iabour aIso feeds
inlo lhe symboIic roduclion of a commons in lerms of lhe image reerloire and affeclive regis-
lers lhal are communicaled aboul lhe gIobaI universily as a sile for inlernalionaI exerience and
cerlihcalion. When silualed vilhin China, such an imaginary is reroduced in maleriaI vays in
lerms of lhe dominalion of mainIand Chinese in adminislralive ranks couIed vilh lhe generaI
absence of Chinese academics from facuIly rograms.
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The reIalionshi belveen lhe muIliIicalion and division of cognilive and raciaIised Iabour, hov-
ever, is subslanliaIIy differenl in lerms of hov lhey connecl vilh lhe sociaI roduclion of inc ccm-
mcn, vhich can be underslood as lhe oIilicaI olenliaI lhal subsisls vilhin cn! condilions lhe
ossibiIily of lhe commons. The oinl of conneclion belveen such immedialeIy dislincl modes
of Iabour Iies reciseIy vilhin lhe vays lhey shae lhe brand vaIue and lhus economy of lhe in-
formalionaI, gIobaI universily. WhiIe lhere is unIikeIy lo be oIilicaI afhIialion belveen lransna-
lionaI cognilive Iabour and Chinese adminislralors in gIobaI universilies oeraling in China (lhe
geocuIluraI disarilies being IargeIy insurmounlabIe), lhere is olenliaI for reIalions lo be forged
belveen vorkers vho exerience lhe informalisalion of Iabour as il manifesls in bolh gIobaI and
nalionaI academies. Il is al lhe oinl of shared exerience borne oul of slruggIe lhal lhe ossibiI-
ily arises for differenliaI incIusion in lhe sociaI invenlion of lhe common. olh lhe raciaIisalion of
Iabour and lhe uneven dislribulion of exerlise hoId lhe caacily lo be a arl of such a rocess.
As lhe hegemony of lhe Chinese slale unfoIds and exerls ils over across lhe geocuIluraI lerrain
of gIobaI inslilulions, il shouId come as no surrise lhal lhe comosilion of Iabour vilhin lhose
inslilulions becomes increasingIy comrised of mainIand Chinese vorkers vhose skiIIs, exerlise
and symboIic vaIue is no Ionger erceived as second lier. Such a lransformalion viII occasion nev
Iines of slruggIe in lhe gIobaIisalion of higher educalion. The chaIIenge for biooIilicaI Iabour viII
be lo asserl lhe aulonomy of lhe common from emergenl aaraluses of calure. A key arl of
lhis slruggIe viII invoIve refusing lhe informalionaI lechnoIogies of measure.
NOTE5
*
Thanks lo rell NeiIson and }uslin
'Connor for commenls and suggeslions
and co-aneIIisls IaoIo Do and }on SoIo-
mon for lheir diaIogue on lhemes and
condilions addressed in lhis essay. Thanks
aIso lo Wang Xiaoming for hosling lhe
edu-faclory resenlalion al lhe Cenlre for
Conlemorary CuIluraI Sludies, Shanghai
Iniversily, 7 December 2OO9.
1
Ross, Nicc, 189.
2
See Mezzadra and NeiIson, Bcr!cr.
3
Wark, A ncc|cr.
4
ousquel, Hcu, 55-89.
5
See Terranova, 1nc inicrnci. See aIso Ter-
ranova, Ancincr, 234-262.
6
Hardl and Negri, Ccmmcnucc|in, 314-316.
7
Casarino, Surp|us, 2O.
8
Rossiler and ZehIe, |xc!us. ddIy
enough, MichaeI Hardl confuses lhe
common vilh lhe commons in one of his
rearalory lexls Ieading u lo lhe ubIi-
calion of Ccmmcnucc|in. See Hardl, Pc|iiics.
9
Thal such invenlion is underlaken
lhrough raclices immanenl lo media of
(eU |Cssile| l|e i(|C|maliC(a| U(ive|sil_ 7z
ISSN 2O78-3884
communicalion vouId suggesl lhal il is
a mislake lo assume lhal informalionaI
modes of communicalion and raclice
resuIl in oulcomes such as lhe informa-
lionaI universily. CIearIy, such a osilion
is one lhal hoIds a lechnoIogicaIIy deler-
minisl vievoinl, vhich is undermined
by lhe facl lhal sociaI-lechnicaI raclices
of coIIaboralion conslilulion faciIilale lhe
roduclion of lhe common.
1O
Ior a discussion of lhe imIicalions of
inilialives on cuIluraI and disciIinary
formalions, see Ross, Nicc, 2O2.
11
ourdieu, Pu||ic, 124-13O.
12
Innis, 1nc Bics.
13
See Ross, Nicc, 2O2.
14
aIibar and WaIIerslein, Rccc, 9.
15
MicheI IoucauIl, 1nc Birin. See aIso Iou-
cauIl, Scciciq and IoucauIl, Sccuriiq.
16
aIibar offers lhe foIIoving dehnilion
of 'racism vilhoul races': 'Il is a racism
vhose dominanl lheme is nol bioIogicaI
heredily bul lhe insurmounlabiIily of cuI-
luraI differences, a racisms vhich, al hrsl
sighl, does nol osluIale lhe sueriorily
of cerlain grous or eoIes in reIalion lo
olhers bul 'onIy' lhe harmfuIness of aboI-
ishing fronliers, lhe incomalibiIily of Iife-
slyIes and lradilions, in shorl, il is vhal I.
A. Taguieff has righlIy caIIed a !ijjcrcniic|-
isi rccism. See aIibar, |s incrc, 21
REFERENCE5
aIibar, Llienne and ImmanueI WaIIer-
slein. 199O. Rccc, nciicn, c|css. Am|igu-
cus i!cniiiics. London: Verso.
ourdieu, Iierre. 1973. IubIic oinion
does nol exisl. Trans. Mary Axlmann.
In Ccmmunicciicn cn! c|css sirugg|c, tc|.
1. Ccpiic|ism, impcric|ism, ed. Armand
MalleIarl and Selh SiegeIaub, 1979.
Nev York: InlernalionaI GeneraI.
ousquel, Marc. 2OO8. Hcu inc unitcrsiiq
ucr|s. Higncr-c!ucciicn cn! inc |cu-ucgc
nciicn. Nev York: Nev York Iniversily
Iress.
Casarino, Casare. 2OO8. Surp|us ccmmcn. A
prcjccc. |n |n prcisc cj inc ccmmcn. A ccn-
tcrsciicn cn pni|cscpnq cn! pc|iiics, ed.
Casare Casarino and Anlonio Negri.
MinneaoIis: Iniversily of Minnesola
Iress.
IoucauIl, MicheI. 2OO3. Scciciq musi |c
!cjcn!c!. Icciurcs ci inc cc||cgc !c jrcncc,
1975-76. Trans. David Macey. London:
AIIen Lane.
IoucauIl, MicheI. 2OO7. Sccuriiq, icrri-
icrq, pcpu|ciicn. Icciurcs ci inc cc||cgc
!c jrcncc, 1977-1978. Trans. Graham
urcheII. asingsloke: IaIgrave Mac-
miIIan.
IoucauIl, MicheI. 2OO8. 1nc |irin cj |ic-
pc|iiics. Icciurcs ci inc cc||cgc !c jrcncc,
1978-1979. Trans. Graham urcheII.
asingsloke: IaIgrave MacmiIIan.
Hardl, MichaeI. 2OO9. IoIilics of lhe Com-
mon. Z-Nci, IRL:hll:11vvv.zmag.
org1znel1vievArlicIe121899 /5De-
cember 6, 2OO9j.
Hardl, MichaeI and Anlonio Negri. 2OO9.
Ccmmcnucc|in. Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard Iniversily Iress.
Innis, HaroId. 1951. 1nc |ics cj ccmmunicc-
7 U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
iicn. Toronlo: Iniversily of Toronlo
Iress.
Mezzadra, Sandro and rell NeiIson. 2OO8.
order as melhod, or, lhe muIliIica-
lion of Iabor. 1rcnstcrsc|, IRL: hll:11
eic.nel1lransversaI1O6O81mezzadra-
neiIson1en |December 6, 2OO9j.
Ross, Andrev. 2OO9. Nicc ucr| ij qcu ccn gci
ii. Iijc cn! |c|cr in prcccricus iimcs. Nev
York: Nev York Iniversily Iress.
Rossiler, Ned and Soenke ZehIe. 2OO9. Lxo-
dus from lhe generaI inleIIecl. Working
aer.
Terranova, Tiziana. 2OO9. The inlernel as
Iayground and faclory: IreIude. Iaer
resenled al The Nev SchooI, Nev
York. IRL: hll:11vimeo.com16882379
|December 6, 2OO9j.
Terranova, Tiziana. 2OO9. Anolher Iife: lhe
nalure of oIilicaI economy in Iou-
cauIl's geneaIogy of biooIilics. 1nccrq,
cu|iurc c scciciq 26|6j: 234-262.
Wark, McKenzie. 2OO4. A ncc|cr mcnijcsic.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Iniversily
Iress.
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
AItcr cu!tura! capIta!Ism
*
Marc Bnusquct
N E V E R L E T A G O O D C R I 5 I 5 G O T O
W A 5 T E
If modern man's roducing over is a lhousand
limes grealer lhan lhal of lhe cave-man, vhy lhen,
in lhe Iniled Slales lo-day, are lhere hfleen miIIion
eoIe vho are nol roerIy sheIlered and roerIy
fed` Why lhen, in lhe Iniled Slales lo-day, are lhere
lhree miIIion chiId Iaborers` Il is a lrue indiclmenl.
The cailaIisl cIass has mismanaged. In face of lhe
facls lhal modern man Iives more vrelchedIy lhan lhe
cave-man, and lhal his roducing over is a lhou-
sand limes grealer lhan lhal of lhe cave-man, no olher
concIusion is ossibIe lhan lhal lhe cailaIisl cIass has
mismanaged, lhal you have mismanaged, my mas-
lers, lhal you have criminaIIy and seIhshIy misman-
aged.
(}ACK LNDN, 1nc |rcn Hcc|)
In lhe hve seasons of David Simon's H leIevision rogram 1nc
Wirc, ve see lhe dysloic conlemorary aIlimore crealed by lhe cIass
var from above. Il's a cily ravaged by 'quaIily managemenl', lhe same
hiIosohy lhal adminislralions across lhe counlry have adoled in
shunling lhe overvheIming ma|orily of coIIege facuIly inlo conlin-
genl osilions. As 1imc magazine leIevision crilic }ames Ionievozik
uls il, 'AII The Wire's characlers face lhe same forces in a bollom-
Iine, Iov-margin sociely, vhelher lhey vork for a cily dearlmenl, a
cororalion or a drug carleI. A usher, a homicide co, a leacher, a
union slevard: lhey're aII, in lhe vorId of The Wire, middIemen gel-
ling squeezed for every dro of vaIue by lhe syslems lhey vork for'.

Whal lhe shov grass is lhal rivale cororale and ubIic inslilulion-
aI managers bolh emIoy 'quaIily' in an rveIIian regisler in vhich
a 'quaIily rocess' is one of conlinuousIy increasing vorkIoad and
MARC BOU5QUET
TLACHLS AT SANTA
CLARA INIVLR-
SITY. AN ACTIVIST
AND RGANIZLR IN
INIVLRSITY WRK-
LRS' STRIGGLLS, HL
C-IINDLD WORK-
PIAC|. A jOURNAI
|OR ACAD|M|C IA-
BOR. HL IS AITHR
I HOW 1H| UN|V|R-
S|1Y WORKS. H|GH|R
|DUCA1|ON AND 1H|
IOW-WAG| NA1|ON
(NLW YRK INIVLR-
SITY IRLSS, 2OO8)
7 U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
conlinuousIy eroding saIary and benehls, vilh a singIe, doIlish manlra emIoyed everyvhere--in
oIice dearlmenls, in sociaI services, and schooI syslems, |usl as on coIIege camuses: lhe er-
eluaI command lo 'Do More Wilh Less'.

As Ionievozik observes, vhal lhis acluaIIy means, 'is doing Iess vilh Iess and culling corners
lo make il Iook Iike more'. Hence lhe need for assessmenl inslrumenls lhal everyone inside an
organisalion underslands lo be lriviaI and easiIy sun lo nearIy any urose by agiIe inslilulionaI
aclors. The aarenl vaidily of lhe assessmenl rocess is acluaIIy ils cIeverness, al Ieasl from lhe
oinl of viev of managemenl as a form of Iabour under ressure: lhe inslrumenls are suosed lo
be easiIy defealed. The ease vilh vhich lhe melrics of assessmenl soflvare are sun can be seen
as a mode of assisled crealivily in lhe vorkIace--ralher simiIar lo lhe vays lhal music and im-
age rocessing siles assisl lhe crealivily of vouId-be comosers, holograhers and carloonisls.

In lhe shov, uer managemenl conlinuousIy urges Iover managemenl lo 'be crealive' vilh
lhe numbers, a command lhal Iover managemenl generaIIy asses aIong lo lhe vorkforce. This
command is correclIy and universaIIy underslood as heIing lo devise a melric lo assisl organi-
salionaI aclors in coIIaboraling in lhe relense lhal more is being done--e.g, in sociaI services,
raising lhe number of cilizen conlacls or cases resoIved er emIoyee--even vhiIe everyone in lhe
organisalion underslands lhal lhe acluaI quaIily of service is decIining. This form of crealivily is
a survivaI mode for managers vho lhemseIves viII be ground under if lhey refuse lhe do-or-die
command of cIaiming ever-Iarger imrovemenls in 'roduclivily' vhiIe aering over lhe enor-
mous human cosl.
The human cosl isn'l |usl lhe immiseralion of lhe vorkforce. Il's aIso lhe faiIure of lhese inlrusive-
Iy and anli-sociaIIy managed inslilulions, highIy roduclive by queslionabIe melrics, lo acluaIIy
deIiver lhe oIicing, heaIlh care, and educalion lhey exisl lo rovide. Ior inslance, lhe number
of individuaIs in lhe slale of hio receiving food assislance doubIed belveen 2OO1 and 2OO8, lo
1.1 miIIion, bul lhe reaI slory is lhal anolher O.5 miIIion in lhis one I.S. Slale are eIigibIe, bul nol
enroIIed. (Candisky) Why nol` ecause lhe amounl of assislance avaiIabIe--Iess lhan a lhousand
doIIars a year, vilh endIess aIicalions and assessmenl--is no Ionger vorlh lhe cosl of cIaiming il
for al Ieasl a lhird of lhe hungry, many of vhom are vorking, bul cannol feed lhemseIves on lheir
vages. So lhere's a melric lo suorl lhe cIaims of lhe bureaucracy ('Here in lhe food assislance
ofhce, ve're roud lhal ve're serving lvice as many 'cuslomers' al Iover cosl!'), bul bolh lhe
melric and lhe cIaim vork as Iolemkin viIIages screening lhe Iived reaIily beyond, lhal more and
more eoIe need more and more heI. }usl as schooIs increasingIy 'leach lo lhe lesl' ralher lhan
educale, sociaI service organisalions devole more and more energy lovard generaling misIead-
ing slalislics lhal ermil lhe managers of lhe ubIic shere lo cIaim lhey are making rogress on
issues, even vhen lhe oosile is lrue.

n my camus--Iike many I.S. emIoyers--a videIy louled emIoyee benehl is on-sile chiId care,
bul our near-lvo-year-oId isn'l enroIIed, Iike many in his silualion, because lhe vailIisl is so Iong,
and because lhey don'l offer lhe (deveIomenlaIIy, edagogicaIIy referred) olion of arl-lime
care--meaning lhal lhe vailIisl de faclo riorilises slaff and adminislralors, vho generaIIy vanl
fuII-lime care, over facuIly, many of vhom refer arl-lime care.

ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism 7L
ISSN 2O78-3884
Inder quaIily managemenl, lhe daycare cenlre doesn'l exisl lo rovide chiId-care lo camus
emIoyees, il exisls lo enabIe inc c|cim lhal 'care is avaiIabIe'. Anyone vho has ever hung u on
an aulomaled leIehone lree or unheIfuI caII cenlre emIoyee, nol bolhered lo go lo a rimary
care hysician lo gel aulhorised lo see a seciaIisl, or assed u a vorkIace benehl, rofessionaI
reimbursemenl or consumer rebale because lhe aervork vas loo arduous, underslands lhe
chiseIing regisler of 'quaIily rocesses': lhe arduousness and fuliIily of comIaining is arl of lhe
caIcuIalion. So is vho gels denied service, as increasingIy sohislicaled rograms for commerciaI
service roviders aIy zi code and olher ersonaI dala lo caIcuIale deniaI-of-service aIgorilhms
for various demograhics based on lhe IikeIihood lhal lhey'II comIain, hire a Iavyer, elc, elc.
VaIuabIe markel demograhics are carefuIIy serviced, marginaI markel demograhics are ex-
cIuded, ignored, or shul dovn: lhis is arlicuIarIy robIemalic vhen markel and revenue become
hIlers lhrough vhich ve gras communilies and civic syslems.

The shov underscores lhe robIemalics of lhis managemenl slralegy sanning ubIic and rivale,
incIuding lhe rivale-in-lhe-ubIic-good of lradilionaI rofessions. CIoseIy araIIeI lo lhe acluaI
organisalion, lhe shov's version of lhe Bc|iimcrc Sun nevsaer hres ils exerienced reorlers
and sIashes funds lo do invesligalive reorling in favour of hre-chasing and uffery, eshing oul
lhe slaff vilh cheaer, younger, vorkers, some of vhom Iack lhe conlacls, exerience and moraI
comass lo do lhe |ob. AII cily dearlmenls are under simiIar conlinuous ressure. Al lhe oIice
dearlmenl, funds lo acluaIIy invesligale homicide and gang crime have been sleadiIy reslricled
lo lhe oinl vhere onIy 'high rohIe' murders receive resources, mosl viclims receive erfunclory
allenlion, and individuaI invesligalors are barred from invesling lime and resources in Iong-lerm
efforls lo bring dovn criminaI organisalions. The oIice dearlmenl and nevs organisalion aIike
exisl rimariIy lo suorl managemenl's cIaims aboul oIicing and nevs-galhering, and sleadiIy
Iess lo do acluaI oIicing and nevs-galhering.

In order lo shake funds from lhe syslem, one homicide invesligalor gels lhe idea of faking lhe
evidence in lhe unreIaled murders of homeIess men lo aear as if lhey are lhe aclions of a singIe
seriaI kiIIer. Since lhere is IillIe markel demanding lhal lhe murders of lhe homeIess be sloed,
and no revenue associaled vilh lhal markel, lhe invesligalor is forced lo 'acl enlrereneuriaIIy' lo
creale a markel and hnd lhe necessary revenue simIy lo do vhal one vouId normaIIy imagine
vas his |ob. This Ian Iays on lhe inlerIocking nalure of lhe quaIily-managemenl vaIues driving
ubIic inslilulions and lhe rivaleIy-ovned media vilh a ubIic-service mission, logelher vilh
lhe resonsibiIily-cenlre resource aIIocalion of lhe mayor's ofhce. If lhe nevsaer can drum u
a markel and calure lhe allenlion of lhe mayor, lhen--and onIy lhen--ubIic resources viII ov
lovard lhe invesligalion.

When il lurns oul lhal Iain seriaI kiIIing is nol enough lo slir lhe aeliles of lhe IocaI media mar-
kel, lhe deleclive is forced lo u lhe anle by addilionaI fakery, conlriving evidence lhal suggesls
a sexuaI comonenl lo lhe murders. SimuIlaneousIy a young reorler under simiIar ressures al
lhe Bc|iimcrc Sun aIso fakes |ournaIislic evidence--acling enlrereneuriaIIy lo advance himseIf in
lhe organisalion. Togelher lhese muIliIe Iies (crealive hclions, innovalions, enlrereneurshi)--
comosed in lhe key of money, markel, and sensalion lo vhich managemenl's anlennae are er-
manenlIy alluned--uIlimaleIy resuIl in a successfuI shorl-lerm redescrilion of lhe inslilulionaI
77 U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
mission of bolh organisalions: gel lhe (nonexislenl) seriaI sex kiIIer! IoIIoving lhal redescrilion
is a modesl bul meaningfuI resource ov: cash, equimenl, and, above aII, Iabour lime.

A signihcanl fraclion of lhose diverled resources are vasled mainlaining lhe iIIusion lhal reorl-
ers and oIice ofhcers are foIIoving manageriaI direclion and chasing dovn lhe fake murderer.
The smaII amounl Iefl over is secrelIy diverled lo acluaI oIicing--a smaII cadre of dedicaled of-
hcers use lhe funds and conlroI over lheir lime recalured from managemenl lo order lesl resuIls,
do surveiIIance, acquire comulers, and acluaIIy make a series of arresls.

f course lhe reason lhal so many ersons--nurses, educalors, roofers--idenlify vilh lhe oIice
ofhcers in lhe shov is lhal lhey loo musl increasingIy engage in Iies and risk-laking |usl lo send
lheir lime--oflen lheir unaid overlime--doing lhe vork in vhich lhey beIieve, inslead of inal-
ing lheir bosses' melrics. Time senl leaching and nursing is increasingIy sloIen from lime senl
'roving' lhe Iies of managemenl--lhal ignorance is knovIedge, or lhal sickness is heaIlh. ul I
don'l mean lo suggesl onIy lhe seIhshness and foIIy of managemenl, ve musl aIso recognise lheir
brealhlaking cIeverness: lhey are al lhe goIf course vhiIe on lhe |ob, bul lheir subordinales are
donaling vork vhiIe off lhe cIock!

'QuaIily' rocesses are lhe SlaIinisl ileralion of Iale cailaIism, lhrough vhich lhe cIass of lo
funclionaries exisl in a searale vorId of servanls and second homes vhiIe urging everyone eIse
lo accel scarcily for Iove of lhe mission. Il's nol |usl leaching for Iove--il's oIicing and soIdiering
and urban Ianning for Iove, game design for Iove, vord rocessing for Iove. QuaIily manage-
menl lakes advanlage of lhe facl lhal mosl eoIe don'l behave as lhe seIf-inleresled cIols mod-
eIed by neoIiberaI economics. Mosl eoIe are animaled by rofoundIy ro-sociaI imuIses. To a
Iimiled bul reaI exlenl, deending on individuaI faclors, |anilors do lheir vork for Iove of cIean
oors. And il is lhe overl, cannibaIislic inlenlion of quaIily managemenl lo see lhal--lo lhe abso-
Iule Iimil of lhe ossibIe--lhey do lhal vork for Iove aIone.

nIy lo managemenl ('Ieadershi'), in lhe quaIily scheme, isn'l done for Iove. Ier manage-
menl is aid lo do somelhing mosl of us can'l do. Mosl of us can'l Iive in mansions vhiIe our
neighbours can'l afford chemo, mosl of us reaIIy beIieve lhal individuaI accumuIalion has reason-
abIe Iimils. nIy a very unusuaI erson can do vhal lhe sIeaziesl smaII conlraclor does--ick u
day Iabour, ay lhem Iess lhan lhe minimum vage lo rebuiId a suburban kilchen, coIIecl $5O,OOO,
and lhen dum lhe vorkers back on lhe slreel corner. The lask of academic quaIily managemenl
is lo hnd lhose rare eoIe and make lhem deans, rovosls, and residenls.
T A K I N G T H E A U 5 T E R I T Y B A I T
When lhey are given lhe lrue iclure, every ordinary laxayer gels il: somelhing's vrong vhen
facuIly earn Iess lhan barlenders, nobody vouId lrusl an accounlanl earning Iess lhan a Iiving
vage, elc. During lhe momenl of baiIoul, American facuIly ralher sveelIy and earneslIy hoed
lhal lheir educalion 'Ieaders''vouId Iifl lhe curlain and say, 'Can you sIing us some cash for fac-
uIly and sludenls` We'd Iike lo charge Iess luilion and ay our facuIly al Ieasl as veII as, say, ighl
allendanls'.
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism 7H
ISSN 2O78-3884
Thal didn'l haen. Lducalion Ieaders didn'l demand a 'baiIoul' or a 'nev Nev DeaI for higher
ed', elc. They did evenluaIIy requesl, and receive, money lo conlinue lheir four-decade sending
sree on buiIdings and grounds. Wilh resecl lo sludenls and facuIly, lhough, lhey seemed aII loo
ready vilh even more grandiose Ians for auslerily.
Thal's because adminislralions have found four decades of auslerily usefuI lo eslabIish grealer
'roduclivily' (more vork for Iess ay) and more 'resonsiveness lo mission', vhich is lo say,
more conlroI over curricuIum, research, and every dimension of leaching, from cIass size lo eda-
gogy.
They anliciale lhe coming years viII be even more of an oorlunily in lhis resecl. In addilion
lo massive vorId-hisloricaI sending on lhe miIilary, oIice, and rison seclors, lhe diversion
of ubIic funds lo lhe hnanciaI and induslriaI seclor gives lhe rheloric and laclics of auslerily a
needed shol in lhe arm: |usl vhen ve vere aboul lo slo faIIing for lhe 'oh, lhis year il's ausler-
ily again' rheloric and demand resloralion of ubIic funds lo a ubIic good, ve have lhe vhoIe
governmenl slanding in fronl of ags vilh lheir emly ockels lurned oul.
Thal's righl: many lo adminislralors uc|ccmc auslerily. Il's vhal lhey knov hov lo do, il's lheir
vhoIe cuIlure, lhe reason for lheir exislence, lhe |uslihcalion for lheir saIary and erks, lhe core
crileria for lheir bonuses: lhe quaIily vay, 5/ or 1O/ cheaer (or 5-1O/ more enlrereneuriaI rev-
enue) every year. 'Ya golla be a good earner or ay lhe rice', as quaIily-manager Tony Sorano
Iiked lo say. Nol lo ul loo hne a oinl on il, lhey're svealing lhe serfs in a relly oId-fashioned
vay: I don'l care hov ya do il, ya golla gel me anolher 1O/ nexl year, or you can 'choose' vhelher
you leach more cIasses or cIose your dearlmenl. And lo I.S. educalion adminislralors, vhack-
ing dovn $3OO, OOO a year or more, gel Ienly of lradilionaIIy seigneuriaI revards: box seals al lhe
|ousling, lhe besl culs of lhe roasl animaI, |els and suiles for lheir lrysls.
Those of us on lhe ground in higher educalion viII vonder hov much more 'roduclivily' is in
facl ossibIe, given lhal Ieaders have been laking advanlage of lhe rheloric of crisis for forly years
lo ralchel roduclivily beyond any revious adminislralive dream--I.S. facuIly loday leach more
sludenls more cheaIy lhan al any oinl in lhe hislory of higher educalion. This is nol a arlisan
oIilicaI issue, as I've said before, CIinlon and Gore via 'quaIily in governance' are |usl as re-
sonsibIe for 'increasing roduclivily' (bul gulling educalion) by ermaleming and exlracling
donaled Iabour via service Iearning and inlerns (make your ovn |oke here) and lhe Iike. (Gore is
lhe aulhor of one of lhe earIy lrealises on quaIily in governance, and il vas his anlics al an Arkan-
sas quaIily in governmenl conference lhal generaled one of lhe earIy sexuaI harassmenl charges
againsl lhen-governor iII CIinlon).
Whal's aII lhal quaIily managemenl meanl for higher educalion in Gore's home slale` Nolhing lo
be roud of, reaIIy. ver lhe asl couIe of decades, lhe greal slale of Tennessee has burned miI-
Iions of educalion doIIars on execulive comensalion, sorls faciIilies, and miIes of orange carel-
-aII vhiIe 'successfuIIy' keeing ils facuIly among lhe Iovesl-aid in lhe counlry. Nol surrising-
Iy, Tennessee sludenls have done oorIy in cIose reIalion lo managemenl's success al squeezing
lhe facuIly. And aII of lhis vas Iong before lhe chanceIIor of lhe Tennessee oard of Regenls,
CharIie Manning, came u vilh a 'nev business modeI' for higher ed in his AaIachian slale.
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f course lhe 'nev' business modeI isn'l nev al aII, il's |usl Manning refusing lo Iel a good crisis
go lo vasle. Il's lhe same lired Toyola-managemenl lheory from lhe 8Os, vilh vide-eyed man-
agers and creduIous oIilicians svaing bromides (crisis=danger + oorlunily) of doublfuI
vaIidily, Iinguislic or olhervise. In lhe big iclure of cailaI, Manning is |usl a Iov-IeveI squeezer-
-lhe higher-ed equivaIenl of a regionaI manager for IesiCo. Wilh baiIoul, lhe hrsl haIf of lhe
'oorlunily' for higher-IeveI squeezers and sharehoIders has aIready been reaIised, in lhe slabi-
Iisalion of hnance-induslry hoIdings and incomes. Manning's |ob is lo reaIise lhe olher haIf of lhe
oorlunily--squeezing a fev more nickeIs and dimes oul of his aIready-on-food-slams facuIly,
and furlher valering dovn lhe lhin grueI he asses off as 'higher educalion'.
In lhe business curricuIum, squeezing nickeIs and dimes unliI your vorkers are Iiving on food
slams, Ioans, or gifls from reIalives is caIIed 'Iong lerm roduclivily enhancemenl'. Manning's
ideas for good squeezing incIude:
requiring sludenls lo lake a cerlain number of onIine courses en roule lo lheir bacheIor's
and associale's degrees,
lurning onIine Iearning inlo an enlireIy aulomaled exerience 'vilh no direcl suorl
from a facuIly member excel oversighl of lesling and grading', and roviding hnanciaI incen-
lives for sludenls lo voIunlariIy accel leacherIess educalion-as-lesling,
use even more ad|uncls and converl lhe remaining lenure-slream facuIly inlo lheir direcl
suervisors, 'formaIising' lhal arrangemenl,
use 'advanced sludenls' lo leach 'beginning sludenls' and buiId lhal requiremenl inlo cur-
ricuIum and hnanciaI aid ackages,
increase facuIly vorkIoad, inilialing a 'sludenls-laughl' melric lo suersede courseIoad,
and 'revise' summer comensalion,
auslerily for lhe oor--culling alhIelics al communily coIIeges, elc--bul revards for riva-
lisalion and revenue-roducing rograms, elc.
Reading aII lhis Iife-in-varlime auslerily of fake corresondence Iearning, sludenls as leachers,
facuIly as suervisors, and a slanding army of lems, you'd lhink lhere vas acluaI fal lo be
lrimmed (olher lhan in lhe adminislralion).
ul lhe reaIily is lhal if you're reaIIy exerienced and quaIihed, leaching 1O courses a year for
Chuck Manning nels you aboul $15,OOO vilhoul benehls, or Iess lhan you'd make al WaI-marl.
Thal's quile a bil Iess lhan haIf lhe $33,96O lhal lhe exlremeIy usefuI Living Wage CaIcuIalor says
is necessary lo suorl one aduIl and one chiId in Knox Counly.
ReubIicans and Democrals share lhe vrong idea lhal four decades of squeezing lhe facuIly has
been lo 'conlroI cosls', vhen in facl il's |usl been lo accumuIale ols of eilher money (lo send on
adminislralor erks, saIaries, and sonsored ro|ecls or favoured aclivilies, eseciaIIy big-lime
sorls or, al reIigious inslilulions, sociaI engineering) or cailaI (buiIdings, endovmenls, media
infraslruclure, inveslmenl in venlures and arlnershis).
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism HU
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H O W T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y A C C U M U L A T E 5
As anyone vho's allended a facuIly meeling in lhe asl lvo decades viII have observed: higher
educalion is a Iead 'innovalor' of lhe Iousy forms of emIoymenl lhal have gulled lhe economy--
ermaleming of lhe facuIly, oulsourcing lhe slaff, and myriad vays of exlracling un- and under-
comensaled Iabour from sludenls: inlernshis, assislanlshis, hnanciaI aid, arlnershis vilh
IocaI emIoyers, service Iearning, elc. As I've argued eIsevhere, lhis savage harvesl of vaIue is
lhe envy of mosl olher emIoyers.
ne of bama's favourile young economic advisors, }ason Iurman, Iikes lo nole lhal WaI-marl
amasses a miserIy average $6,OOO in rohls annuaIIy er vorker (a number lhal is aboul average
in lhe relaiI seclor and Iess lhan lhe $9,OOO average earnings er vorker in lhe cororale seclor)
(McCormack).
WouIdn'l il be inleresling lo caIcuIale lhe rale of accumuIalion er emIoyee in higher educalion`
Thal vouId be comIicaled, because universily accumuIalion lakes Iace in so many differenl
vays--sure, you can add u endovmenls and guess al lhe vaIue of medicaI buiIdings and holeIs-
-bul hov do you vaIue lhe accumuIalion of basic research, cuIluraI roduclion, vocalionaI lrain-
ing and lhe reroduclion of sociaI reIalions` We do knov lhal during lhe ush years, for-rohl
educalion organisalions vere consislenlIy in lhe lo lier of rohlabiIily--reciseIy because lhey
calure as rohl lhe accumuIalion lhal lhe non-rohls diverl lo olher uroses. In 2OO6, GoId-
man Sachs and anolher inveslor boughl one commerciaI educalion vendor enroIIing |usl 72,OOO
sludenls for over $3.4 biIIion doIIars ($47,OOO er sludenl). Lel's conservaliveIy assume lhal lhis
rice indicales a goaI of relurning 9-1O/ annuaIIy on lhal inveslmenl, or $4,5OO a sludenl, lhen
ro|ecl lhal hgure againsl lhe nalionvide ralio of fuII-lime equivaIenl sludenls lo fuII-lime equiv-
aIenl slaff (around 5 lo 1) and lhen: el voiIa, for-rohl higher ed vouId al Ieasl one erseclive
have lhe olenliaI for accumuIaling a slaggering $24,OOO er emIoyee. In oinl of facl lhe ven-
dor, Lducalion Managemenl Cororalion (ovner of Argosy, 41 Arl Inslilules, and lhe Weslern
Slale Iniversily CoIIege of Lav) has a much higher lhan average sludenl lo slaff ralio of 8 or 9 lo
1, ossibIy indicaling lhal lhey are hoing lo coIIecl aImosl $5O,OOO annuaIIy er emIoyee!
Righl nov, LMC has more emIoyees, bul assuming lhe same sludenl-slaff ralio in 2OO6 lhal il has
loday, il vouId have had aboul 8,5OO emIoyees vhen GoIdman boughl il, aying aboul $4OO,OOO
er slaffer. According lo lheir }une 2OO9 hnanciaI slalemenl, LMC earned $319 miIIion before
inleresl and laxes on 16,OOO emIoyees--or an average of $2O,OOO er emIoyee, even lhough
mosl are arl lime. The fuII ad|usled LITDA (Larnings efore Inleresl, Taxes, Derecialion and
Amorlisalion) vas quile a bil higher: $43O miIIion, or $27,OOO er erson on a IargeIy arl-lime
vorkforce, vhich vouId suggesl hscaI 2OO9 earnings in excess of $4O,OOO er fuII-lime-equivaIenl
emIoyee. (As I vas vriling lhis, and deIivering a Ieclure in Iillsburgh-based LMC's home slale
of IennsyIvania, lhe cororalion issued an iniliaI ubIic slock offering, or II, easiIy viing oul
aImosl $4OO miIIion in debl, and announced lhal 3rd quarler 2OO9 revenues had soared veII asl
lhe haIf-biIIion mark, riding a 22/ increase in sludenl enroImenl, incIuding a 6O/ increase in
onIine enroImenl (see 'LMC Reorls IiscaI 2O1O ResuIls').
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f course roer caIcuIalion of lhe 'rohlabiIily' of nonrohls vouId acknovIedge lhal lhe
nonrohls accumuIale in al Ieasl lhree ma|or vays: lradilionaI forms of capIta! (buiIdings, goIf
courses, endovmenls), human, sncIa!, and cu!tura! va!uc (oflen described as human, sociaI and
cuIluraI 'cailaI': vorkers, rofessionaIs, scienlihc knovIedge, cuIlure, lhe reroduclion of sociaI
reIalions essenliaI lo lhe survivaI of cailaIism, elc.), and mnncy--revenue lhal in a commerciaI
educalion vendor mighl be dislribuled lo sharehoIders as rohl, bul in a nonrohl is senl on
lhings lhal managemenl and overfuI camus or communily aclors vanl, such as research, com-
munily service, sorls leams, reIigious or cuIluraI aclivilies, and so on. bviousIy, a more sohis-
licaled aroach vouId Iook al lhe rohls of commerciaI 'educalion vendors' as in cIear vays
reIaled lo lhe non-accumuIalion of lhese olenliaI rohls--lhere's a cIearIy arasilicaI reIalionshi
belveen lhe acluaI harvesl of rohl in lhe commerciaI seclor and lhe IargeIy monelisabIe-bul-nol-
monelised slream of basic research, curricuIa, cuIluraI aclivily, rofessionaI service and so on sliII
oving from lhe ma|orily nol-for-rohl seclor.
WaI-marl's fuII LITDA aroaches $3O biIIion annuaIIy, bul using Iurman's numbers, WaI-marl
accumuIales around $1O biIIion in rohls annuaIIy on 1.3 lo 1.6 miIIion I.S. LmIoyees.
As of IaII 2OO7, lhe 5,OOO inslilulions of higher educalion in lhe Iniled Slales emIoyed 3.5 miI-
Iion eoIe (2.7 miIIion fuII-lime equivaIenl): lo beal WaI-marl's er-emIoyee harvesl of vaIue
lhe I.S. higher-educalion seclor vouId have had lo accumuIale |usl $21 biIIion lhal year againsl
Iurman's measure, or a IillIe over $6O biIIion againsl lhe LITDA melric.
WhiIe I can'l relend lo caIcuIale lhe acluaI accumuIalion of coIIege emIoyers, I can share my
oinion lhal il's no conlesl.
ver lhe asl len years on average, incIuding lhe crash, average endovmenl grovlh aIone has
grovn more lhan $25 biIIion annuaIIy, or $7,1OO1emIoyee, and $9,5OO er fuII-lime equivaIenl
emIoyee). In lerms of hxed cailaI: in 2OO7 I.S. camuses senl aImosl $13 biIIion on conslruc-
lion. In 2OO8, lhey senl $18 biIIion reresenling $5,4OO1emIoyee, $7,1OO er ITL emIoyee
(Agron). In 2OO5-2OO6 I.S. ubIic and rivale universilies logelher senl $37 biIIion on research
($13,7OO er ITL emIoyee) $29 biIIion on hosilaIs ($1O,7OO er ITL emIoyee), $12 biIIion on
ubIic service ($4,4OO er ITL emIoyee) and $28 biIIion on 'auxiIiary enlerrises'($1O,4OO er
ITL emIoyee) (NCLS Digesl 2OO8). LxcIuding lhe hosilaI exenses and Ieaving oul lhe obvi-
ousIy handsome rohls of lhe for-rohl seclor, I.S. camuses are currenlIy accumuIaling around
$1O,OOO er ITL emIoyee in endovmenl grovlh, sending aboul $7,OOO er ITL emIoyee on
nev conslruclion and aIIocaling over $28,OOO er ITL emIoyee lo research, ubIic service and
'auxiIiary enlerrises'.
Again, I don'l relend lhal lhese caIcuIalions are usefuI as anylhing more lhan a sur lo lhoughl,
erhas |um-slarling some furlher lhinking aIong lhese Iines. ul il seems reasonabIe al Ieasl
lo lesl lhe idea lhal I.S. higher educalion is harvesling hve, len, even lvenly limes more vaIue
er emIoyee lhan WaI-marl--and if lhere's any lrulh lo such an asserlion, vondering vhal lhal
means for sludenls, slaff and facuIly: does higher educalion accomIish such an eye-oing
harvesl of vaIue by an inlensihcalion of WaI-marl's melhods, or by olher melhods enlireIy` If ve
are unimressed vilh cIaims by WaI-marl and ils aoIogisls lhal lhe $6,OOO er vorker is baI-
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism Hz
ISSN 2O78-3884
anced by lvo or lhree lhousand in savings by shoing lhere, shouId ve be equaIIy unimressed
by lhe cIaims of universilies lhal lheir rulhIess harvesl of vaIue is in lhe ubIic good`
And: if ve've somelimes given WaI-marl credil for reorganising lhe economy--quaIily-managing
ils suIiers as rulhIessIy as ils slaff--are lhere nol vays in vhich lhe Iarger and even-more-
imressiveIy rulhIess higher educalion seclor deserves a share of lhe credil for Iarge-scaIe, even
gIobaI, economic reorganisalion`
Moreover, shouIdn'l ve be asking unq lhe universily accumuIales, and for vhom` And vhelher
lhe differenl modes of accumuIalion mighl be al cross-uroses--lhal is, vhelher lhe accumuIa-
lion in buiIdings and grounds (say, business cenlres) is al odds vilh sociaI accumuIalion` f
course il's obvious lhal higher educalion is reaIIy vaslIy unIike WaI-marl: il nol onIy can and
does accumuIale in lradilionaI forms massiveIy in excess of WaI-marl, ils overs lo accumuIale
in olher vays is simIy off WaI-marl's radar and beyond WaI-marl's horizon. Al lhe very Ieasl,
lherefore, il shouId be cIear lhal lhe universily does nol need lo accumuIale in lhe chiseIing vay
of WaI-marl if, as }ason Iurman suggesls, WaI-marl's margin is so lhin il couIdn'l change com-
ensalion vilhoul becoming somelhing ilseIf--lhal's simIy nol lhe case for lhe universily. If
il's lrue, as mosl evidence suggesls, lhal vorking and oving Iess, and sending more lime vilh
beller-educaled, more rofessionaI and more secure facuIly is associaled vilh beller Iearning,
lhen ve may have lo concIude lhal lhe universily's rush lo accumuIale in lhe mode of WaI-marl,
hovever imressive lhe biIIions iIed u, is misguided al besl.
Sure, il's nice lo have fresh ainl on lhe cIassrooms and gyms vilh lhe Ialesl equimenl--bul vhal
if each lreadmiII vilh a leIevision reresenls a couIe of disadvanlaged sludenls vho faiIed lo
ersisl`
Il's fairIy cIear lhal lhe universily under quaIily managemenl accumuIales sleadiIy more undem-
ocralicaIIy, vilh grealer and grealer benehls direclIy lo lhe inveslor cIass, vho si cocklaiIs in lhe
box seals al coIIege sorling evenls and Ian lheir raids on vorkers' ension Ians in conferenc-
es al universily holeIs, vhiIe universily adminislralors huddIe vilh lheir subordinales, hnding
vays for lhe laxayer lo shouIder lhe cosl of |ob lraining. Anolher vay of Iooking al lhese soaring
benehls lo lhe inveslor cIass is as a fairIy direcl uvard lransfer, vilh lhe mosl disadvanlaged
required lo subsidise lhese benehls vilh debl, luilion, donaled service and under-vaged Iabor,
nol lo menlion lheir usefuIIy Iegilimaling IoyaIly and enlhusiasm--as veII as vilh lheir faiIure,
since in lhe Iniled Slales mosl of lhe mosl disadvanlaged vho encounler higher educalion are
sal oul as vasle.
You'II nolice I haven'l even lried lo eslimale lhe cash vaIue of vhal mosl of us vouId caII lhe
reaI roduclivily of higher educalion--knovIedge, cuIlure, sociaI reroduclion and sociaI change,
human deveIomenl. Those numbers are IileraIIy incaIcuIabIe, lrying lo do il vouId amounl lo
a ubIicily slunl, Iike lrying lo guess lhe cash vaIue of Iove or aII lhe oxygen in lhe almoshere.
SliII ve can iIIuslrale. Leaving lhe obvious oul of il, such as basic scienlihc research and |ob lrain-
ing, lhe cash vaIualion even of reIaliveIy incidenlaI forms of academic sociaI roduclivily dvarfs
our friends al WaI-marl. Lel's lake lhe examIe of hiIanlhroic giving: even afler lhe crash, 2OO8
I.S. hiIanlhroic giving vas eslimaled al $3OO biIIion (Hrvyna). Il is hard lo exlricale lhe erva-
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sive inuence of higher educalion lhrough mosl seclors of lhal dislribulion. Ior inslance: giving
in lhe educalion seclor, vhich incIudes Iibraries, Iileracy rograms, and re schooIs as veII as
aII kinds of higher educalion, incIuding communily coIIeges, vas around $4O biIIion. Camus
emIoyees ervasiveIy inuenced giving allerns lo Iibraries and Iileracy rograms in addilion
lo lhe funds aimed direclIy al lheir emIoyers. Ior lhal maller, universily facuIly, slaff and ad-
minislralors Iay a ma|or roIe in direcling lhe ov lo arls and humanilies organisalions ($13 biI-
Iion), as veII as organisalions addressing heaIlh, environmenl, human services, and inlernalionaI
affairs ($65 biIIion). They Iay some roIe in generaling and direcling arl of lhe over $1OO biIIion
in reIigious giving.
ConservaliveIy assigning lhe generalion and direclion of even 15/ of lhe overaII hiIanlhroic
ov lo lhe aclivilies of camus emIoyees--as in arl sorl of a sin-off of lheir rimary monelis-
abIe-bul-nol-monelised aclivilies in knovIedge, cuIlure, and sociaI reroduclion--vouId amounl
lo quadruIe WaI-marl's rohls.
f course, lhe caluring of hiIanlhroic ovs is arlIy bul nol excIusiveIy a maller of calur-
ing vaIue harvesled eIsevhere--in lhe sleeI Ianls of China, lhe oiI sands of AIberla, caII cenlers
in Mumbai. (And of course ve've Iong raised queslions aboul lhe usefuIness of 'righl here'
and 'over lhere' in lhinking aboul vaIue). SliII lhere is an alavislic lendency lo viev lhe vork
of caluring lhal vaIue simIislicaIIy, as a slruggIe among lhe riviIeged assing lhrough lhe
universily-cum-counlry-cIub lo direcl lhe surIus, vilh lhe 'vorking cIass' in hard hals and lhe
'rofessionaI-manageriaI cIass' coming off as sharks ballIing over bIoody chunks of cailaI casu-
aIIy lossed by lhe yachling cIass. Thal Iens may have been usefuI in lhe Iniled Slales in lhe 196Os,
vilh reIalive slabiIily in lhe rofessions and a much Iess rominenl roIe for managers in comIex
organisalions (commerciaI and olhervise). ul il faiIs lo gras lhe mosl signihcanl lrends in lhe
IMC, if lhere ever vas such a lhing, lovard a fraclure of inleresl belveen many rofessionaIs
and managers, lovard lhe roIelarianisalion of rofessionaIs and lhe increasing rofessionaIism
of lo managers.
Iurlher, as I hoe lo make cIear, vhiIe lhe universily is cerlainIy home lo many such sharks en-
gaged in lhis kind of ursuil, lhe universily's roIe in harvesl and calure is much Iarger, and has a
greal deaI lo do vilh ils cruciaI roIe in lhe Iabour rocess. Thal is: il's nol |usl a maller of direcling
lhe surIus--il's a maller of generaling il by un- and under-comensaled Iabour, much of il freeIy
given, or nearIy donaled, quile a bil exlracled by adminislralive cIeverness, and a huge rafls of
vaIue simIy exlorled.
T H E F I G U R E O F T H E 5 T U D E N T : 5 U P E R - E X P L O I T A T I O N
A N D B E Y O N D
The sludenl is lhe mosl comIex node in lhe universily vaIue chain, simuIlaneousIy cuslomer and
servanl, sub|ecl of seclacIe and ob|ecl of surveiIIance, cilizen and lhug, vorker and manager,
resenl donor of Iabour lime and fulure donor of cailaI, agenl of change and rey. To vra u
my conlribulion for lhis number of lhe |ournaI, I'd Iike lo exIore some of lhe commonaIilies be-
lveen Slefano Harney's conlribulion in lhis issue and my ovn vievs. LseciaIIy imorlanl lo his
medilalion 'In lhe usiness SchooI' is his focus on lhe undergraduale sludenl as somelhing more
lhan lhe incidenlaIIy-embodied sub|ecl of lhe business curricuIum, as in facl embodied Iabour
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism H/
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engaged in seIf-varehousing and debl accumuIalion, 'ready lo vork bul nol causing lroubIe,'
oised for lhe summons (keyslroke, lexl message) of cailaI.
In focusing on lhe undergraduale business sludenl, Harney gris lhe back of our necks vhiIe ve
lry lo vriggIe avay from lhe evidence of our ovn eyes: during lhe decades lhal lhe lradilionaI
rofessions, eseciaIIy our ovn, have been gulled, lhe undergraduale business curricuIum has
calured a lhird (I.S.) or more (I.K.) of sludenls. 'Nov inlereslingIy', he noles, lhese sludenls
irrilale olher academics in lheir 'oen idenlihcalion vilh vage sIavery', lhal is, 'reciseIy in lhe
momenls vhen lhese sludenls knov lhemseIves as Iabour, vhen lhey vanl lo knov onIy hov lo
be emIoyed'. As Harney devaslalingIy noles, anyone seriousIy on lhe Lefl has lo acknovIedge
lhese momenls as an oorlunily lo 'have a conversalion in lhe universily aboul vhal il means
lo hire yourseIf oul lo cailaI'.
There are Iols of vays lo go forvard from lhis cruciaI observalion: vhal sorl of oorlunily` Whal
sorl of conversalion` Harney focuses on lhe changing nalure of lhe slruggIe over crealivily and
crafl: 'nol lhe oId slruggIe around lhe commodihcalion of arl vhich nov aears aImosl quainl,
bul lhe slruggIe lo resisl every acl of crealivily being aIready and immedialeIy aIso cailaIisl
vork'. There are many fronls in lhal slruggIe--lhe cailaIisl managemenl of schoIarIy curiousily,
lhe caIIing u of crealivily by selling erformance largels ('I don'l care hov ya do il, |usl gel me
1O/ more!'), elc--bul lhe one lhal inleresls Harney is lhe nolion of 'sludy' as a Iine of ighl from
lhe generaI equivaIenl, lhe coIIeclive acl of 'Iearning nol geared lo an oulcome'. In shorl, Harney
is oinling lo lhe business schooI as somelhing more lhan lhe cIubhouse of cailaIisl looIs--as a
sile of Iabour, or one conlradiclory, lherefore rich vilh olenliaI, Iace on lhe greal faclory oor
of conlemorary roduclion, saying lhal ve need lo acknovIedge lhal business sludenls can and
do engage in sludy, or Iearning unfellered by oulcomes managemenl and lhal lhe conlemorary
manageriaI obsession vilh cuIlure, crafl, eccenlricily, and crealivily is a seciaI oorlunily in
lhal regard.

Anolher vay of moving forvard is considering lhe acluaIIy exisling business sludenl as nol
mereIy varehoused Iabour and a fulure source of vaIue, bul as aIready a vorker, aIready an
aclive node of accumuIalion. As I've aIready discussed in Hcu 1nc Unitcrsiiq Wcr|s, lhe mosl
slraighlforvard exression of camus 'innovalion' in lhe Iabour rocess is lhe bonanza of vaIue
harvesled from un- and under-comensaled sludenl and Iabour by bolh camuses and rivale
emIoyers. Throughoul lhe I.S. economy, un- and under- comensaled sludenl Iabour has been
aggressiveIy subsliluled for ermanenl vaged osilions vilh benehls. Thal's miIIions of reaI
|obs, cul inlo ieces and arceIed oul as Iov-vage osilions for sludenls, many of vhom lake on
belveen lvo and hve 'arl-lime' osilions annuaIIy in order lo minimise lhe debl lhal lhey'd olh-
ervise incur. In lhe Iniled Slales, 8O/ of coIIege sludenls vork an average of 3O hours a veek,
lriIe lhe hgure mosl sludies say is aroriale for olimaI Iearning. This vorkIoad bears direclIy
on absurdIy Iov ersislence and gradualion rales.
This is a erseclive comIemenlary lo Harney's and I lhink IargeIy comalibIe vilh il: in lhe
I.S., lhink of lhe undergraduale business sludenls vho nol onIy don'l become Trum and Gales,
or even vice residenls, bul vho never comIele degrees al aII. And of course vaged emIoy-
menl-
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-simIe exIoilalion--and donaled or exlorled Iabour--suer exIoilalion--is hardIy lhe onIy vay
in vhich sludenls conlribule vaIue lo lhe camus and lo rivale emIoyers.
In 'Take Your RilaIin and Shul I', an essay for Scuin Ai|cniic Qucricr|q lhal shouId aear aboul
lhe same lime as lhis number of Ldu-Iaclory, I've been lrying lo vork oul lhe reIalionshi be-
lveen nolions of academic freedom for sludenls and lhe oIilicaI, sociaI and inslilulionaI engi-
neering of undergraduale cuIlures lhrough Slandards-ased Lducalion Reform, lhe medicaIi-
salion of youlh, and vocalionaIisalion of curricuIum, among olher ressure oinls. I cerlainIy
didn'l give lhe business curricuIum an enlireIy fair shake in lhal iece, bul I did use freedom in
a curricuIar sense ralher simiIar lo Slefano's invocalion of sludy, asking essenliaIIy, in vhal sense
couId ve undersland lhe hooIa aboul David Horovilz's academic 'biII of righls' for sludenls as
a fake soIulion lo a reaI robIem` Is lhere a vay in vhich lhe oulcomes-managemenl of lheir exis-
lences essenliaIIy means lhal sludenls' academic freedoms--incIuding vhal Slefano caIIs 'sludy'-
-are subslanliaIIy forecIosed in advance`
Iarl of my oinl is lhal lhis is a syslem lhal vorks aImosl as oorIy for ils 'vinners' as ils many
Iosers, and lhal lhe reason lhe syslem vorks so oorIy for ils vinners is lhe reIenlIess exlraclion
of vaIue in adminislralive innovalion:
'The Iesson of lheir ovn inlernshis, service Iearning and communily service1resume
buiIding--lhe Iesson of conlemorary camus cuIlure ilseIf--is lhal good managers hnd
vays for vorkers lo vork for free, and organize lhe roduclion rocess lo incororale
as many seIf-discounling and unaid vorkers as ossibIe. They lhemseIves have ac-
celed lhe command lo give il avay for years--and il aII vorked oul for lhem, didn'l il`
To lhe vinners, giving one's Iabor avay is a form of 'inveslmenl' in one's ovn fulure--a
eriod of subordinalion, humiIialion and obedience simiIar lo lhe characler-buiIding of
biIdungsroman--lhal one endures as arl of one's inilialion inlo lhe Ieadershi cIass'.
In cerlain circumslances lhis inveslmenl--giving il avay--quile IileraIIy lakes lhe form of
a Iollery lickel lo success in lhe seclacuIar economy. Inlernshis are avarded as 'rizes'
(ie, by MTV or RoIIing Slone), and serve lo rovide Iov-cosl formals for roducing media
rogramming. nIine oker siles offer 'inlernshis' lo sludenls vho y lo offshore lroicaI
siles lo erform as veb-casl ceIebrilies for lhe huge undergraduale gambIing ouIalion.
These arlicuIar examIes highIighl a duaI accumuIalion slralegy by emIoyers--vho gel
service Iabour for Iov or no ay, bul aIso--yel more imorlanlIy--accumuIale vaIue in lhe
enlerlainmenl goods lhey seII, eilher reaIily rogramming, or vebcasls draving cIienleIe lo
gambIing siles.
f arlicuIar imorlance is underslanding lhal lhis duaI accumuIalion slralegy--caluring
vaIue from lhe sludenl body simuIlaneousIy in chea service Iabour and seclacIe--vas io-
neered by higher educalion and remains of crilicaI imorlance lo camus emIoyers and
adminislralions. If anylhing can exIain lhe facl lhal baskelbaII and foolbaII coaches are lhe
highesl aid ubIic emIoyees in lhe Iniled Slales--oflen earning miIIions in saIary--il is
lhe Iong hislory of higher educalion's unique accumuIalion slralegy, a slralegy lhal rohl-
seeking cororalions have recenlIy been lrying lo emuIale, vilh some success.
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism HL
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To an exlenl, coIIege alhIelics has been examined as a form of undercomensaled vork in
vhich sludenl alhIeles creale revenue-generaling seclacIe in exchange for dubious educa-
lion goods.
ul alhIelics for broadcasl leIevision is |usl one vay lhal sludenls donale or arliaIIy donale
Iabour lo schooIs in lhe crealion of camus cuIlure--from lhe crealion of consumabIe conlenl
(sludenl nevsaers, vebIogs) lo arlicialion in Iays, singing grous, orcheslras, dance
lroues, service organisalions, reIigious aclivilies, business cIubs, fralernilies, honor sociel-
ies, oIilicaI camaigns, sludenl governmenl and so forlh.
Sludenls arliciale in lhe Iabour and cuIlure of adminislralion, by comIeling evaIualions
forms, exchanging noles and oinions regarding facuIly, mainlaining hIes of lerm aers,
and so forlh.
ne mighl easiIy argue lhal lhe lime senl by sludenls in gyms and lanning saIons--re-
senling lhemseIves for sludenl-holograhers in ofhciaI camus ubIicalions and unofhciaI
fralernily1sororily bIogs is a donalion lo lhe camus brand. This may seem frivoIous, bul in
facl il's quile signihcanl, as is cIear by lhe Ienglhs lo vhich gambIing siles and olher vendors
viII go lo creale such an iIIusion. Indeed, vhere lhese conlribulions don'l reaIIy exisl--on
commuler camuses vilh a moribund sludenl cuIlure, for inslance--lhey generaIIy have lo
be manufaclured for lhe cameras of aid markeling rofessionaIs.
The vinning sludenl Iearns lhal arlicialing in al Ieasl lhe second rong of lhe camus's
duaI accumuIalion slralegy is nol olionaI. Winners do nol need lo arliciale in lhe 3O
veekIy hours of chea service Iabour, bul lhey'd beller give lheir lime avay. Those vho
musl vork lhe lhirly hours quickIy Iearn lhal if lhey vanl lo be vinners, lhey musl malch--
or aear lo malch--lhe gifls of Iabour-lime offered by lhose nol vorking, or become, in facl,
Iosers.
Those sludenls vho vork, ersisl, and 'vin' Iearn exlreme disciIine, exlreme medica-
lion, and somelimes, exlreme ideoIogy: lhey become adverlisemenls for an abusive syslem
cIearIy faiIing lhe ma|orily of arlicianls. Like Navy iIols |acked on benzedrine, lhey lake
lheir medicine, freeIy give lhemseIves lo To Gun cuIlure in exchange for lhe roaganda
lhal lhey are lhe besl because lhey are viIIing lo drive lhe naaIm lruck--and because lhey
veren'l smarl, reeclive, elhicaI, free or humane enough lo 'vash oul'--and acquire lhe be-
Iief lhal lhe heighls are lheir miIieu, lhal lhey are |usl doing lheir |obs vhiIe sreading mis-
ery and dealh in lhe habilus beIov' (nol exaclIy as ediled for SAQ).
My aoIogies for lhe Iong exlracl, bul il calures some of lhe lension belveen my accounl and
Slefano's (and I freeIy acknovIedge lhal his accounl remedies defecls in mine!) }usl lo lake one
inleresling Iine of inquiry--if I vere vriling a granl lo sludy lhe allerns of RilaIin abuse on
coIIege camuses, I'd acluaIIy be very curious lo see vhelher il's higher in undergraduales seIf-
idenlifying as re-rofessionaI versus lhose vilh a business ma|or.
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If I had lo come u vilh a vorking hyolhesis, I'd slarl vilh lhe ossibiIily lhal erhas busi-
ness sludenls vere Iess IikeIy lo abuse rescrilion slimuIanls, and lhose hoing lo grab sIols in
lhe shrinking, roIelarianised rofessions more IikeIy. If lhal lhesis roved correcl--and I vish
someone vouId vrile a granl lo hnd oul--lhen Slefano mighl be righl aboul lhe avaiIabiIily of
sace and lime for sludy in lhe heads and curricuIa of business sludenls. They'd be lhe sofl
lheory heads of a Ieadershi cIass formerIy consliluled by reading Keals and Kesey, vhiIe LngIish
ma|ors vouId be lrending lovard lhe raclicaI grunls under lheir genleeI, arislocralic direclion.
ul he mighl aIso be vrong: lhal is, simIy because he's grased a fundamenlaI conlradiclion--as
vilh lhe faclory oor, lhe olenliaI oinl for inlervenlion is aIso lhe ounding hearl of lhe exlrac-
lion rocess.
My inleresl in lhese queslions reecls an idea I've been loying vilh, lhal lhere's a groving sIil in
lhe rofessionaI-manageriaI cIass. n lhe one hand, lhere's a slrong movemenl lo roIelarianise
rofessionaIs, consicuousIy coIIege facuIly, bul aIso hysicians, Iavyers and accounlanls. Hence
lhe usefuIness of Gary Rhoades' essenliaI observalions on lhe rise of 'managed rofessionaIism'.
In lhis vein, 'rofessionaIism' is loday more of an ideoIogy lhan a Iife-vay. As an ideoIogy usefuI
lo one's emIoyers, for inslance, rofessionaIism as devolion lo one's cIienls, lhe ubIic good, and
lhe cuIlure of one's heId is cIearIy a veclor for lhe suer-exIoilalion of aII kinds of olher vorkers,
from relaiI saIes lo schooIleachers.
Like rofessionaIs, miIIions of service-economy and cIericaI vorkers are nov execled lo donale
hours of vork off lhe cIock, donaling lime lo emaiI and olher emIoyer-reIaled communicalion,
engaging in unaid lraining and 'keeing u', elc. Throughoul lhe economy, vorkers are urged
lo give freeIy of lhemseIves--lo serve--in exchange for sychic relurns. AII of lhis 'acling rofes-
sionaI', hovever, doesn'l come vilh vhal used lo be a rofessionaI's aycheck. And aII of lhese
gifls come from seIf-care--from exercise, sIee, famiIy and sludy: hence slimuIanl abuse among
reslauranl vorkers and hysicisls aIike.
n lhe olher hand, managemenl is increasingIy rofessionaIised, via lhe vorIdvide lriumh of
lhe business curricuIum--lhe hrsl lrue gIobaI monocuIlure, vilh lhe keyvords and masler con-
cels (exceIIence, quaIily, change, accounlabiIily, Iearning organisalion, elc.) framed by lhe 'greal
aulhors' of our lime: W. Ldvards Deming, Ieler Senge, elc. And lhe lo managers, and lhe uer-
middIe managers, and even many of lhe middIe managers sliII gel a rofessionaI's aycheck and
more. They gel aid in cIose reIalion lo lheir abiIily lo crealiveIy summon lhe affecl of olhers: lhe
beller lhey Iay 'Ya Golla Serve Somebody' and exlracl donaled vork-lime from everyone eIse,
lhe more lhey vhack dovn in lheir ovn 'ay for erformance'.
ne vay of Iooking al cerlain lrends in lhe mass cuIlure of lhe rofessionaI manageriaI cIass
(yeah, vilh 9OO channeIs and a gIobaI audience, you can have muIliIe mass cuIlures) is in reac-
lion lo lhe roIelarianisalion of lhe vhile coIIar vorker, and lhe lension belveen lhe residuaI
cuIlure of rofessionaIs, lhe dominanl cuIlure of managemenl, and lhe reIaled managemenl-engi-
neered faux-rofessionaI cuIlures of olher vorkers. The recenl 'Relreal lo Move Iorvard' eisode
of 3O Rock once again Iamooning GL managemenl's 'Six Sigma' cuIlure calures lhis nealIy,
bul reaIIy lhe vhoIe remise of lhe series is lhe running var belveen lhe vorkIace cuIlure of
ma|c CUsUel a|le| cU|lU|a| caila|ism HH
ISSN 2O78-3884
enlerlainmenl rofessionaIs and lhe |unk cuIlure lhal GL managemenl is lrying lo imose on
lhem. The eisode's lrue-enough version of lhe six iIIars of Sigma: 'Teamvork, insighl, brulaIily,
maIe enhancemenl, handshakefuIIness, and Iay hard'. (Il faIIs inlo lhe nol-reaIIy-a-|oke calegory,
lhough, vhen you lhink aboul hov your universily residenl gol lhe |ob).
There are severaI series lhemalising lhe roIelarianisalion of lhe leacher righl nov. The mosl
successfuI by far is AMC's Brcc|ing Bc!, vhich lhemalises lhe murderous Iogic of ulling rohl-
seeking doIls in charge of sociaI goods, eseciaIIy heaIlh care and educalion. ul vhal made lhe
series' hrsl season such a success vas ils exIoralion of lhe consequences of roIelarianisalion
for lhe rofessionaI sub|eclivily. WhiIe lhe second season soflened lhe edges, in lhe hrsl eisodes
lhere vere dramalic, slarlIing consequences. When diagnosed vilh lerminaI Iung cancer, lhe
scaIes simIy faII from lhe eyes of high-schooI chemislry leacher WaIler While. Recognising his
roIelarianisalion, he uls lhe energy he formerIy dedicaled lo lhe ideaIislic service of olhers inlo
roviding securily for his famiIy. He becomes a manager, laking over a former sludenl's smaII-
lime melh business, re-slrucluring lhe oeralion lo maximise rohls. (And before you comIain
aboul il exIoiling lhe scourge of melhamhelamine lo calure lhe crisis of lhe IMC, consider
lhal RilaIin and melh are cIose chemicaI cognales, frequenlIy laken for simiIar uroses).
While's lurn inlo rulhIessness--he abrulIy 'breaks bad'--resoIving overnighl lo become lhe ex-
Ioiler ralher lhan lhe exIoiled is vhal searales lhe shov from lhe soggy IiberaIism of Shov-
lime's Wcc!s, vhich fealures a soccer mum deaIing ol lo kee u her sense of enlilIemenl.
Brcc|ing Bc! is more Iike 1nc Scprcncs, vhere haIf-smarl gangslers in McMansions aIIegorise lhe
organised criminaIs acluaIIy running lhe counlry, or 1nc Wirc, vhere lhe acluaIIy-exisling lhug-
gery of managemenl lheory in ubIic service is conlinuousIy lhemalised. AII lhree of lhese shovs
fealure vhal lo me is a veIcome ouIisl slrain of Iilerary naluraIism and roIelarian sensibiIily,
a hinl lhal ve mighl be relurning lo an avareness of }ack London's sense of lhe eal or be ealen
ferocily of lhe cIass var from above on lhe resl of us. I hoe so, anyvay.
NOTE5
*
Scmc pcriicns cj inis csscq crc c!cpic!
jrcm cn|inc ccniri|uiicns ic inc Cnrcnic|c
cj Higncr |!ucciicn Rcticu (cnrcnic|c.ccm/
rcticu/|rcinsicrm), 1nc Vc|tc (inctc|tc.crg),
cn! Hcu inc Unitcrsiiq Wcr|s (mcrc|cusuci.
nci).

REFERENCE5
Agron, }oe. 2OO9. 35lh annuaI educalion
conslruclion reorl. Amcriccn Scncc|
cn! Unitcrsiiq Mcgczinc, May 1. IRL:
hll:11asumag.com1Conslruclion1
Ianning1educalion-conslruclion-re-
orl-2OO9O51 |December 12, 2OO9j.
HU U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
ousquel, Marc. 2OO9. Take your rilaIin
and shul u. Scuin Ai|cniic Qucricr|q
1O8|4j: 623-65O.
Candisky, Calherine. 2OO8. 1 in 1O hioans:
Iood slams doubIe since 'O1. Cc|um-
|us Dispcicn, March 22. IRL: hll:11
vvv.disalch.com1Iive1conlenl1
IocaI_nevs1slories12OO81O31221
foodslams.ART_ART_O3-22-O8_A1_
NN9NL83.hlmI |December 12, 2OO9j.
Lducalion Managemenl Cororalion.
2OO9. Lducalion managemenl coro-
ralion reorls hscaI 2O1O hrsl quarler
resuIls. IRL: hll:11hx.cororale-ir.
nel1hoenix.zhlmI`c=87813&=iroI-
nevsArlicIe&ID=1351178&highIighl=
|December 12, 2OO9j.
Hryvna, Mark. 2OO9. 2OO8: Giving
droed $6.4 iIIion, Largesl de-
cIine on record. 1nc Ncn-Prci 1imcs,
}une 11. IRL: hll:11vvv.nlimes.
com1O9}un1bnevs-givingusa-O9O61O.
hlmI |December 12, 2OO9j.
London, }ack. 19O8. 1nc ircn ncc|. IRL:
hll:11vvv.|ackIondons.nel1vril-
ings1IronHeeI1chaler5.hlmI
Manning, CharIes. 2OO8. Memo: oard
aclion on a nev business modeI. 1cn-
ncsscc Bccr! cj Rcgcnis, November 2O.
IRL: hll:11vvv.aau-lnconf.org1
TR_Nev_usiness_ModeI2OO8.df
|December 12, 2OO9j.
McCormack, Richard. 2OO9. bama's lo
economic aide sings lhe raises of lhe
WaI-marl Lconony. Mcnujcciuring
cn! 1ccncnc|cgq Ncus, March 9. IRL:
hll:11vvv.manufacluringnevs.
com1nevs1O91O3O91furman.hlmI |De-
cember 12, 2OO9j.
Ionievozik, }ames. 2OO8. Connecling lhe
dols. 1imc, }anuary 3. IRL: hll:11
vvv.lime.com1lime1magazine1arli-
cIe1O,9171,169987O,OO.hlmI |December
12, 2OO9j.
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
Thc dnub!c crIsIs nI thc chI!can
unIvcrsIty
*
MIguc! Carmnna and NIcn!s 5!achcvsky
(reviev Mu|iiiu!)
The ma|orily of lhe mosl reresenlalive universilies in ChiIe loday
vere born al lhe end of lhe nineleenlh cenlury or lhe beginning of
lhe lvenlielh--lhe same lime as lhe consoIidalion of lhe hrsl reub-
Iican lradilion in ChiIe. The lransformalions of lhal inslilulion, once
reserved lo lhe oIigarchy and an inciienl bourgeoisie, have aIvays
coincided vilh economic rocesses and sociaI conlingencies. In lhe
195Os and 196Os, during lhe reign of sociaI-democralic governmenls,
lhe universily Iayed a cenlraI roIe in civiI Iife, universilies began lo
cIaim lheir righls lo direclIy inlervene in universily affairs, vhich nol
onIy consliluled lhe hrsl democralising imuIse of lhe sludenl body,
bul aIso, in ils effervescence, gave birlh lo lhe Chrislian, nalionaI-
isl and revoIulionary oIilicaI forces lhal marked ChiIe in lhe 197Os.
Thus, lhe currenl oIilicaI cIass vas arl of a generalion lhal vas edu-
caled in a free and ubIic universily syslem, vhose oIilicaI reIevance
resonaled on a nalionaI IeveI.
Today, lhe ChiIean universily as a syslem of educalion is enlering a
slrucluraI crisis. ChiIe, as one of lhe hrsl Iaboralories of lhe Chicago
oys and lhe nev IiberaI economy, can be seen as an imorlanl oinl
of reference for underslanding lhe currenl crisis of veslern educalion
syslems.
In lhis sense, in lhe conlexl of lhe sub-rime crisis and ils inuence
on lhe educalion crisis, a sorl of doubIe crisis is being conhrmed.
Here, ve vouId Iike lo briey sludy lhe IegaI and economic cases of
ChiIean educalion, lhe nev emergenl ressures of lhe sludenl move-
menl and, hnaIIy, ils silualion in lhe face of lhe greal hnanciaI crisis
currenlIy undervay.
MIGUEL CARMONA AND
NICOLA5 5LACHEV5KY
TH 18 YLARS LD, ARL
IINISHING SLCNDARY
SCHL AT THL LYCLL
ALLIANCL IRANCAISL
I SANTIAG, CHILL.
THLY IINDLD AND
LAINCHLD THL IR}-
LCT I MUI1|1UD MAGA-
Z|N| (NAML INSIIRLD Y
TNI NLGRI'S WRK) N
DLCLMLR 2OO8: IT HAS
ALRLADY THRLL ISSILS,
AND IS NL YLAR LD
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ISSN 2O78-3884
T H E C H I L E A N E D U C A T I O N 5 Y 5 T E M
Selember 11lh, 1973--lhe day of lhe cou d'lal--lhe diclalorshi (1973-199O) found a slrong and
aulonomous universily, lhe inslilulionaI arlicialion of lhe sludenls lhal vas von vilh lhe uni-
versily reform in 1968 made lhe universily a kind of 'counlry ro|ecl'. ne of lhe hrsl measures
of lhe miIilary diclalorshi vas lo exlend slale inlerference inlo ubIic universilies (rinciaIIy
lhe Iniversily of ChiIe), lhe designalion of deIegale Deans--aII aclive members of lhe army--vas
one of lhe mosl embIemalic of lhese measures. This nol onIy consliluled an exIicil vioIalion of
lhe aulonomous universily, il aIso marked lhe slarl of a rocess lhal vouId bring aboul a rogres-
sive delerioralion in lhe inslilulion of lhe ubIic universily lhal is sliII resenl. The effecls of lhis
miIilary inlerference on educalion are sliII being feIl, vilh lhe reorienlalion and lhe cIosing of
imorlanl dearlmenls (Iike lhe Iimilalion of economics lo commerciaI engineering, or lhe direcl
susension of hiIosohy and socioIogy for some lime) aIong vilh lhe effecls of lhe 1981 disman-
lIing of lhe nalionaI aIIiance of lhe Iniversily of ChiIe (under lhe relexl of regionaI universily
indeendence), and conlemorariIy, lhe rinciIe of coIIege aulonomy lhal Iunged lhe inslilu-
lion inlo an academic and hnanciaI crisis.
The nev aradigm of lhe universily vas lherefore lhal of academic cailaIism, vhere sludies
onIy corresond lo a Iogic of individuaI inversion and nol lo a nalionaI democralic ro|ecl. This
is lhe same ob|eclive accomanying lhe reforms made lhrough lhe diclalorshi, vhich Ied lo lhe
rivalisalion of lhe universily.
IaraIIeI lo lhe rivalisalion of ubIic universilies--vhich vere lo became lhe 'TradilionaI Iniver-
silies'-- lhe diclalorshi Iefl as lheir Iegacy a greal number of rivale universilies, vilh lhe same
Iogic of 'freedom of inslruclion'. In rinciIe, lhis vouId be an eIemenl of lhe democralisalion of
universily access. In facl, in 2OO8 lhe 42/ of lhe 71.8OO sludenls lhal |oined lhe universilary sys-
lem did so al universilies lhal didn'l exisl before 1981. Today, nearIy 6O universilies and 5OO,OOO
freshmen are enroIIed, 5 limes more lhan 25 years ago.
1
Hovever, as ve knov, quanlily doesn'l
imIy quaIily and educalion in rivale universilies Ieaves much lo be desired, relaining lhe ef-
hcienl managemenl of lhe infraslruclures as lhe onIy crileria for evaIualion, olher lhan a fev rare
excelions (lhal can be counled on lhe hngers of one hand), beyond efhcienl managemenl, fev
have good indices of sludenl and rofessor quaIily.
No Iess disaslrous vas lhe case of basic and secondary educalion, vhere in an eagerness lo 'de-
cenlraIise educalion'--in vhich lhe slale lried lo inlervene as IillIe as ossibIe in sociely--a Iav of
municiaIisalion vas assed lhal ul lhe IocaI governmenl in charge of coIIeges in bolh admin-
islralive and economic lerms. In lhe same vay, lhree dislincl lyes of coIIeges vere eslabIished:
rivale coIIeges (vhose hnancing deended excIusiveIy on rivale inslilulions), subsidised coI-
Ieges (a mixlure of hnancing from rivale business and municiaI cailaI) and ubIic coIIeges
(vilh excIusiveIy municiaI hnancing). This secloring of educalion resuIled in a sociaI secloring
of lhe counlry, because each cily has an unequaI economic over. This is visibIe nol onIy in lhe
quaIily ralings of educalion, bul aIso in lhe infraslruclure of lhe eslabIishmenls vherein a nolabIe
delerioralion is evidenl.
ca|mC(a s|ac|evsk_ l|e UCU|e c|isis C| l|e c|i|ea( U(ive|sil_ Uz
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The coIIege reforms of lhe diclalorshi vere assed a day before lhe end of lhe diclalorshi,
on March 1Olh in 199O, vilh lhe ubIicalion of lhe Ley rgnica ConslilucionaI de Lnseanza
(LCL).
2
InliI lhe arovaI of lhe nev Ley GeneraI de Lnseanza lhis year--in name of lhe 'free-
dom of inslruclion' ciled in arlicIe 19 n11--lhe Iav eslabIished lhe righl lo sel u and mainlain
a coIIege in lhe manner of a business (nameIy, requiring one lo be 18 years of age or oIder and
hoIding a rimary and secondary educalion).
3
AddilionaIIy, il heId lhal lhe hnancing of ub-
Iic and subsidised coIIeges, deending on lhe municiaIily, aIso deended on lheir requisiles.
This favoured veII-lo-do cIasses vho had easier access lo higher quaIily rivale inslilulions vilh
higher enroImenls.
CurrenlIy, educalion in ChiIe is governed by a nev Ley GeneraI de Lducacin (LGL), vhich vas
signed on lhe 9lh of AriI 2OO9 afler more lhan lhree years of ressure from anlagonislic sludenl
mobiIisalions and inlense negolialions belveen arIiamenlary arlies.
4
Hovever, lhe exlreme
rigidily of lhe ChiIean IegisIalive syslem, inheriled from lhe diclaloriaI conslilulion, Iimiled os-
sibIe advances in nev educalionaI oIicies, lhus ulling grealer emhasis on slale quaIily regu-
Ialion and more conlroI over inslruclionaI freedom. In slrucluraI lerms, lhe LGL didn'l mark a
radicaI change in resecl lo lhe LCL, oIicies of rohl and a municiaIisalion of educalion have
been mainlained.
In lhe end, a silualion has been crealed lhal lhe sludenl movemenls caII an 'educalionaI aarl-
heid'. This silualion has lhe foIIoving vicious cycIe: il begins al lhe IeveI of rimary educalion,
vilh very Iimiled quaIihed ubIic schooIs and veII quaIihed leachers (desile lhe common er-
seclive lhal a rimary schooI educalion is a fundamenlaI requiremenl for each individuaI). Il
conlinues lo lhe secondary schooI IeveI al scienlihc-humanisl coIIeges and induslriaI or com-
merciaI schooIs (lechnicaI educalion): lhe hrsl mainlain a silualion simiIar lo lhal of lhe rimary
schooIs, aside from aroximaleIy len schooIs (lhe so-caIIed embIemalic schooIs) lhal have
allained a IeveI of quaIily in comarison lo lhe ma|orily of olher schooIs by selling u a slricl
seIeclion crileria for dislinguished sludenls, of vhich onIy a smaII roorlion come from ubIic
rimary schooIs, lhe second offer a minimaI number of olions lo encourage sludenls lo over-
come lheir sociaI silualions, many of vhom come from sociaI risk grous and see a lechnicaI ro-
fessionaI career as lheir onIy olion (aIbeil a difhcuIl one). This is foIIoved by universily sludies
vhere lhe excessive fees of arlicuIar dearlmenls acl as a naluraI hIler. These fees, aIong vilh
lhe Irueba de SeIeccin Iniversilaria, condilion lhe enlrance lo lradilionaI universilies vilh a
resuIl lhal onIy 24/ of lhose vho score higher lhan 6OO oinls (lhe minimum for such universi-
lies) acluaIIy come from municiaI eslabIishmenls.
5


InequaIily is draslic, even under lhe crileria
of quaIily given by lhe ISI onIy 57.81/ of lhe youlh sludying al municiaI coIIeges score higher
lhan 45O oul of 85O, comared lo 93.86/ of lhose sludying in rivale coIIeges.
6
AII of lhis is added lo lhe robIem of lhe scarce vaIorisalion of ChiIean rofessorshis. The av-
erage saIary for basic or secondary leacher is 5OO,OOO ChiIean Iesos a monlh, lhe equivaIenl of
aroximaleIy 91O I.S. doIIars or 65O Luros (vhere minimum vage is 159,OOO Iesos, or aroxi-
maleIy 29O I.S. DoIIars or 21O Luros). The saIary of a universily rofessor is nol much higher,
around 7OO,OOO ChiIean Iesos.
7
Hence ve can see lhal educalion is ChiIe is nol onIy badIy aid in lerms of Iabour, bul is redomi-
nanlIy inaccessibIe lo a Iarge arl of lhe ouIalion, vhich is lied lo high enroImenl numbers in
Iover ranking schooIs (vhich are lhe ma|orily).
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5 T U D E N T M O V E M E N T
I unliI 2OO6 lhere vere no signihcanl conicls direcled al queslioning lhe educalion syslem.
The sludenl movemenl vas Iimiled lo lhe universily and, as such, among rofessors, conlroversy
rinciaIIy focused on conlingenl or IocaI robIems and nol slrucluraI ones. Hovever, a differ-
ence vas marked in May 2OO6 vhen a series of rolesls began among lhe secondary sludenls of
ubIic coIIeges araIysing aII coIIeges of ChiIe. The aim of lhe movemenl vas lhe abrogalion of
lhe LCL, lhe end of municiaIisalion and rohl in educalion. The movemenl raidIy exlended
lo subsidised coIIeges and, Ialer, lo rivale coIIages and universilies. The media coverage vas
inlense and by lhe beginning of }une, vhen lhe rolesls vere generaIised, lhe governmenl and
lhe oIilicaI seclors vere forced lo acknovIedge lhe crisis of lhe ChiIean educalion syslem and in
resonse crealed a Conse|o Asesor IresidenciaI de Ia Lducacin.
8
y Augusl, hovever, minorily seclors of lhe sludenl associalion began lo reaIise lhe inadequacy
of lhe ansvers offered by lhe governmenl. Lven if lhe Conse|o Asesor IresidenciaI de Ia Ldu-
cacin (comrising aII seclors of civiI sociely) broughl salisfaclory soIulions vilh resecl lo slu-
denl demands, lhe LGL--lhe Iav lhal vas hnaIIy vrillen in congress (agreed uon by bolh lhe
governmenl and lhe righl ving)--didn'l address lhe rohl in educalion, municiaIisalion or lhe
rinciIe faclors of educalionaI inequaIily. In }une 2OO8, lhe sludenl movemenl began lo miIilanl-
Iy re-arlicuIale ilseIf, demanding lhe end of rohl in educalion and lhe modihcalion of lhe LGL
before il vas lo be voled on by congress. Salisfaclory soIulions vere nol offered and lhe silualion
slaIIed unliI lhe Iav vas assed in AriI 2OO9. The faiIure of lhe Ialer sludenl movemenl, desile
ils organisalionaI simiIarily lo lhal of 2OO6, Iay heaviIy in lhe maniuIalion of lhe mass media.
In 2OO6, aII |ournaIs and ubIicalions soke in favour of lhe sludenl movemenl (erhas because
lhe 2OO6 movemenl vas crilicaI of lhe MicheIIe acheIel governmenl, a conlexl in vhich lhe ma-
|orily of lhe mass media beIonged lo lhe oIilicaI oosilion). Tvo years Ialer, lhe same media
disbanded lhe movemenl, for inslance by ainling il as roduclive of senseIess vandaIislic aclion
and Iinking ils Ieaders lo oIilicaI arlies and lheir robIems.
The universily movemenl, on ils arl, vas concenlraled in lhe slale universilies De ChiIe and De
Sanliago de ChiIe, organised mainIy in conlingenl sludenl cenlres, bul il aIso found addilionaI
oinls of mobiIisalion in a series of rivale universilies vilh a slrong Iefl. There is no inslance of
common reresenlalion amongsl lhese inslilulions olher lhan lhrough lheir reseclive sludenl
cenlres. The cenlraI roIe of lhe hisloricaI universily movemenls from lhe 196Os and, again, from
lhe 198Os vilh lhe hrsl demonslralions againsl lhe diclalorshi, vere feIl in lhe imaginary of
loday's universily movemenls. The universily demands, hovever, did nol reach lhe scoe lhal
vas allained by lhe groving coIIege movemenl during lhe democralic years. Today, lhe goaIs of
lhe ma|orily of reresenlalive universily organs are geared lovard lhe roleclion of lhe ubIic
universily, even vhen lhe alh lo a unily of demands sliII aears dislanl.
T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y F A C I N G T H E C R I 5 I 5
In lhis conlexl, lhe economic crisis lhal is affecling lhe vhoIe vorId and keeing lhe counlry in re-
cession hnds educalion aIready submerged in a much earIier crisis. Today, laIking aboul a doubIe
ca|mC(a s|ac|evsk_ l|e UCU|e c|isis C| l|e c|i|ea( U(ive|sil_ U/
ISSN 2O78-3884
crisis of lhe economy and lhe universily goes far beyond lhe measure in vhich lhe economic con-
lingencies have effecled lhe hnanciaI silualion for lhe inslilulion of lhe ubIic universily. Inslead,
il indicales a robIem al lhe very base uon vhich lhe universily vas founded in ChiIe.
As ve noled in lhe hrsl arl of lhis arlicIe, lhe universily in ChiIe is based on lhe modeI of in-
dividuaI academic inversion and has as ils rimary ob|eclive sludenl's inserlion inlo lhe Iabour
markel. In facl, sludenl's slale Ioan delermines aIso lhe viII of lhe individuaIs, generaling Iogics
of sociaI reroduclion, forcing lhem lo enler immedialeIy inlo lhe Iabour markel's comelilivily
lo evade a debl silualion. Irom lhe momenl lhal lhe markel faiIs and lhe mass of avaiIabIe vorks
become insufhcienl (comared lo lhe mass of universily sludenls), lhe universily and ils ob|ec-
lives faiI loo, vhich makes ils ovn crisis even more evidenl. The economic crisis makes lhe modeI
of universily rivalisalion unsuslainabIe.
The universily, in facl, Ioses ils aclive roIe in sociaI inlegralion lhe momenl lhal lhe Iess riviIeged
seclors of sociely are effecled by lhe economic crisis. Nol onIy is lhere an increase in sludenl Ioan
defauIl, bul lhe same modeI of seIf-hnancing means lhal lhe ooresl seclors are even furlher avay
from lhe ossibiIily of enroIIing in universily and ol lo vork inslead. This increases lhe IeveI of
deserlion of lhose aIready enroIIed in higher educalion, vhal resuIls is a consequenl increase in
sociaI inequaIilies.
This doubIe crisis lhrovs lhe very exislence of a sociaI roIe of lhe ChiIean universily inlo queslion
and highIighls lhe democralic saces lhal lhe commerciaIisalion of ubIic inslilulions has mar-
ginaIised. The economic crisis has reavakened a slrong consciousness around lhe slrucluraI faiI-
ures of lhe neo-IiberaI modeI and, on lhe universily IeveI, il has reminded us lhal sociaI inequaIi-
lies are roduced by dynamics of excIusion lhal ersisl in educalionaI deveIomenl, vhich in
ChiIe can be lraced back lo lhe miIilary diclalorshi. The universily in ChiIe is nol onIy no Ionger
a 'counlry-ro|ecl', bul il can be direclIy soken aboul in lerms of business and rohl. In a cerlain
sense, lhis modeI of seIf-hnancing lhe universily is, in ilseIf, a vioIalion of universily aulonomy.
NOTE5
* This arlicIe orginaIIy aeared in lhe ChiI-
ean |ournaI MuIlilud. TransIaled by }ason
Irancis Mc Gimsey
1
See lhe 'ChiIean Iniversilies' QuaIily Re-
search'. IRL: hll:11aquevedo.vordress.
com12OO911O1131ranking-2OO9-de-caIidad-
de-universidades-chiIenas1
2
TransIalors nole: 'Ley rgnica Conslilu-
cionaI de Lnseanza'1 ConslilulionaI Lav of
Inslruclion.
3
TransIalors nole: 'Ley GeneraI de Lnsean-
za'1GeneraI Lav of Inslruclion.
4
TransIalors nole: 'Ley GeneraI de Lducacin
U U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
(LGL)'1 GeneraI Lducalion Lav.
5
TransIalors nole: 'Irueba de SeIeccin Ini-
versilaria'1 Iniversily Lnlrance Lxam.
6
See lhe ohciaI dala of ISI 2OO8's resuIls.
7
See lhe reference vebage of lhe Lduca-
lion Minislry for academic orienlalion. IRL:
vvv.fuluroIaboraI.cI
8
TransIalors nole: 'Conse|o Asesor Iresiden-
ciaI de Ia Lducacin'1 IresidenliaI CounciI
for Lducalion.
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ISSN 2O78-3884
WcavIng dcmncracy
The doubIe crisis of lhe braziIian
universily
Pcdrn Mcndcs
There can be onIy cerlain lyes of knovIedge sub|ecl,
cerlain orders of lrulh, cerlain knovIedge heIds
based on oIilicaI condilions vhich are lhe soiI
lhal forms lhe sub|ecl, lhe knovIedge areas
and lhe reIalionshi vilh lhe lrulh.
(MICHLL IICAILT, Ic trii c |cs jcrmcs juri!iucs)
The manifeslo lhal begins lhe Ldu-faclory
1
coIIeclive is based on one
fundamenlaI queslion: is lhe universily lhe nev faclory` Can lhe uni-
versily be considered, by anaIogy, as lhe riviIeged cenlre of knovI-
edge roduclion lhal is currenlIy hegemonic in lhe vorId of vork` r
even, can ve consider lhal because of ils inlegralion inlo lhe roduc-
lion syslem lhal characlerises lhe cognilive cailaIism`
AIlhough lhe anaIogy belveen lhe universily and lhe faclory serves
lo highIighl lhe roIe lhal lhe universily Iays in lhe currenl slage of
cailaIism, a roIe lhal, in lhe induslriaI cailaIism, vas Iayed by lhe
faclory, il musl neverlheIess be accomanied by some varnings, ese-
ciaIIy in regard lo lhe roduclion of knovIedge as somelhing differenl
lhan merchandise, and lhe consequenl aulonomy (aIbeil reIalive) lhal
such dynamic exresses.
Anolher conlroversiaI eIemenl of lhis comarison concerns lo lhe re-
Ialionshis buiIl around lhe maniuIalion of knovIedge and lhe ro-
duclion of sub|eclivilies in each case, and lhe imacl lhey make on lhe
horizon of lhe Iiving Iabour aulonomy. Ior if ve consider lhal lhere
is a lrend lhal vorkers become ovners more and more, or ralher, lhal
lhey become lhe sub|ecl of roduclion lhemseIves, vhiIe roduclion
of Iife lhrough lhe exchange of knovIedge, ve assume, necessariIy,
PEDRO B. MENDE5
IS A RLSLARCHLR
IRM INIVLRSI-
DADL NMADL AND
THL LDI-IACTRY
CLLLCTIVL. HL IS
LSILCIALLY INTLR-
LSTLD IN CITIZLN-
SHII IN RLLATIN T
THL NLW QIALITY
I LAIR AS WLLL
AS THL CNCLIT I
SLLI-LDICATIN. HL
IS CIRRLNTLY IN THL
MASTLRS IRGRAM
N INCML IR-
GRAMS IN RAZIL.
U7 U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
lhal lhe roduclion of knovIedge becomes sociaI roduclion asveII, diffused, and in lhal conlexl,
lhe universily can be al mosl one node of lhe dynamic nelvork lhal crosses lhe enlire melrooIi-
lan region.
In generaI, bul aIso in lhe raziIian case, as lhe slruggIe for universily access makes cIear, more-
over, if lhe muIlilude can aIready exerience some degree of aulonomy, lhe recarisalion of lhe
vorkforce re-inlroduces lhe maleriaI issue olhervise fundamenlaIIy nev. To occur, roduclion
needs lo hoId in a vide range of sub|ecls immedialeIy roduclive vhich, in lurn, reIy on lheir
ovn Iife (body, knovIedge, sociaI reIalionshis, memory, emolions, elc.) and cilizenshi (sociaI
righls) lo roduce lhe nev. SecondIy, roduclion mobiIises, in lhe form of coIIaboralive nelvorks,
aII lhe olenliaI and lhe singuIarily of each sub|ecl, fealures lhal, bundIed logelher in a unique
vay, can become effeclive.
Indeed, lhe queslion becomes hov lo roorlionale lhis muIliludinous sub|ecl vilh lhe means lo
udale ils roduclive virluaIilies more and more. In olher vords, one shouId ask hov lo buiId
a cilizenshi lovard lhe immaleriaI and aulonomous roduclion of lhe muIlilude of recari-
ous. Thal is vhy lhe slruggIe for sociaI righls and, more secihcaIIy, lhe slruggIe for lhe demo-
cralic conlroI of lhe universily, is resenled as an immedialeIy roduclive slruggIe and, lherefore,
maleriaI.
Hovever, 'a mixlure of oId and nev forms of informaIily and exibiIily delerminale, in lhe ra-
ziIian case, limeIy lransIalions of lheorelicaI conlribulions based on lhe maleriaI lransformalions
of lhe cenlraI economies...n lhe one hand, lhe facl lhal lhe vage reIalion based on faclory vork
invoIves onIy Iimiled orlions of lhe raziIian ouIalion and, secondIy, lhe facl lhal, excel for
lhe case (very imorlanl, bul Iimiled) of lhe vide AC IauIisla, lo have access lo lhe vage reIa-
lionshi based on faclory vork hasn'l become guaranlee of maleriaI access lo righls, lhal is lo say,
a lrue cilizenshi for lhe vorkers'.
2
The conicl lhal ervades lhe universily access issue, accordingIy, can roerIy be considered lhe
deveIomenl aradigm of nev righls lhal can ensure some degree of aulonomy and horizonlaIily
in lhe roduclion of knovIedge. The anaIogy vilh lhe faclory, lherefore, makes lhe robIem even
more inleresling, since in raziI, lhe curse of emIoymenl, lhe righls under emIoymenl slalus
and lhe universily, are, aradoxicaIIy, a riviIege for lhe fev.
n lhe olher hand, hovever, some of lhe mosl successfuI inilialives lo chaIIenge lhe knovIedge
roduclion and arorialion modeI and al lhe same lime, lo roose (and acluaIIy buiId) nev
dynamics in ils Iace, are aIso reIaled lo lhe slruggIe for universily access, as ve inlend lo shov.
Indeed, lhe dramalic deIelion of lhe raziIIian deveIomenl rocess oens, in lurn, lhe ossibiI-
ily of breaking lhe Iinearily of lhe cailaIisl nolion of rogress, making a Iea lo anolher lemo-
raIily, exressed in lhe forms of a osl-induslriaI cilizenshi and a democracy consliluled mainIy
by sociaI movemenls and lhe many singuIarilies lhal make u lhe raziIian muIlilude. There is
lherefore no ob|eclive slage of deveIomenl, vhich aIIovs raziI, in conlrasl lo many Luroean
counlries, lo break more easiIy ils deveIomenlaI conslrainls.
eU|C me(Ues l|e UCU|e c|isis C| l|e U(ive|sil_ UH
ISSN 2O78-3884
To accel lhe becoming of lhe muIlilude as a non-vorkmen sociaI cIass imIies, lherefore, lo
buiId, al Ieasl in lhe raziIian case, an exlensive nelvork of righls lhal rovide a maleriaI guar-
anlee for lhe reaI mass of recarious vorkers, among vhich universily access is onIy one, lhough
il is one of lhe mosl imorlanl. Al lhe same lime, vhal mighl seem an obslacIe, lhe recarious
cilizenshi of raziIian vorkers and lhe exlreme overly, above aII, oens a reaI chance lo lhe
counlry (and lo lhe muIlilude vhiIe 'roducer of lhe lime bifurcalions'
3
) lo conslilule ils ovn
elhicaI lime, moving il from a deendenl asl direclIy inlo lhe fulure of lhe nev sociaI righls and
lhe conslilulion of lhe common: lhe fulure is lhe becoming of lhe muIlilude!
T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y I N B R A Z I L
raziI is a counlry marked by inequaIily and by lo-bollom reforms, and has a ercenlage of slu-
denls vhich has onIy nov surassed 1O/ of youngslers (in coIIege age), and of lhose, mosl sludy
in rivale inslilulions so helerogeneous in lerms of curricuIar archileclure and avaiIabIe slruclure
many lhal many don'l even deserve lo be caIIed an universily. ul beyond lhe obvious shock lhis
informalion causes, il aIso serves lo highIighl lhe huge barrier lhal reslrains lhe assumlion of lhe
universily as lhe main aradigm in any roduclion scenario lhal has raziI as ils universe. More-
over, il demonslrales lhe slale of lhe arl of lhe sociaI righls in one of lhe Iargesl counlries in lhe
vorId and one of lhe ma|or emerging economies.
raziI has aroximaleIy 19O miIIion inhabilanls. f lhose, aboul 1O/ are youngslers belveen
19 and 24 years, lhe equivaIenl of aboul 19 miIIion eoIe in coIIege age.
4
Hovever, currenlIy,
around 3 miIIion eoIe have access lo lhe universily

(cIassroom educalion).
5
f lhose, onIy one
eighlh is in ubIic universilies (federaI, slale and municiaI). This reresenls aroximaleIy 35O
lhousand eoIe.
6
Il is nolevorlhy lhal lhere are aIso 1 miIIion and 35O lhousand unhIIed vacan-
cies in raziIian inslilulions, moslIy rivale.
In lhis sense, vhen il comes lo reecl on lhe raziIian universily, eseciaIIy lhe ubIic ones, vhal
ve have, aarenlIy, are lvo ma|or robIems lhal cross lhemseIves: lhe hrsl concerns lhe obscene
sociaI inequaIily in raziI, vhere universily has aIvays acled as a boundary belveen lhe eIile and
some seclors of lhe middIe cIass, and lhe muIlilude of oor eoIe lhal remains aarl, somelhing
around 9O/ of coIIege age youngslers. The second robIem is reIaled lo lhe facl lhal even during
lhe (fev) eriods lhal lhe universily exanded, il has reamined cIosed lo bIack eoIe, asveII as
lo olher oIilicaI minorilies, and furlhermore, nol |usl lo lhem, bul aIso lo lhe lhemes vhich are
ecuIiar lo lhem, demonslraling lhe exislence of highIy sohislicaled mechanisms of seIeclion
and, eseciaIIy, excIusion.
Hovever, if ve Iook cIoseIy al lhese lvo robIems lhal surround and cross lhrough lhe raziI-
ian ubIic universilies, ve'II see lhal il concerns onIy one bigger asecl of lhe robIem because,
and here Iies lhe seIeclion aaralus, in raziI, sociaI inequaIily has a eminenlIy raciaI (or coIour)
background. Il shouId be noled, hovever, lhal lhe slruggIe belveen lhose 'inside' and lhose 'oul-
side' lhe universily--lhe bio-oIilicaI bIock of over and lhe muIlilude--is far from being heId in
a binary division of sociely, hov il may suggesl al hrsl sighl.
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Il is a highIy sohislicaled over aaralus lhal oerales lhrough endIess moduIalions and acls
bolh lo afhrm conlemorary vaIues such as meril and miscegenalion (or lhe mylh of raciaI de-
mocracy, insired by GiIberlo Ireyre). This vay, far from soIving lhe robIem, lhis slalemenl onIy
conlribules lo shed Iighl on, vhal ve beIieve, is lhe conicl Iine.
NeverlheIess, lhe raziIian universily has Iayed a cenlraI roIe as an exceIIence sile in knovIedge
roduclion and advanced lechnoIogy, vilh greal benehls lo cerlain roduclion arrangemenls in
a cIear Iink vilh lhe nalionaI queslion vhich sliII characlerises IocaI lraining. Comanies such as
Ielrobras, VaIe do Rio Doce, Lmbraer and lhe so-caIIed 'agri-business' have en|oyed enormousIy
lhe research deveIoed and lhe lo universily roduclion. n lhe olher hand, a series of innova-
live reforms incororaled inlo lhe governmenl agenda during lhe lvo lerms of Iresidenl LuIa
reinlroduced lhe urgenl issue of universily democralisalion in raziI.
T H E %$&+(/25 A N D T H E F O R M A T I O N O F T H E
N A T I O N A L E L I T E
raziIian universilies, roughIy, sliII have a curricuIar and academic slruclure insired by lheir
Luroean counlerarls of lhe nineleenlh cenlury.
7
DeIoyed lhroughoul lhe cenlury as a mean
lo ensure lhe cIaim and reroduclion of lhe nalionaI eIile, lhose inslilulions have never gone
lhrough sveeing reforms in order lo modernise or al Ieasl lo adal lhem lo IocaI reaIilies. They
assed much of lhe lvenlielh cenlury immune lo lhe ressures and slruggIes for democracy and
have onIy knovn reforms (some unhnished, fruslraled olhers) made from lhe lo dovn, eilher
during lhe miIilary diclalorshi eriod, or under lhe neo-IiberaI hegemony lhal hil lhe counlry
in lhe 9Os.
8
Looking back, lhe hgure of lhe |ccnc|cr, immorlaIised by GiIberlo Ireyre in his cIassic on lhe
nalionaI buiIding and, in arlicuIar, in Sc|rc!cs c Muccm|cs
9
, vhich narrales lhe decIine of lhe
ruraI alriarchy and lhe rise of lhe urban sociely in raziI, iIIuslrales lhe dislinclive fealures of
a hgure vho has aIvays been Iinked lo lhe recognilion of aulhorily and hierarchy, even more
lhan lo knovIedge roduclion. The |ccnc|cr and, by exlension, lhe lraining lhal ensures access
lo lhe lilIe, has vorked and, lo a Iarge exlenl, sliII vorks (aImosl) as a lilIe of nobiIily, giving lo
ils ossessor lhe aura of an 'arislocral of lhe lroics', somelhing lhal, in facl, never exisled in
raziI.
1O
The universily granled, lherefore, cilizenshi lilIes lo lhe riviIeged lhal couId access ils
highIy excIusionary services.
The hgure of lhe |ccnc|cr, hovever, doesn'l ove ils over onIy lo lhal. Il aIso reveaIs lhe sociaI
conicl lhal underIies lhe very formalion of raziIian sociely for if, as ve said, lhe |ccnc|cr rere-
senled lhe ideaIs of a nobIe eIile drunk vilh over and lhirsly for dislinclion, il's aIso lrue lhal il
Iayed a subversive roIe for muIallos and meslizos vho soughl sociaI ascension1incIusion.
In a very skiIIfuI manner, lhe fev bIacks and muIalloes vho managed lo bridge lhe gas on
lheir vay lo lhe universily, used lhe |ccnc|cr lilIe lo oen alhs in a sociely marked by maleriaI
segregalion and raciaI discriminalion.
11
In lheir slruggIe for sociaI mobiIily and access lo righls,
lhey foughl lo enler lhe riviIeged vorId of vhile cilizenshi using lhe same (nobiIily) lilIe lhal
universily educalion granled and reresenled.
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In lhis sense, if lhe universily has aIvays been a rime Iocalion for lhe nalionaI eIile lo reroduce
and quaIify ilseIf vhiIe conducling lhe direclions of lhe nalion, for lhe muIallo (and meslizos and
bIacks), on lhe conlrary, il reresenled lhe galevay lo a universe of cilizenshi and righls.
Indeed--il is imorlanl lo nole lhal--aIlhough lhe raziIian universily is sliII marked by a slrong
bias of riviIege and excIusion, il vas lhe Ialform for Iaunching ma|or demonslralions for
democracy and change in raziIian sociely lovards an effeclive ubIicily of lhe ubIic sace,
from lhe resislance lo miIilary diclalorshi and lhe slruggIes lhal marked ils end lo lhe rolesls
lhal cuIminaled vilh lhe imeachmenl of lhe hrsl democralicaIIy eIecled residenl afler lhirly
years. This is due, robabIy, lo lhe enlrance of nev sub|ecls

inlo lhe scene, vho have emerged
around lhe immaleriaI lurn of conlemorary vork, marked by lhe nev (hegemonic) knovIedge
funclion and an udale of ils reIalionshi vilh over, in vhal vas lhe raziIian version of 1968.
12
T H E U N I V E R 5 I T Y C R I 5 I 5
The raziIian universily currenlIy asses lhrough ils vorsl crisis, marked by lhe conlroversy
among lhose vho are oul and vanl lo gel in and lhose vho are in and vanl lo ensure lheir rivi-
Iege of bolh cIass and coIour. Hovever, once again some cIarihcalion is required.
Iirsl, lhe raziIian universily crisis is nol of lhe same lye as lhal of lheir counlerarls in Luroe
or Norlh America. The main issue in raziI is hov lo exand and oen il lo lhe many lhal are
oulside of il. A differenl concel mighl vork here, bul if ve hoId u lo lhe crisis concel is, above
aII, lo idenlify and Ieverage lhe differences belveen lhe raziIian universily reforms in face of lhe
assumed (oIogna) rocess, for examIe. n lhe olher hand, ve refer lo lhe crisis aIso lo oinl
lhe disule over lhe currenl change roosaIs and, in arlicuIar, lhe vioIenl (and eIilisl) reaclions
lhey rovoke.
SecondIy, laIking aboul crisis means, lherefore, laIking aboul lhe decIine of one anachronislic
and ouldaled modeI of diffusion1concenlralion of knovIedge and lhe over reIalionshis lhal
il embraces. ul il invoIves mainIy laIking aboul lhe 'birlh angs' of a nev modeI of knovIedge
roduclion and sharing and, consequenlIy, of a richer, more muIliIe and more democralic Ini-
versily, bolh vilh resecl lo knovIedge (and lhe disciIine modeI crilique) and lo lhe sociaI bar-
riers erecled (and enforced) in order lo conlain and conlroI lhe many.
Therefore, il vorlh reading lhe crisis concel roosed by Negri, in Rccciicns cn |mpirc.
'The masses, lhe muIlilude, afhrming lhe cenlraIily of lemoraIily as lhe oening of an in-
soIubIe crisis belveen, on lhe one hand, lhe ovnershi lime, consoIidaled and cIosed, and
on lhe olher, vork lime lhal sels free, indelerminale and oened. RevoIulion as crisis aIIovs
seizing lhe anlagonislic dimensions of lime, belveen reaclionary lime, cIosed, lhe inerlia of
lhe asl, and lhe revoIulionary eriod vhich conslilules lhe fulure because of lhe roduc-
lion of nev veaIlh and nev humanily'.
13
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The crisis is reIaled, in lhe raziIian case, lo lhe movemenl lo democralise lhe universily, on lhe
one hand, and lhe herce 'resislance' lhal il faces bolh from lhe bio-oIilicaI bIock of over, eager
lo mainlain ils riviIeges, and lhe cororalisl Iefl slruggIing lo mainlain conlroI of lhe bureau-
cralic devices (lrade unions and governmenl agencies) lhal ensure ils reroduclion. Il reIales
aIso lo lhe allemls lo lake conlroI of lhe rocess, eilher lhrough lhe subordinalion of bIacks and
oor in lhe exisling circuil (and modeIs) of knovIedge roduclion and disseminalion, vhelher
lhrough sub|eclion lhal lhrealens lo calure lhe undisciIined knovIedge (singuIarilies) of lhose
vho come 'from lhe oulside' (of lhe universily, in lhis case).
Anolher crilicaI eIemenl lo consider, somehov reIaled lo lhe revious ones, refers lo lhe crossing
lhal runs lhrough lhe LuIa governmenl, since, on lhe one hand, lhe movemenls lhal ass lhrough
il are essenliaI lo lhe deveIomenl of a more democralic dynamic in lhe lransformalion rocess,
and, on lhe olher, lhey end u carrying a series of robIems and conlradiclions reIaled lo a deveI-
omenlaI or cororalisl Iogic inlo lhe governmenl (eseciaIIy on lhe Lefl and vhal is more rob-
Iemalic, al lhe very foundalions of governmenl suorl). We refer, in arlicuIar, lo some move-
menl dynamics vilhin lhe IT and lhe MST, lhal, vhiIe suorling lhe LuIa governmenl mosl of
lhe lime, sIi here and lhere in osluIalions insired on nalionaI deveIomenl or merilocracy.
14
Il
doesn'l mean lo say lhal sociaI movemenls reresenl a robIem for lhe governmenl, far from il,
lhey're ils over source. We |usl vanled lo oinl oul some ambiguilies of lhe rocess lhal can'l
be easiIy exIained if ve don'l consider lhe oIilicaI con|unclure.
In lhis sense, ve don'l hesilale lo afhrm lhal belveen 2OO2 and 2OO6 lhere vas an exansion, bul
aIso a change, of lhe governmenl's sociaI base lhal, beyond being erceived and ceIebraled, ro-
duced imorlanl resuIls in lerms of oIilicaI organisalion: lhe sociaI basis of lhe LuIa governmenl
has incororaled lhe ooresl seclors and regions of bolh lhe eoIe and lhe counlry, vhiIe il Iosl
much of lhe middIe cIass suorl and lhe more radicaI currenls of lhe Lefl. This becomes even
cIearer vhen ve Iook, aIbeil briey, lo lhe oIilicaI dynamics of lhe LuIa governmenl, a govern-
menl sel u and conducled in lhe form of a coaIilion lhal guaranlees a highIy unslabIe ma|orily
in Congress.
Irom lhis erseclive, ve can consider lhal lhe many disorganised have Iayed, in some cases,
lhe roIe lhal vas execled vouId beIong lo lhe organised movemenl.
15
T H E R E F O R M 5

The acluaI reforms round is a direcl consequence of lhe slruggIes and demands of lhe muIlilude:
bIack, oor, indigenous and recarious in generaI vho, idenlifying LuIa as a recelive inlerIocu-
lor, reassumed lheir slruggIe for democracy in lhal vhich is aIso one of lhe main slronghoIds of
lhe neo-sIaverisl raziIian eIile. Il is nolevorlhy, in lhis regard, lhe arlicialion of lhe Mctimcnic
!cs scm-Unitcrsi!c!c--MSI, of So IauIo, vhose roosaI for afhrmalive aclion is lhe basis of
IRINI--Prcgrcmc Unitcrsi!c!c pcrc 1c!cs (Iniversily for AII).
SimiIarIy, lhe nelvork of re-tcsii|u|crcs for bIack and oor (of vhich IVNC and Lducafro are
imorlanl examIes)
16
aIso Iayed an exlremeIy imorlanl roIe in regard vilh reforms, as il re-
Ieased and suorled mosl of lhe afhrmalive aclion roosaIs. Those movemenls Iosl much of
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lheir slrenglh and organisalion due lo lhe desired reforms imIemenlalion, and are sliII Iooking
for nev vays of osilioning lhemseIves in lhe slruggIe for lhe conquered righls mainlenance, as
haened Iasl November vhen lhe slale of Rio de }aneiro hnaIIy guaranleed lhe quola Iav.
17
Indeed, lhe recarious muIlilude (informaI, bIack, brovn, Indians, oor, elc.) is exlremeIy rich in
lhe roduclion of Iife and knovIedge forms, based on vhal ve caII 'indisciIined' knovIedge,
slruggIing lo slarl lhe rocess al hrsl and heIing lo ensure ils imIemenlalion once lhe reforms
have gained reaI conlours. Iurlhermore, lhe oening of LuIa lo lhe organised (and unorganised)
sociaI movemenls and lhe crossing of lhe governmenl romoled by lhem raise muIliIe roduc-
lions (even divergenl, somelimes), so lhal, somehov, lhe soIulion lo lhe democralic equalion
asses lhrough recognilion aclions of a muIliIicily of righls.
Al lhe same lime, some inilialives vilhin lhe universily chaIIenge lhe sociaI division lhal char-
aclerises and crosses il. Thus, some innovalive movemenls have queslioned in raclice bolh lhe
excIusion lhal marks lhe universily and lhe comarlmenlaIisalion and lhe disciIinary seara-
lion lo vhich lhe sociaIIy roduced knovIedge is sub|ecled.
RecenlIy, a comrehensive reform of lhe academic and lhe research inslilulions vas ul in course,
recognising and vaIuing a series of lhe sociaI movemenls demands. This reform, arl of a broader
one caIIed IDL--DeveIomenl IIan for Lducalion--aims lo romole a revoIulion in raziIian edu-
calion. Lel us hoId on, hovever, lo lhe arl lhal inleresls us, refers lo lhe universily oening lo lhe
many and ils adalalion lo lhe nev vinds of immaleriaI Iabour.
In regard lo universily access, lhis reform aims lo romole il in lhree differenl vays: lhe hrsl is
lhrough quolas for ubIic schooIs sludenls (vhich incIude raciaI quolas), aimed al selling u
mechanisms for universilies access lhal lake inlo consideralion lhe silualion of exlreme sociaI in-
equaIily and al reeslabIishing lhe conneclion belveen schooI and ubIic universily.
18
Al hrsl, lhey
vere crealed from inilialives scallered lhroughoul raziI. Wilh lhe rise of LuIa, lhe quolas have
become governmenl oIicy and von a syslemalic formal in lhe shae of a federaI Iav, vhich is
sliII vailing lo be voled in congress.
Moreover, since ils eslabIishmenl sol in ubIic universilies, lhe resislance lo afhrmalive aclion
has been greal, eseciaIIy from lhe eIile and lhose vho deny racism based on anli-raciaIisl argu-
menls, and lhey vere even largel of a Iarge number of conlesling aclions in courl.
19
In lhis sense, aIlhough oinled as an alleml lo raciaIise sociaI reIalionshis, lhe quolas have
been deveIoed in order lo coe vilh a racisl sociaI reaIily, lhal even if il's nol scienlihc, il is
videIy sread lhroughoul sociely. In lhis regard, il shouId be argued lhal lhey do nol reIale lo lhe
idea of race, bul of racism, re|udice based on coIour. MaleriaIIy, lhey're based on lhe exislence
of a forever denied ga lhal searales bIacks, muIalloes and olher meslizos from vhile raziIians
regarding lo cilizenshi, income and sociaI righls access.
In raclice, afhrmalive aclions as a vhoIe, and lhe quolas, in arlicuIar, serve lo ensure lhal lhe
roduclive muIlilude are nol subsumed in a singIe shade of gray (lhe meslizo) lhal serves as
roaganda for lhe much louled 'raciaI democracy', vhiIe syslemalicaIIy denies lhe roduclive
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over of lhe rainbov of coIours, cuIlures and desires lhal characlerises raziIian sociely. Accord-
ingIy,
'The freedom of lhe muIlilude assumes lhe equaIily as condilion for ils exercise and lhere-
fore needs lo roduce a maleriaI lhal cilizenshi can onIy exisl insofar as lhere is no seara-
lion belveen lhe sub|ecl and lhe exercise of sovereignly. Ireedom is lhus lhe exercise of lhe
muIliIicily of singuIarilies. Crossbreeding form an inhnile rainbov and lhe muIlilude, lo
be recognized as such, lake afhrmalive aclions in order lo break lhe erverse correIalions
Iinking racism lo inequaIily. In lhis sense, lhe muIlilude cilizenshi can onIy be maleriaI and,
lhis vay, universaI'.
2O
A second modeI of afhrmalive aclion deveIoed by lhe LuIa governmenl is lhe IRINI--Ini-
versily for AII Irogram, vhich inlroduces lhe loic of quolas in rivale universilies and coIIeges.
Through mechanisms of lax breaks, lhose inslilulions commil lhemseIves lo rovide schoIarshis
for Iov-income sludenls vho come oul of ubIic schooIs vhich, in raziI, are vorse quaIily lhan
lhe rivale ones.
ne robIem lhal lhe governmenl and lhe movemenls are facing in lhis area is lhal of rivale
universilies lhal refuse lo oen vacancies in lhe more rohlabIe and resligious courses, such
as medicine, Iav and communicalion--as if lhe funds lhal hnance lhe schoIarshis (lhrough lhe
mechanisms of lax vaivers) vere aIso rivale. RecenlIy, lhe governmenl, lhrough lhe Minislry of
Lducalion, look a big sle in lhis fronl and forced lhe universilies lo granl schoIarshis in lhese
courses loo, on vhal lurned oul lo be an imorlanl viclory for lhe many.
There is aIso lhe commilmenl of lhe Governmenl lo hII lhe unhIIed universily and rivale coIIege
vacancies by roviding granls for Iov-income sludenls lhrough lhe same rogram. ne musl
aIso nol forgel, as arl of lhe afhrmalive aclions, lhe demand for inveslmenls lhal subsidise oor
sludenls during lheir universily sludies, somelhing lhal couId be caIIed lhe 'righl lo ermanence'.
Il shouId aIso be noled lhal since ils incelion, IRINI has increased year afler year and is aImosl
reaching lhe federaI universilies (in number of Iaces), reresenling, as ve lry lo demonslrale, a
rogressive movemenl of 'ubIicisalion' of raziIian universilies, bolh ubIic and rivale.
ecause of lheir groving symboIic and maleriaI imacl, lhe quolas are robabIy lhe main innova-
lion inlroduced by lhe LuIa governmenl in lhe raziIian universily conlexl. Hovever, al lhe Iong
lerm, lhe reduced number of vacancies in ubIic inslilulions are an imorlanl conslrainl lo ils
universaIisalion. In lhis sense, lhe second and erhas lhe mosl imorlanl measure lo imrove
universily access is lhe P|cnc !c Rccsiruiurc4c c |xpcns4c !c Unitcrsi!c!c, or simIy RLINI as il's
caIIed.
The RLINI slaled ob|eclives are lo increase massiveIy lhe number of vacancies in raziIian fed-
eraI universilies, vhich means, in concrele lerms, lo increase lhem 12O/, lhal is, more lhan dou-
bIe lhe number of vacancies in a eriod of hve years (2O12), and lo ensure sludenl ermanence
lhrough oIicies aimed al sludenl aid (lo reduce lhe drooul rale).
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To increase lhe number of vacancies nev federaI universilies are being crealed, bul aIso nev unils
in exisling universilies, vilh emhasis on ma|or cilies vilhin lhe counlry, nev courses and nev
scheduIes for courses vhere lhere is avaiIabIe infraslruclure, hnanciaI incenlives for universily
infraslruclure exansion and lendering for hiring nev leachers. The ro|ecl, accordingIy, lakes
over and lries lo deveIo lhe modeI of universily reform vhich became knovn in raziI as Uni-
tcrsi!c!c Nctc (Nev Iniversily).
The Unitcrsi!c!c Nctc vas iniliaIIy deveIoed in ahia (IIA) and had lhe immediale acces-
sion of lvo olher universilies, from rasIia (IN) and So IauIo (INIILSI). In addilion, lhese
lhree inslilulions vere aIso ioneers in adherence lo quolas as a universily enlrance mechanism,
logelher vilh ILR} (Rio de }aneiro Slale Iniversily). The Unitcrsi!c!c Nctc rinciIe is essen-
liaIIy a crilique of lhe disciIinary modeI, roosing for ils Iace, a universily educalion by broad
knovIedge areas and, above aII, more ermeabIe, more oen lo lhe knovIedge of lhe many.
A fev monlhs ago a unique seIeclion lender for federaI and olher ubIic universilies vas imIe-
menled. The lender, vhose adherence is nol required, bul revarded, viII reIace lhe lradilionaI
seIeclion rocess (tcsii|u|cr) in vays lhal evaIualion favours lhinking skiIIs and crilicaI lhinking
ralher lhan conlenl incororalion, vilh obvious imacls on lhe high schooIs organisalion, aII ori-
enled according lo lhe tcsii|u|cr lesl.
Indeed, lhe tcsii|u|cr became a device for sociaI seIeclion, on emhasising lhe amounl of con-
lenl over quaIily, Ieaves oul a Iarge amounl of highIy caabIe sludenls, vho Iack of resources lo
ay for an educalion lrack. In addilion, lhe access seIeclion mechanism enabIes veaIlhy famiIy
youngslers lhal sludy in rivale schooIs (vhich are beller lhan lhe ubIic ones, in raziI) lo mi-
grale lo ubIic universilies in a vay lhal exIains much aboul lhe reIalionshi lhal lhe raziIian
eIile mainlains vilh ubIic saces.
IinaIIy, around lhe enlrance lender grev u a verilabIe seIeclion induslry, vilh lhe roIifera-
lion of seciaIised inslilulions--vhich reare youngslers for lhe lesl, lhe so-caIIed 're-tcsii|u|cr
courses', for vhich lhe communilarian re-tcsii|u|cr nelvorks are a coIIaboralive resonse from
lhe muIlilude, because:
'The freedom of lhe nomad, in slale-ovned universilies, musl come from lhe oulside, from
lhe sociaI roduclion machine, lo driII lhe fences lhal rolecl lhe riviIeges vilhin lhe
knovIedge conlroI devices, in lheir moIds for reIicalion and mainlenance of lhe sociaI reIa-
lionshis. Nomads, as lhe re-tcsii|u|cr movemenl for bIack and oor or lhe cuIluraI move-
menls of lhe youngslers arising from lhe urban segregalion, roduce lhe ubIic domain. The
afhrmalive oIicies are a key eIemenl lo oen lhe surrounded sace (of academic over) lo
lhe ubIic domain of (universaI) knovIedge.'
21
CONCLU5ION
IirslIy, in regard lo sociaI righls, I hoe I've been abIe lo exIain lhe urgenl maleriaI queslion lhal
ils roduclion incIudes. The access reIaled robIems musl be underslood, in lhis sense, in lheir
concrele conneclion vilh lhe conslilulion of righls, vhereas lheir acluaIisalion is inevilabIy due
lo lhe movemenls' slruggIe. r, in olher vords, lhe roduclion of righls can onIy be effeclive if
!U U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
accomanied by a slruggIe lhal maleriaIIy guaranlees lhem in lerms of recognilion, bul aIso of
access.
Moreover, and il serves as an alleml lo summarise lhe reasoning nov deveIoed, bul aIso lo
formuIale a queslion lo be considered in lhe fulure, il vouId be imorlanl lo oose lo lhe Lu-
roean sociaI movemenls aulonomy, eilher regarding lhe sludenl movemenl or lhe one reIaled
lo recarious vork, lhe governmenl aulonomy lhal exisls in raziI. Aulonomy lhal is inlroduced
from lhe lo, many limes, bul lhal is nol Iess democralic.
n lhe conlrary, if ve consider a governmenl as democralic as il is ils abiIily lo Iel ilseIf be crossed
by lhe many, organised or nol, lhe reform of lhe universily, and more broadIy, lhe sociaI oIicies
(al lhe same lime roduclive) of lhe LuIa's governmenl exress, lo some exlenl, lhe roduclion
of lhe nev oeraled by lhe conlemorary sociaI movemenls lhal unile in a common dynamic lhe
slruggIe and lhe roduclion, consliluling vaIues, Iives and vorIds.
In lhis sense, lhe 'rebeIIion againsl lhe consliluled over', lo use lhe vords of MichaeI Hardl,
lakes on raziI loday lhe form of an anli-reresenlalion, a crossing lhrough lhe governmenl by
lhe muIliIe queslions raised by lhe movemenl, even lhough somelimes il resuIls in hesilalion
and araIysis.
In lhis regard, ve lried lo afhrm here lhe overfuI singuIarily of lhe raziIian case, in vhich lhe
movemenls, organised or nol, have had lhe meril lo be heard. A case vhose secihcily, hovever,
is aIso due, and above aII, lo lhe abiIily of lhe LuIa governmenl lo inlroduce a innovalive degree
of oening, crossing and muIliIicily lo lhe democracy, and ve're nol referring onIy lo raziI. So,
ve afhrm: lhe LuIa governmenl, vilh aII ils Iimilalions and ambiguilies, has been svel aIong by
lhe many lhal make u lhe raziIian sociely and, desile lhe dramalic deIelion of lhe deendenl
nalionaI deveIomenl rocess, Iays lhe foundalion for a more democralic and maleriaIIy erme-
abIe sociely.
I relurn, lherefore, in concIusion, lo lhe observalion al lhe beginning of lhis lexl, vhich said
lhal lhe conslrainls lhal characlerise an unequaI and underdeveIoed counlry Iike raziI, vhiIe
consliluling a ma|or chaIIenge lo be overcome, oen in lhe hisloric Iinear lime lhe ossibiIily of
a 'Iea inlo lhe fulure' and lhe eslabIishmenl of a roer lime, crealive and muIliIe as lhe muI-
lilude ilseIf.
The case of lhe bIack sludenls vho enler lhe universily lhrough afhrmalive aclions, indeed, is
aradigmalic. The oening of lhe universily lo lhe many, in lhis sense, may reresenl a calure
oorlunily, even a subordinale inserlion in lhe knovIedge markel, or a quaIilalive change in lhe
order of lhe conicl, carrying il inlo lhe universily and engendering forms of resislance from lhe
inside, lhal osilion lhal lhe Vidya Ashram coIIeclive described as non-cooeralion vilh lhe nev
forms of gIobaI exIoilalion in knovIedge roduclion.
22
Thus, lhis is mainIy an udale of lhe hgure of lhe |ccnc|cr lhal, as of oId, erfeclIy exresses lhe
conlradiclions and ambiguilies aIong lhe rocess, ranging from lhe incIusion of bIacks and oor
in lhe raziIian universily circuil reserving lheir aulonomy, and lhe risk of calure lhal erme-
eU|C me(Ues l|e UCU|e c|isis C| l|e U(ive|sil_ !UL
ISSN 2O78-3884
ales lhis movemenl. r, in olher vords, il is lo afhrm lhe currenl Iine of lhe conicl as one lhal
uls on oosile sides a rocess aimed al deeening democracy, bolh in lerms of access and in
regard lo reIalionshis in lhe drive and derived from il, and anolher lhal seeks lo calure lhe
roduclion of lhe common, lhrough sohislicaled mechanisms of over, nelvorks of arecia-
lion and afhrmalion of lhe cailaIisl command. Nol lhe |ccnc|cr of lhe eIile anymore, bul lhe one
reIaled lo knovIedge roduclion, versus lhe |ccnc|cr of lhe muIlilude, knovIedge lhal breaks
borders and creales freedom!
NOTE5
1
Ldu-faclory CoIIeclive, 1cucr!.
2
Cocco, |nirc!uciicn.
3
Negri, Cincc.
4
See IRL: hll:11vvv.ibge.gov.br1
home1eslalislica1ouIacao1ouIacao_
|ovem_brasiI1comenlario1.df
5
See IRL: hll:11vvv.ine.gov.br1
dovnIoad1suerior1censo12OO71Resu-
mo_lecnico_2OO7.df
6
Lslimaled. The caIcuIalion vas made
based on IGL and INLI dala, bolh gov-
ernmenlaI inslilulions.
7
IiIho, Unitcrsi!c!c.
8
Souza, Cncu.
9
Ireyre, Sc|rc!cs.
1O
Il is arlicuIarIy remarkabIe, in lhis
sense, lhe (absurd) concession, in raziI, of
'seciaI imrisonmenl' for lhe hoIders of
universily degrees, somelhing lhal, as ve
insisl, is Iinked lo lhe recognilion of a rigid
sociaI hierarchy and vhose deveIomenl
goes back as far lhe Lmire.
11
And vhich remains, IargeIy, lhe same.
Cf., in lhis sense Henriques, Dcsiguc|!c!c.
12
Lder Sader makes a simiIar anaIysis in
reIalion lo lhe cycIe of slruggIes lhal venl
lhrough lhe grealer Sao IauIo belveen lhe
7Os and lhe 8Os and vhich Ied, among olh-
ers, lo lhe crealion of lhe Workers' Iarly
(IT). Cf., eseciaIIy, Qucn!c.
13
Negri, Cincc.
14
We can menlion, in lhis regard, lhe
syslemalic crilics lhal IT and MST seclors
have made lo lhe Irograma oIsa Iam-
Iia (a basic income rogram)--lhe Iargesl
sociaI oIicy of LuIa's governmenl--for rea-
sons ranging from cororalism lo noslaIgia
(in reIalion lo fuII emIoymenl lhal, ara-
doxicaIIy, never occurred in raziI).
15
Il is vorlh noling lhe roIe Iayed by lhe
muIlilude of recarious during lhe crisis
lhal shook lhe LuIa governmenl in 2OO5
vhen in his defense, slood (incIusive)
againsl seclions of lhe IT as a ma|or eIe-
!U7 U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
cuicncmcus unitcrsiiq, ed. The Ldu-
faclory CoIIeclive. rookIyn: Aulono-
media.
Cocco, Giusee. 2OO1. Inlroduclion lo 1rc-
|c|nc imcicric|. ed. Maurizio Lazzaralo
and Anlonio Negri. Rio de }aneiro:
DI&A Ldilora.
Ldu-faclory CoIIeclive. 2OO9. 1cucr! c
g|c|c| cuicncmcus unitcrsiiq. rookIyn:
Aulonomedia.
IiIho, Naomar de AImeida. 2OO7. Unitcrsi-
!c!c nctc. 1cxics criiccs c cspcrcncscs.
rasIia, DI: Ldilora Iniversidade de
rasIia, SaIvador: LDIIA.
Ireyre, GiIberlo. 2OO6. Sc|rc!cs c muccm|cs.
Rio de }aneiro: GIobaI Ldilora.
Henriques, Ricardo. 2OO1. Dcsiguc|!c!c
rccic| nc Brcsi|. |tc|u4c !cs ccn!iccs
!c ti!c nc !cc!c !c 90. Rio de }aneiro:
IILA.
Negri, Anlonio. 2OO3. Cincc |iccs sc|rc im-
pric. Rio de }aneiro: DI&A Ldilora.
Rede Iniversidade Nmade. 2OO4. Mcni-
jcsic. Pcrc unc unitcrsi!c!c n5mc!c.
IRL: hll:11vvv.edu-faclory.org1
images1slories1universidade-nomade.
df
Sader, Lder. 1988. Qucn!c nctcs pcrscncgcns
cnircm cm ccnc. Rio de }aneiro: Iaz e
Terra.
Souza, MariIena de. 2OO1. Cncu. So IauIo:
Ldilora INLSI.
menl of slrenglh and suorl lo govern-
menl.
16
IVNC--Pr-tcsii|u|crcs pcrc ncgrcs c
ccrcnics (re-tcsii|u|crcs for bIack and oor
eoIe).
17
The arovaI rocess of lhe Quola Lav
(by lhe slale courl) can be inlerreled as a
lragic examIe of lhe resenl hgure of lhe
Ireyrean |ccnc|cr. In May 2OO9, a grou of
lhis courl slried lhe afhrmalive aclion
assed by lhe IegisIalure and imIemenled
by lhe execulive in a highIy queslionabIe
decision, bolh elhicaIIy and IegaIIy--and
lhal vas onIy reversed by a broad ouIar
mobiIisalion.
18
In raziI, lhe 'ideaI' roule is one vho
Ieads lhe rivale schooI lo ubIic universi-
lies, bolh beller and inaccessibIe lo oor
and bIack (lhe hrsl by ils high cosl and
lhe second by an organisalion from access
syslem lhal favours 'meril' lo lhe delri-
menl of democracy). In lhis sense, afhrma-
live aclion can be underslood as a means
of making educalion effecliveIy raziIian
governmenl (and democralic) and, as
such, a vay of oosing lhe rivalisalion
of universily oeraled by lhe Iernando
Henrique Cardoso a movemenl of 'ubIic-
ily' lhal seclor.
19
Check nole 17.
2O
Rede Iniversidade Nmade, Mcnijcsic.
21
Rede Iniversidade Nmade, Mcnijcsic.
22
Ashram, 1nc g|c|c|.
REFERENCE5
Ashram, Vidya. 2OO9. The gIobaI aulono-
mous universily. In 1cucr! c g|c|c|
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
Wc wnn't pay Inr ynur crIsIs, wc
crcatc InstItutInns nI thc cnmmnn!
C!audIa BcrnardI
and Andrca Ghc!
Lasl year, lhe biggesl sociaI movemenl of lhe Iasl lhirly years eruled
in lhe IlaIian oIilicaI scene cenlraIising lhe issue of lhe crisis in ils
doubIe meaning, on lhe one side, lhe gIobaI economic crisis lhal de-
hnes lhe slale of conlemorary economic hnanciaIisalion,
1
and on lhe
olher, lhe universily crisis and lhe oIogna Irocess.
2
The crisis of lhe universily syslem is bound by lhe condilions of
cailaIislic roduclion, vhich is lo say lhal knovIedge has become
a cenlraI commodily of roduclion and lhe mosl imorlanl source of
conlemorary cailaIislic vaIorisalion: in lhis conlexl, lhe universily
becomes immedialeIy roduclive as a cenlraI sile in conlemorary
cailaIism, so lhal universily adminislralions have a cIose reIalion lo
cailaIisl vaIorisalion.
This imorlance of knovIedge inside cailaIislic roduclion under-
Iines hov lhe universily crisis is slriclIy bound lo lhe crisis of knovI-
edge measuremenl, and hov lhe hnanciaI crisis oinls oul lhe inabiIi-
ly lo lransIale il inlo an arlihciaI measure, allemling lo vaIorise vhal
is nol measurabIe. In facl, lhe oIogna Irocess is lhe mosl obvious al-
leml lo eslabIish a co-olalion mechanism of sociaI cooeralion and
roduclive pcicniic: knovIedge is measured lhrough lhe inlroduclion
of credils (LCTS) lhal quaIify sludy-lime, lhere is a frenelic moduIa-
lion and fragmenlalion of lraining courses, a dizzying acceIeralion of
sludy-limes, differenliaI barriers lo graduale sludies, a muIliIicalion
of conlroI mechanisms and disciIine of Iiving Iabour, a homogenisa-
lion and slandardisalion of academic alhs. KnovIedge de-quaIih-
calion means Iimiling ils circuIalion, slralifying ils dislribulion and
differenlialing access lo il--!c|csscmcni is a !ispcsiiij lhal reduces lhe
abiIily and aulonomy of roduclion in order lo creale a hierarchy in
CLAUDIA BERNARDI
IS A IHD CANDIDATL
IN LIR-AMLRICAN
STIDILS AT RMA-
TRL INIVLRSITY IN
RML AND IINDLR
MLMLR I THL
LDI-IACTRY IR}-
LCT. SHL IS MLMLR
I THL ITALIAN NLT-
WRKS INIRIT AND
ININMADL, SHL
C-LDITLD I|SS|CO
MARX|ANO. CON-
C|11| P|R R|P|NSAR|
|I PR|S|N1| (MANI-
ILSTLIRI, RML,
2OO8) WITHIN LIM
(IRLL MLTRILI-
TAN INIVLRSITY)
AT LSC ATLLILR IN
RML (ITALY). SHL
C-RGANIZLD THL
SLLI-LDICATIN
SLMINAR SLRILS AT
LASAIILNZA INI-
VLRSITY IN RML.
!UU U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
Iabour markel and sociely in generaI. Al lhe same lime, hierarchisa-
lion and slralihcalion of lhe Iabour force need some measure because
il is a necessary condilion and a grid of inleIIigibiIily over vhich lhe
rocess of hierarchisalion can oerale.
Iurlhermore, lhe cenlraI imorlance of knovIedge as a commodily
eslabIishes a conlinuous !c|csscmcni of lhe conlemorary vorkforce
in lhe accumuIalion of quaIihcalions and maslers, vhereas access is
nol reslricled lo an Iile--on lhe conlrary, differenliaI incIusion be-
comes lhe main seIeclion inslrumenl, so lhal lhe reorganisalion of
knovIedge syslem dehnileIy becomes a cenlraI knol of slruggIes in
lhe universily and across lhe melrooIis.
3
In facl, lhis cIose reIalion belveen lhe universily and lhe melrooIis
is aradigmalic vhen ve anaIyse lhe conlemorary recariousness
of Iife and Iabour condilions. The invesligalion of lhe eIemenls lhal
redehne lhe reIalion belveen cognilive hegemony and lhe Iovering
of lhe maleriaI condilions of conlemorary Iabour, belveen lhe nev
quaIilies of Iabour and lhe nev forms of governance is, more lhan
ever, a slralegic issue. AnaIysing vhal roIe lhe crisis Iays inside lhese
reIalions couId oen a nev sace of enquiry abIe lo singIe oul ossibIe
ballIegrounds for inlensifying slruggIes inside cognilive cailaIism
and ils various arlicuIalion in differenl conlexls.
To ul il briey, lhe universily is becoming a fundamenlaI Iace for
conlemorary sociaI conicls, bul lhis is nol a nev. ver lhe asl years
in Luroe aIone, signihcanl mobiIisalions have srouled in Irance,
Auslria, Greece, Germany, IinIand, Serbia, Denmark and Croalia.
Desile lhe ob|eclive difhcuIlies lhal conslilulionaI unihcalion ro|-
ecls are having, lhe oIogna Irocess is inuencing aII nalionaI reform
rocesses, in lhe alleml lo dehne a homogeneous aIicalion of ils
diclales. Al lhe same lime, aIong vilh lhis homogeneily, ve hnd na-
lionaI secihcily, immediale lransIalion rocesses and differenliaI
lemoraI aIicalions.
In facl, IlaIy vas lhe hrsl counlry in vhich lhe oIogna Irocess vas
fuIIy imIemenled in Luroe, vorking as a sorl of Iaboralory for lhis
nev rocess lhrough differenl IegisIalive measures. AII kinds of gov-
ernmenls, lhe cenlre-Iefl as veII lhe cenlre-righl, immedialeIy lrans-
Ialed lhe Luroean indicalions inlo slrucluraI reforms of research and
lhe universily educalion syslem. }usl as in lhe Iasl years vhen severaI
sociaI movemenls exressed lheir oosilion lo lhis rocess and lo
lhe reforms signed by differenl governmenls (above aII in 2OO1 and
2OO5), lhe AnomaIous Wave oened a nev sace of conicl among aII
ANDREA GHELFI
IS A STIDLNT IN-
VLVLD IN THL
LDI-IACTRY IR}-
LCT. HL IS MLMLR
I THL ITALIAN
NLTWRKS INIRIT
AND ININMADL
AND HL IS AN ACTIV-
IST I ARTLLY, A
SCIAL CLNTLR IN
LGNA. HL'S IN-
VLVLD IN THL SLLI-
LDICATN SLMINAR
SLRILS INSIDL THL
LGNA INIVLR-
SITY.
e|(a|Ui Q|e|| ve vC(`l a_ |C| _CU| c|isis !!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
IeveIs of educalion, nol onIy oosing reforms bul aIso oening a heId of conicl lhal invoIved
lhe enlire oIilicaI scene, sreading a consliluenl rocess over lhe vhoIe counlry.
T H E I T A L I A N M O V E M E N T O F T H E A N O M A L O U 5 W A V E
Lasl year vas very imorlanl for lhe IlaIian slruggIes over lhe maleriaI condilion of lhe cogni-
live roduclion: lhe main oinl in lhis conicl vas lhe educalion syslem. There vere slrikes, oc-
cualions and demonslralions, from rimary and high schooIs lo lhe universilies, a generaI and
diffused mobiIisalion againsl governmenl disinveslmenl in ubIic educalionaI.
4
The movemenl
slarled vilh lhe arovaI of a series of measures lhal hil lhe vhoIe vorId of educalion, from eI-
emenlary schooIs lo research, in lhe conlexl of generaIised funding culs. Heavy hnanciaI culs con-
sliluled lhe essence of GeImini's reforms, aving lhe vay for lhe lransformalion of lhe universily
inlo a rivale inslilulion in lerms of funding, vilh a consequenl lolaI submission of lhe universily
lo lhe needs of rivale cailaI.
5
Ior inslance, lhe inlroduclion of rivale inslilulions inside uni-
versilies vas imIemenled lhrough lhe deIegilimisalion of lhe Academic Senale and lhe emov-
ering of Adminislralive CounciI in vhich lhe 4O/ of members comrise rivale managers. This
means lhal enlrereneuriaI forms are used as lhe onIy crileria lo evaIuale lhe comalibiIily of lhe
universily vilhin lhe organisalion of cailaIisl roduclion.
Moreover, budgel culs Ied lo lhe bIock of lurnover, lhal is lo say, a cul of research Iaces lhal con-
sequenliaIIy ends vilh a Iarge resence of oId rofessors: a sle lovard a geronlocracy facuIly
slaff and a slabiIisalion of lhe over reIalion belveen rofessors inside lhe facuIlies.
Here, il is fundamenlaI lo lake inlo accounl anolher fealure of lhe IlaIian universily: lhe ersis-
lence of feudaI asecls inside lhe formaI bargaining of academic organisalionaI and manageriaI
overs in lhe universily. The iIIars lhal suslain lhis over inside our universilies--delermining
carriers and lhe dislribulion of funding--are consliluled by ersonaIislic over reIalionshis,
lhrough romises and bIackmaiI in order lo measure lhe failhfuIness of lheir sub|ecls. If ve add
lhe lragic absence of a research markel foIIoved by rivale enlerrises and lhe chronic overly of
ubIic funds addressed lo lhe research, ve ainl a cIear iclure of lhe eIemenls lhal dislinguish
lhe IlaIian anomaIy inside lhe Luroean lrend.
Iurlhermore, a cenlraI eIemenl of lhese |uridicaI measures vas normaIising and disciIining slu-
denl Iife, rendering universily researchers increasingIy recarious. To |uslify lhis fronlaI allack on
educalion, lhe IlaIian governmenl mounled a direcl allack againsl sludenls, based on lhe rheloric
of merilocracy and universily under-roduclivily, lhey said lhal adminislralions veren'l abIe lo
manage funds and sludenls veren'l reared lo vork and vere unsuilabIe for lhe |ob markel.
Iar from eslabIishing a merilocralic syslem, funding culs and bIocking lurnover consoIidaled lhe
oId reIalions of over inside universily dearlmenls lhrough lhe roIe of our so-caIIed 'arons'.
Al lhe beginning, lhe issue of a reduclion of ubIic funds vas lhe mosl imorlanl eIemenl shared
across lhe movemenls nalionvide, bul soon lhe cIaims concerning lhe modaIily of knovIedge
roduclion oened olher oIilicaI debales. The crilique of educalionaI reform vas sel inlo a vider
crilique of lhe cailaIisl syslem and lhe economic crisis lhal direclIy slruck lhe eoIe vhose
condilions of Iife had been rendered more recarious and more uncerlain lhrough rogressive
!!! U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
indebledness (incIuding sludenls, foIIoving lhe AngIo-Saxon modeI) and a corresonding ro-
gressive degradalion of knovIedge. Moreover, GeImini's reform inlroduced lhe so-caIIed 'hon-
our Ioan' lhal eslabIished lhe inlroduclion of ermanenl debl vilhin sludenl Iife, assisled by lhe
inlroduclion of lhe arl-lime sludenl. eing a arl-lime sludenl means nol being abIe lo hnish
degree courses in lime and lhus being forced lo ay doubIe. This nev hgure cIearIy dehnes hov
differenliaI incIusion and indebledness oerale as a looI of oIilicaI command, making evidenl
hov sludenls are cenlraI bodies of roduclion loday.
This is lhe conlexl in vhich lhe sludenl and researcher movemenl cIaims nev righls, a move-
menl lhal comes lo lerms vilh lhe imacl of lhe economic crisis on lhe educalionaI syslem afler
ils iniliaI hase, and vilh lhe culs lhal immedialeIy bring didaclics and research aclivily of lhe
universilies lo an increasingIy deeer slale of disquaIihcalion.
The main sIogan circuIaling lhrough occuied universilies and demonslralions, 've von'l ay for
your crisis', immedialeIy leslihes lo lhe ossibIe generaIisalion of lhe movemenl, lrying lo oen
a sace of discussion in oIilicaI discourses around lhe main lhemes of dislribulion of veaIlh, lhe
conslruclion of a nev veIfare syslem, foreseeing lhe oIilicaI urose of basic income as a os-
sibIe heId of slruggIes and as an hyolhesis of escae from lhe bIackmaiI of recariousness. The
Wave movemenl immedialeIy shoved lhe afhrmalion of a nevIy emergenl sub|ecl al lhe cenlre
of oIilics, vilhoul reresenlalion, arlicuIaling forms of lhe sociaI movemenls exression in rag-
malic and non-ideoIogicaI lerms lhal hoId oIilics lo be an oen and radicaI rocess.
Afhrming lhe fuIIness resenl onlo an absenl fulure, an unreresenlabIe comosilion lakes form
in lhe slreels, moving quickIy inside lhe melrooIis, unrediclabIe and unmanageabIe. SociaI
movemenl raclices are nol conhned inside universily vaIIs, crealing a sorl of ghello. Above aII,
occuied coIIeges are increasingIy a sorl of base lo organise ourseIves, bul lhe lurning oinl in
dehning an innovalive movemenl is lhe caacily lo sread lo lhe melrooIis, lo bIock lhe ux of
roduclion, visibIe lo lhe vhoIe cily, lo sread our oIilicaI conlenls, communicaling everyvhere
and bIocking lhe cenlraI node of urban roduclion.
6
f course, seIf-managemenl of universily
saces had a cenlraI roIe for lhe movemenl, from lhe seIf-managed cIassroom lo lemorary oc-
cualions, lhe universily is conhguring ilseIf more and more as a Iace of meeling, exchange,
arlislic and cuIluraI roduclion lhal invoIves muIliIe melrooIilan sub|eclivilies.
Afler lhe Wave, lhe universily has become lhe scene of enlireIy seIf-managed arlislic evenls aII
over lhe counlry: sludenls imose lhe oening of universily faciIilies afler hours and lhey exeri-
menl vilh nev forms of conneclion, of exression and of inquiry vilh olhers hgures of melro-
oIilan crealion.
Living lhe universily sace aIso as a Iace of oIilicaI organisalion means oening lhe universily
lo melrooIilan assembIies, discussing lhe comrehensive lhemes of melrooIilan lransforma-
lions and lhe roIe lhal communicalive roduclion circuils erform inside lhese rocesses. en-
ing lhese hysicaI saces aIso means oening oIilicaI saces of nev conneclion belveen lhe
sub|eclivilies of lhe melrooIilan roduclion and lhe many faces of lhe muIliludinary rism.
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Wilhin one monlh, every IlaIian cily vas overvheImed by lhe Wave, shoving lhe nev emergenl
ressures in lhe vorId of educalion: a Iong series of occualions, marches, ash mobs and road-
bIocks cuIminaled in lhree days of nalionaI meelings and rolesls heId in Rome from lhe 14lh lo
16lh November. Those days couId be read as lhe beginning of a consliluenl rocess lhal conlin-
ues lo deveIo: lhrough a series of debales and vorkshos on lhe lhemes of research, educalion,
vork and veIfare, lhe movemenl skelched oul some guideIines for a nev universily. Il is imor-
lanl lo highIighl lhal ve did nol deveIo a universaIislic or ideaIislic modeI of universily, quile
lhe conlrary, ve oened a consliluenl rocess, caIIed seIf-reform, slarling from lhe universily ve
aIready are in as a basis from vhich lo make our universily!
The seIf-reform rocess is lhe refusaI lo reserve lhe exisling universily and lhe imossibiIily of
lradilionaI reform. SeIf-reform is nol a cIosed rocess or a dehnilive soIulion aimed al eslabIish-
ing a uloian universily or a sociaIisl ro|ecl. Ralher, seIf-reform is a consliluenl rocess, aIvays
changeabIe, lhal afhrms lhe imossibiIily of lransforming lhe universily inside of lhe acluaI re-
resenlalive syslem, allacking reresenlalive decision making and dehning a radicaI nev rocess
of lhe common. SeIf-reform does nol onIy dehne vhal ve are againsl, il's a rocess of crealion
and roosaIs, a redehnilion of funclions and hnaIilies inside academia, lo buiId u nev forms of
cooeralion, creale innovalive and indeendenl knovIedge roduclion and lo dehne nev goaIs.
Il is a rocess lovards lhe conslruclion of an aulonomous inslilulion, lhal is lo say, inslilulions
of lhe common. The seIf-reform rocess slarls here: innovalive rocess, roduclive aclion and
managing lhe rocess ilseIf.
In exlreme synlhesis, ve couId say lhal lhe seIf-reform rocess conhgures ilseIf immedialeIy in-
side every consliluenl raclice abIe lo immedialeIy exercise anolher vay of roducing, anolher
lime, lhe lime of lransformalion and emersion inlo a nev inslilulionaIily. The lhree guideIines of
lhis rocess vere focused on seIf-educalion and didaclics, lhe dehnilion of a nev mode of veIfare
and lhe issue of research and vaIualion. In lhis brief arlicIe ve vouId Iike lo highIighl lvo of lhese
issues as advanced oinls in lhe ballIe for our universily.
5 E L F - E D U C A T I O N : F L I G H T , Q U A L I T Y , O R G A N I 5 A T I O N
The AnomaIous Wave movemenl has assumed seIf-educalion in lhe universily as heId of oIili-
caI raclice: a consliluenl rocess, conlinuousIy crossed by momenls of conicl vilh lhe urose
of redehning lhe reIalionshi belveen Iiving knovIedge and dead knovIedge, belveen seIf-
managemenl and subordinalion, belveen resislance lo knovIedge's common roduclion and
lhe verlicaI ossibiIily of bIackmaiI, belveen access lo roduced veaIlh and renl. Therefore, il is
a rocess arising from lhe hgures lhal Iive and roduce inside lhe universily-faclory lhal vanl lo
afhrm a common decision aboul educalionaI and researcher rocesses in oosilion lo lhe renl of
lhe ubIic universily and rivale inleresls.
If lhe oIogna Irocess invoIves lhe disquaIihcalion of knovIedges and lhe !c|csscmcni of lhe ma-
leriaI condilions of roduclive hgures aII around Luroe, seIf-reform conhgures ilseIf as a sace of
conneclion for differenl sub|eclivilies assuming knovIedge re-quaIihcalion and lhe ballIe around
lhe dislribulion of roduced veaIlh as a slralegic ballIeground, moving in lhe direclion of con-
slrucling nev inslilulions. n one hand, seIf-reform rises from lhe faiIure of aII reform allemls
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made in lhe Iasl decade lhal have lried lo mouId lhe educalion syslem from above, coming from
lhe overly of ubIic educalion and from a crisis of consensus around lhe forms for reguIaling
lhe cognilive vorkforce. n lhe olher hand, seIf-reform's alhs deveIo and lake shae around a
desire lo redehne knovIedge raclices and lhe maleriaI condilions lhal inuence lhe ossibiIilies
of ils deveIomenl. Connecled lo lhis desire, lhe rocess of a common conslilulion is lhe oulIine
for deveIoing nev inslilulions. In primis, lherefore, seeing lhe inslilulion as a source of slrenglh.
Research shovs lhal lhere has been slrong resislance lo lhe oIogna Irocess in lhe universily over
lhe Iasl fev years: lhe refusaI of disciIining sludy regimes, absenleeism from courses, allemls
lo dehne course curricuIum vilh leachers and lhe ush lo inserl exams inlo lhe individuaI sludy
Ian vhich oflen come from differenl dearlmenls can aII be laken as examIes of lhis resislance.
They are micro-resislances, a Iiving fabric lhal cIearIy demonslrales lhe desire for aulonomy, mo-
biIily and seIf-delerminalion lhal conlinuousIy exceeds lhe cages of knovIedge measuremenl--
lhe desire of knoving goes veII beyond lhe slale's educalionaI offerings.
Thal is vhy ve lhink lhal lhe node of a nev inslilulionaIily has lo be lhoughl and acled uon
slarling from lhis cxccss in order lo conslrucl nev cooeraling overs abIe lo imIemenl and
reinforce lhis desire of exression and research in an organised form, one obviousIy abIe lo rede-
hne over reIalionshis, afhrming nev norms inside universily haIIs. Irom lhe slruggIes of re-
carious researchers aimed al oblaining funds for indeendenl research lo lhe queslioning of lhe
knovIedge evaIualion crileria in lhe ubIic universily, a common ro|ecl of consislence belveen
differenl hgures of lhe universily vorId emerges: onIy vilhin lhis lension belveen conneclion
and aulonomy is lhe deveIomenl of nev inslilulions of lhe common lhinkabIe.
Lel us nov lry lo dehne some slralegies for organisalion, i.e. lhe formaIilies of consliluenl conicl
inside vhich an aulonomous universily can be crealed.
SeIf-educalion is hrsl of aII a dehnile sace of slruggIe dehned by a common decision aboul
lhe form and conlenl of knovIedge lransmission and roduclion. Al lhis slage lhere are aclive
courses and seminars being comIeleIy seIf-managed by sludenls and researchers in nearIy aII of
IlaIy's universilies: in lhese indeendenl seminars lhe lhemes, aulhors, bibIiograhies and course
modaIilies are coIIecliveIy discussed and decided uon. ul seIf-educalion isn'l reslricled lo a
horizonlaI conslruclion of knovIedge, lo nev didaclic and eislemoIogicaI exerimenls: ve are
nol inleresled in roducing marginaI saces or counler-courses, ve vanl lo recIaim il aII!
Credils (LCTS) are lhe alleml lo arlihciaIIy measure knovIedge and a slralegy for disciIining
Iife-lime. SeIf-educalion aims lo lake lhe sense oul of lhis alleml from lhe inside: ve cIaim more
and more credils, year afler year, for seIf-educalion, for an aulonomous universily lhal lries lo
free limes and saces, dis|oining lhe rhylhm of academic disciIine. SeIf-educalion aIso lries lo
queslion lhe rigid universily arlilion of knovIedges, oening sheres of research lhrough lrans-
disciIinary lension. In lhis vay, lhe mosl inleresling exeriences are lhe ones lhal con|ugale an
innovalive slyIe of research and invoIve differenl universily hgures al lhe same lime: sludenls
from bacheIor, masler and Ih.D. rograms, vilh researchers, oslgraduales and rofessors from
differenl dearlmenls. flen, seIf-educalion inlerveaves didaclic funclions and research and in-
creasingIy uls lhe necessily lo recIaim nol onIy credils bul aIso funds for lhese aclivilies on lheir
agenda.
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The seIf-reform rocesses of lhe universily aIso aim lo videIy imacl didaclic raclices, rovid-
ing lhe ossibiIily of seIf-managing one's ovn formalive career, changing cIassic fronlaI Iessons
inlo oen seminars and buiIding lhe condilions for increased aulonomy in regard lo lhe choice
of lhe lexls.
Anolher area of oIilicaI research, born from lhe rocess of seIf-reform, direclIy concerns lhe sub-
|ecl of evaIualion: il is onIy from lhe oinl of viev of a slruggIe for a knovIedge roduclion inde-
endenl of universily casles and rivale inleresls, lhal a reeclion aboul lhe loics of knovIedge
evaIualion can be ul on lhe agenda--a loic acluaIIy Iinked lo lhe division of lhe ubIic funds
lhal are increasingIy dislribuled lo differenl dearlmenls and IlaIian universilies in a differenliaI
manner. Inside lhis assage, lhe lheme of common decision making and aulonomous inslilulion-
aIily is evermore immanenl lo lhe idenlihcalion of exlenualing crileria decided in a coIIeclive
form, abIe lo oose lo lhe exercise of lhe verlicaI evaIualion (from universily dearlmenls lo lhe
sludenl evaIualion) vilh exerimenls of seIf-evaIualion abIe lo acluale lhe oIilicaI riorily of
free sociaI cooeralion inslead of lhe subordinalion and slralihcalion conslanlIy reroduced by
lhe slale universily.
SeIf-educalion is rimariIy a !ispcsiiij of seIf-organisalion vhiIe lhe universily and dead knovI-
edge accusloms sludenls lo accel reaIily vilhoul any caacily for crilique. SeIf-educalion is lhe
advice for anaIysing lhe lrend of resenl-day lransformalions. SeIf-educalion seminars organise
Iiving, knovIedgeabIe bodies inside and againsl lhe universily-faclory, in shorl, il is our !ispcsiiij
of oIilicaI organisalion lhal conlinuousIy redehnes lhe ballIeheIds and goaIs of our slruggIe.
A N E W W E L F A R E T O 5 U R F T H E C R I 5 I 5 I N T H E
M E T R O P O L I 5
During lhe AnomaIous Wave's demonslralions a shoul ersislenlIy rang oul 've von'l ay for
your crisis!' cIearIy dehning lhe cenlraIily of economic demands and veIfare issues vilhin lhe
oIilicaI discussion. Lven if our rimary ballIeheId is lhe universily, lhe Wave aIso oened a
slruggIe on veIfare issues as sociaI securily suIemenlary lo income doesn'l exisl. Direcl and
indirecl income became cenlraI demands in order lo make aulonomy and indeendence ossibIe
for everyone and, moreover, lo refuse recarious forms of Iife. WeIfare issues are so cenlraI lo our
demands because lhe democralic re-arorialion of veIfare means guaranleed basic income for
everybody.
The movemenl inlroduced lo lhe IlaIian oIilicaI slage lhe issue of Iabour as a ballIeheId in vhich
differenl hgures are slriclIy connecled in lhe conlemorary Iabour force. This emergence of re-
cIaiming a nev veIfare resls on a fev axis of anaIysis lhal ve viII briey louch uon here.
Iirsl of aII, lhere is no Ionger a dislinclion belveen educalion and vork, lhal is lo say, lhere is no
'before vork' and 'afler schooI' during our Iife, quile lhe conlrary, ve are immedialeIy roduclive
aII lhe lime for our enlire Iives, even inside universily: lhoughl and Ianguage, cooeralion and
affecls are aII means of roduclion.
7
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Conlemorary roduclion is rimariIy based on unrecognised vork: cailaI subsumes lhe vhoIe
sociely, everyone's lime, knovIedge and reIalions sread lhrough ils lerrilories, so lhal Ianguage,
knovIedge and care vork is increasingIy lraed inside lhe vaIorisalion rocess. The sub|ec-
livily is vaIued inside comanies and lhere is no Ionger any dislinclion belveen Iife-lime and
Iabor-lime, lhus increasing exIoilalion because lhis roduclive rocess invoIves cooeralion and
Iife-lime vhere no measuremenl is ossibIe, vhere onIy increasing rohl lhrough conlinuous
exIoilalion is lhe main concern.
Inside an economy characlerised more and more by cognilive resource mobiIisalion across Lu-
roe, such a slrong and generaIised allack againsl educalion inslilulions can be inlerreled as an
allack againsl lhe cognilive comosilion of Iabour lhrough a rheloric lhal misreads lhe slralegic
characler il Iays in conlemorary cailaIism. We cannol reduce lhis allack lo lhe queslion of an
allack againsl lhe ubIic universily, on lhe conlrary, il invoIves cognilive roduclion as a vhoIe.
In facl, even lhe rocess of rendering recarious Iarge comonenls of lhe Iabour markel is nol
onIy a consequence of lhe scarce bargaining caacily of singIe recarious Iabourers, bul il is aIso
a cIear error in underslanding lhe cognilive dimension of lheir vork. In olher vords, as CarIo
VerceIIone vriles, 'lhere is a devaIualion of remuneralive and emIoymenl condilions in reIalion
lo lhe reaI comelence shared and roduced inside Iabor aclivilies'.
8
In lhis framevork, even lhe
division belveen inleIIecluaI and manuaI Iabour and lhe differenlialion belveen skiIIs is nol ob-
|eclive bul ralher a looI of hierarchisalion and conlroI of lhe Iabour force.
SecondIy, a characlerislic eIemenl of Iabour loday is undoubledIy lhe condilion of recariousness
vhich sludenls are deeIy invoIved in al aII sles of lheir educalion and in Ialer Iife, and il is nol
a coIIaleraI effecl of cailaIism, il reresenls lhe conlroI, managemenl and command of a nev
roduclive hgure lhal is aulonomous, inleIIigenl and exibIe. Whal ve roduce is nol connecled
lo a slricl and delermined lime, no Ionger a series of geslures inside faclory lime. We roduce
oulside and beyond lhe simIe lask and vhal ve roduce is increasingIy reIaled lo educalion
lime, irreducibIe lo vhal ve Iearn inside academic inslilulions. The inlroduclion of inlernshis as
fuII arl of universily educalion cIearIy shovs hov lhe sludenl is a cenlraI hgure in roduclion al
aII IeveIs. Iar from being a arl of sludenl educalion lovard lhe Iabour markel, as governmenlaI
rheloric cIaims, inlernshis are unaid Iabour in associalions, governmenl rograms, comanies,
Iibraries and universily adminislralion ofhces.
Inside lhe crisis, lhe decision lo aIy differenl measures in order lo redislribule veaIlh assumes a
cenlraI roIe inside lhe universily crisis vhiIe il imIies disinveslmenl in research and lhe disman-
lIing of lhe educalion syslem. The Wave does nol mereIy seak lo a secihc sub|ecl, nol aying for
lhe crisis is lhe Ianguage of lhe vhoIe of Iabour comosilion and conlemorary recariousness-
-generaIising lhe slrike goes slraighl in lhis direclion. In lhis sense, lhe movemenl refuses lo ay
for a doubIe crisis, lhe hnanciaI crisis and universily crisis.
DismanlIing of veIfare slruclures means rivalising and arorialing lhe common lhrough lhe
governmenl, and exIoilalion is arl of lhe same rocess vhere sub|eclion is a arl of oIilicaI
exrorialion vhen il refers lo sociaI and normalive roduclion.
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ver lhe Iasl years, lhe IlaIian governmenl allacked oulrighl aII guaranleed hgures in ubIic
adminislralion, dismissing every kind of veIfare and sociaI securily, comIeling lhe rocess of
rivalisalion lhrough lhe conlroI of youlh, lhe criminaIisalion of aII dissenl and making our Iives
more and more recarious. So, recarily aIso means a Iack of fulure and no-lime in lhe resenl,
|ob uncerlainly and reduced negolialion over, vhich is lo say a nev form of sIavery lhal in-
voIves olher sub|ecls vho, once rolecled, are nov deeIy affecled by lhe crisis. As lhe subrime
crisis shoved, debl is lhe nev rolagonisl of sociaI securily as income is dislribuled lhrough
credil vhiIe banks rohl from eoIe's debl and veIfare slale is comIeleIy deslroyed--indirecl
income (Iike educalion, heaIlh and sociaI services, elc.) is cul and ascribed lo individuaIs. In olher
vords, 'lhe more Iife and ils forms and slyIes are ul lo vork, as cooeralion and sociaI reIalions,
affecls and seIf-enlrereneuriaI abiIily, lhe Iess cailaI sends and lhe more cash il gels'.
9
In lhis conlexl, 've von'l ay for your crisis, lhe crisis musl be aid by banks, comanies, govern-
menls, and barons. We von'l ay for your crisis, because ve are lhe Wave lhal is lheir crisis!'
1O

Irecariousness is lhe form of governance under vhich lhe Iabour force sils loday, lhe form of
managing our aulonomy, our cooeralion and seed inside lhe melrooIis. Thus, basic income,
indeendenl from aII remuneraled aclivilies, is nov a cenlraI demand of Wave movemenl.
When sociaI righls are nol guaranleed by ubIic veIfare, gelling inlo debl reresenls a Iimil lo
our rimary needs, Iike educalion and access lo knovIedge. An increasing number of eoIe en-
ler gradualion courses as lhey sink inlo debl and slarl lhe rocess of !c|csscmcni of lheir knovI-
edge. In lhis sense, conicls over knovIedge roduclion move cIoser lovard Iabour issues, lhe
rocess of hierarchisalion and nev veIfare. The oId 'righl lo sludy', formaIIy recognised even by
lhe Slale's conslilulion, is again a ballIeheId for quaIily services, seIf-managemenl and knovI-
edge re-quaIihcalion.
Since research, sludy and sociaIisalion are nol aid for by lhe governmenl, sludenls of lhe Wave
look u lhe immediale cIaim of money for lheir unaid inlern vork as a cenlraI queslion. As in
Irance in 2OO6, lhis movemenl foughl lo be recognised as a roduclive sub|ecl inside and oulside
lhe universily, againsl lhe rocess of !c|csscmcni lhal invoIves aII dimensions of cognilive Iabour
and lhe ubIic universily. In facl, knovIedge is a cenlraI commodily in conlemorary cailaIism
and al lhe same lime il is nol scarce.
Differenl forms of conicl have been used by lhe movemenl focusing on aII cIaims connecled lo
veIfare issues: bIocking lrafhc lo slo lhe circuIalion of goods and roduclivily inside lhe me-
lrooIis, ash mob aclions and sonlaneous bIilz demonslralions (lhe so-caIIed mcnij scutcgc)
oflen arrived al lhe doors of lhe Minisler of Lconomy and Iinance in Rome lo oinl oul lhe re-
sonsibiIily of Slale aulhorily in managing lhe universily crisis, and aIso ash mob aclions inside
lhe ofhces of |ob recruilmenl cenlres. These cIaims ul nalionaIIy highIighled recariousness and
lhe facl lhal funding culs vere nol an exlraordinary measure laken because of lhe crisis, bul vere
fundamenlaI and ermanenl eIemenls of conlemorary roduclion.
Indirecl income has been recIaimed occuying lhealres and cinemas, demanding free lickels lo
give us lhe ossibiIily of en|oying coIIeclive cuIluraI roduclion in fronl of lhe sad backdro of
lhe IlaIian dismanlIing of funding for arls and cuIlure: lhe occualions and demonslralions dur-
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ing lhe IeslivaI of Cinema in Rome and in Venice caIIed for a nev veIfare of cuIlure and arlislic
roduclion.
Iurlhermore, as renl is lhe nev form of rohl in cailaIislic roduclion--as genlrihcalion exIoils
sludenl roduclivily lo viden rohl margins vhiIe lhe slale Ieaves houses emly lo increase
roerly vaIue--ve recIaimed saces lhrough ubIic camaigns in vhich ve occuied houses
againsl lhe universily and lhe slale lo recIaim our aulonomy.
11
' R E C L A I M O U R E D U C A T I O N , R E C L A I M O U R B O D I E 5 ,
R E C L A I M O U R B R A I N 5 '
As a banner uon lhe occuied universily of Vienna shoved Iasl monlh, lhe vorId of educalion
cannol be searaled from lhe sub|ecl lhal innovales knovIedge roduclion as Iiving bodies. Il is
a common and imorlanl oinl of differenl slruggIes sreading aII around lhe vorId. eginning
vilh lhe facl lhal a nev cycIe of slruggIes is laking Iace, even on a simIe common rinciIe of
oosilion lo lhe oIogna Irocess, ve shouId move beyond and slarl lhinking aboul lhe oIilicaI
necessily of crealing common Ianguages, momenls of discussion, organisalions and resislance as
ossibiIily of conneclion.
An arlicuIaled and comIex Wave is overvheIming lhe conlemorary reaIm of roduclion, a
differenl Ianguage is subverling lhe oId channeIs of knovIedge lransmission, a nev sace is
disarlicuIaling lhe division of areas and nalionaI borders, consliluenl rocesses and demands are
sreading lhrough lhe universilies. This is our lime!
NOTE5
*
CIaudia ernardi and Andrea GheIh are
members of Iniriol Nelvork lhal is arl of
lhe IlaIian anomaIous vave.
See: hll:11vvv.uniriol.org1uniriolII1.
This lexl has been revised in LngIish by
}ason Irancis McGimsey.
1
Ior an in-delh anaIysis of lhe economic
crisis, see Mezzadra and IumagaIIi, Ncin-
ing ui|| ctcr |c.
2
The oIogna Irocess ofhciaIIy began in
1999, afler a meeling of lvenly-nine Lu-
roean Minislers of Lducalion in oIogna
in Selember 1998. This rocess aims lo
creale a homogenous area of higher educa-
lion in Luroe lhrough a series of changes
such as lhe inlroduclion of lhe 3+2 syslem
(bacheIor Ius masler, inslead of a singIe
four year sludy cycIe), lhe inlroduclion of
credils (LCTS), lhe romolion of mobiI-
ily and cooeralion, lhe eslabIishmenl of
ermanenl educalion, lhe homogeneily
of quaIihcalions and didaclics rograms
and lhe romolion of Luroean educalion
oulside Luroe.
e|(a|Ui Q|e|| ve vC(`l a_ |C| _CU| c|isis !!H
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3
n lhe reIalion belveen lhe universily
and lhe melrooIis, ve refer lo De NicoIa
and Roggero, Ninc incsis. As a consliluenl
sace of conicl belveen lhe universily
and lhe melrooIis, ve refer lo lhe ex-
eriences of LSC AleIier (hll:11vvv.
escaleIier.nel, occuied in November 2OO4)
and arlIeby (hll:11vvv.barlIeby.info,
occuied in March 2OO9).
4
The |uridicaI measures for rimary
schooIs consisled mainIy on lhe inlroduc-
lion of lhe 'singIe leacher' (inslead of lhe
revious lvo or lhree leacher syslem), lhe
increase in lhe number of sludenls for each
cIass and lhe inlroduclion of a behaviour
grade as a disciIine measure abIe lo unk
high schooIs sludenls.
5
Maria SleIIa GeImini is lhe Lducalion
Minisler of SiIvio erIusconi's govern-
menl.
6
Lven if universily occualion vas nol
lhe main looI of slruggIe, occualions of
rimary schooIs by leachers, arenls and
chiIdren roduced an exlraordinary exe-
rience during lhe aulumn of 2OO8.
7
Ior an in delh anaIysis, see VerceIIone
and Negri, || rcppcric ccpiic|c.
8
VerceIIone and Negri, || rcppcric ccpiic|c.
9
RaareIIi, Ic |ungnczzc, 86 |our lransIa-
lionj.
1O
NalionaI AssembIy of 15lh-16lh al La
Saienza Iniversily in Rome, 'The seIf-
reform rocess-vorksho on veIfare',
hll:11vvv.uniriol.org1index.
h`olion=com_conlenl&lask=bIogcaleg
ory&id=38&Ilemid=13O.
11
Ior inslance, on }uIy 8lh, 2OO9 sludenls
occuied an emly house, deemed 'Ioinl
break', near La Saienza Iniversily in
a Roman neighbourhood lhrealened by
a herce genlrihcalion rocess. See: De
NicoIa and Roggero, Nctc icsi, RaareIIi, Ic
|ungnczzc, VerceIIone and Negri, || rcppcric
ccpiic|c.
REFERENCE5
De NicoIa, AIberlo, and Gigi Roggero.
2OO8. Nctc icsi su unitcrsiic-mcircpc|i,
ccmpcsizicnc !i c|cssc c isiiiuzicni !c|
ccmunc. Iirsl knovIedge nelvork con-
venlion. IRL: hll:11vvv.eic.nel
|clober 18, 2OO9j.
De NicoIa, AIberlo, and Gigi Roggero.
2OO9. Ninc incsis cn unitcrsiiq-mcircpc|is,
c|css ccmpcsiiicn cn! insiiiuiicns cj ccm-
mcn. Iirsl knovIedge nelvork con-
venlion. IRL: hll:11vvv.eic.nel
|clober 18, 2OO9j.
Mezzadra, Sandro, and Andrea IumagaIIi.
2O1O. Nolhing viII ever be lhe same.
Ten lheses on lhe hnanciaI crisis. In
Crisis in inc g|c|c| cccncmq. |incncic|
mcr|cis, sccic| sirugg|cs cn! ncu pc|iiicc|
sccncrics. Los AngeIes: Semiolexl(e).
RaareIIi, Irancesco. 2OO9. Ic |ungnczzc
!c||cn!c. Iirenze: Ionle aIIe Grazie.
VerceIIone, CarIo, and Anlonio Negri.
2OO7. || rcppcric ccpiic|c/ |ctcrc nc| ccpi-
ic|ismc ccgniiitc. Iosse 2
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
ISSN 2O78-3884
5quattIng thc crIsIs
n lhe currenl rolesl in educalion
and erseclives on radicaI change
LIna DnkuznvIc and
Eduard Frcudmann
'We von'l ay for your crisis!' has echoed lhroughoul universilies
vorIdvide. The signihcance of lhis is lhal lhe slalemenl's momenlum
has nol onIy sread lhroughoul educalionaI inslilulions, bul has aIso
been resenl in olher areas of sociely, bringing allenlion lo lhe generaI
faiIure of neoIiberaI cailaIism and ils arorialion of aII sheres of
Iife.
Whal has been dehned as lhe 'crisis in educalion', vhich shouId be
remedied lhrough a vave of reforms, has been deaIl vilh in lerms of
economic crisis-based measures, vilh measures for increasing rof-
il. A homogenisalion in lhe vay of a reform vave has laken Iace
lhrough lhe oIogna Irocess for eslabIishing lhe Luroean Higher
Lducalion Area (LHLA). Through lhis reguIaled norm of educa-
lionaI slandards of comarabiIily, LIroe aims lo enler and be al
lhe forefronl of lhe groving comelilive knovIedge economy and of
research-based rohl, lhrough lhe araIIeI eslabIishmenl of lhe Lu-
roean Research Area (LRA). The syslemalic removaI of democralic
slruclures in universilies in Auslria has been laking Iace vilh lhe
imIemenlalion of lhe oIogna Irocess. DemocralicaIIy eIecled bod-
ies have been degraded lo a kind of slaff commillee, vhiIe lhe dean's
ofhce has been ugraded lo a CL-Iike singuIar Ieading body, vhich
is checked and baIanced by a universily-exlernaI suervisory board,
lhe so-caIIed Iniversily oard.
Iniversilies are nol onIy increasingIy being run Iike cororalions, bul
a smoolh lransilion lo vhal much of AngIo-American or inlernalionaI
rivale schooIs have been sub|ecled lo is laking Iace. They are being
run Y cororalions. An examIe of cororale sharehoIder inleresl
LINA DOKUZOVIC
IS AN ARTIST AND IhD
STIDLNT AT THL C-
CIIILD ACADLMY I
IINL ARTS VILNNA.
HLR WRK ANALYZLS
THL MLCHAMISMS I
AIIRIRIATIN, IRI-
VATISATIN AND1R
MILITARISATIN I
STRICTIRLS, SICH AS
LDICATIN, CILTIRL,
THL DY AND LAND.
EDUARD FREUDMANN
IS AN ARTIST, RLSLARCH-
ING AND INTLRVLNING
IN THL INTLSLCTINS I
ART AND ILITICS, IW-
LR RLLATINS AND S-
CIAL CNTLXTS, THLIR-
STRY1IRSTRY AND
MLDIA MLCHANISMS. HL
WRKS AT THL CCI-
IILD ACADLMY I IINL
ARTS VILNNA
!zU U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
can be seen in lhe inlernalionaI media cororalion, erleIsmann, having recenlIy soId lheir shares
in Sony, slaling lhey vouId begin invesling inlo educalion inslead, since il is becoming more
rohlabIe lhan lhe music induslry.
1
Through lhe reform rocesses, an educalion economy vilh
knovIedge as a lradabIe commodily has been crealed. The resuIl has nol onIy been lhal educa-
lion is considered rohlabIe, bul lhal educalion ilseIf can be measured and soId. This correIales lo
lhe rinciIes of lhe aII-embodying rivalisalion and commodihcalion vilhin neoIiberaI cailaI-
ism. In AuslraIia, for examIe, one of LIroe's ma|or comelilors in lhe inlernalionaI educalion
markel, educalion services ranked as lhe lhird Iargesl exorl induslry, behind coaI and iron ore,
according lo 2OO6-O7 hgures.
2
T H E A C A D E M Y O F F I N E A R T 5 V I E N N A I 5 5 Q U A T T E D
IoIIoving lhe dissalisfaclion resuIling from a Ienglhy rocess of allemls lo democralicaIIy ne-
goliale lhe fulure of lhe inslilulion, a ubIic meeling vas caIIed by lhe Academy's sludenls and
slaff in fronl of ils main buiIding on clober 2Olh, 2OO9. A slalemenl vas read oul, vhich caIIed
for lhe reinslalemenl of lhe democralic slruclures lhal had been syslemalicaIIy removed in lhe
course of eslabIishing a syslem of increased comeliliveness and commodihcalion of lhe inslilu-
lion and everylhing vilhin ils vaIIs. A Iisl of reciseIy arlicuIaled demands vas lhen read oul lo
lhe dean. He vas caIIed on lo fuIhII his duly and reresenl lhe osilion of lhe inslilulion ralher
lhan laking a gambIe in his ovn rofessionaI and rohlabIe inleresls, in lhe negolialion of lhe
udgelary Agreemenl vilh lhe Minislry of Science and Research, on lhe foIIoving day. A rocIa-
malion of soIidarily vas lhen exressed vilh aII lhe roleslors againsl educalionaI reform around
lhe vorId, vhich lhen incIuded: angIadesh, raziI, Croalia, IinIand, Irance, Germany, Greal
rilain, Greece, India, Iran, IlaIy, }aan, lhe NelherIands, Serbia, Soulh Africa, Soulh Korea and
lhe I.S.A. SubsequenlIy, aroximaleIy 25O individuaIs enlered lhe buiIding and occuied lhe
assembIy haII, lhe mosl reresenlalive sace in lhe inslilulion. The squallers inslaIIed a Ienum
in a grassrools democralic slruclure, vhereuon il vas decided lhal lhe sace vouId remain oc-
cuied unliI lhe demands vere mel.
Tvo days Ialer, a grou of Academy slaff and sludenls rolesled in fronl of lhe Minislry of Sci-
ence and Research, exressing lheir dissalisfaclion and re|eclion of lhe udgelary Agreemenl,
a IegaIIy-binding conlracl lhal dehnes lhe erformance of lhe former in reIalion lo lhe amounl
of hnancing by lhe Ialler, vhich vas being negolialed in an enlireIy non-lransarenl and non-
democralic fashion al lhal very momenl. The demonslraling grou conlinued lo severaI olher
universily audiloria and ma|or saces resenling lhe silualion, bringing lhe sludenls and slaff
resenl aIong vilh lhem, increasing lhe grou's size, snovbaIIing, unliI il ended u in Auslria's
Iargesl Ieclure haII, vhere a Ienum vas heId, decIaring lhal sace squalled. The reresenlalion
and size of lhal sace vas signihcanl, as il broughl immediale media allenlion, vhich has focused
rimariIy on lhe evenls of lhal singuIar sace ever since, aIlhough over lhe foIIoving days, lhe
rolesls exanded raidIy lo a number of olher universilies lhroughoul Auslria and exanded lo
or |oined lhose exisling across Luroe, bringing hundreds of lhousands of eoIe inlo lhe slreels
in rolesl. There are 76 universilies in nine counlries lhroughoul Luroe, vilh more being con-
linuaIIy announced, squalled al lhis very momenl.
3
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E M A N C I P A T O R Y 5 P E E C H A N D D E C E N T R A L I 5 A T I O N
The rocesses vilhin lhe conlexl of lhe rolesls have laken Iace lhrough a grassrools democralic
slruclure of coIIeclive decision-making, carried oul in reguIar Ienums. Tasks and insighls are
assigned lo vorking grous, vhich mainlain a dynamic uclualion of arlicianls. The inlenlion
of non-hierarchicaI forms of communicalion, eslabIished lhrough some basic ruIes, have aimed lo
encourage aII lhose resenl lo acliveIy conlribule lo discussions. Since reresenling lhe rolesls is
a lask vhich no one erson can or shouId accomIish aIone, il is vilaI lhal no sokeserson(s) is1
are seIecled, bul ralher lhal a consislenl rolalion of seakers lakes Iace. The consequence is a Iov
rale of NLI (neuro-Iinguislic rogrammed) seeches, resenling lhe demands and exressions of
lhe grous in a manner vhich is nol lrained or condilioned. This form of direcl communicalion
reresenls an emancialory seech acl, because exisling codes of commodihed Ianguage and lhe
saIe of seech are re|ecled lhrough lhe very mechanism of lhe acl of seaking ilseIf.
Anolher signihcanl eIemenl, resonaling lhroughoul lhe rolesls on aII IeveIs, has been decen-
lraIisalion. Il has derived from lhe very rocess, vhich has laken Iace over recenl years, of lhe
de-democralisalion of universilies vilhin vhich aII democralicaIIy-Iegilimised reguIaling bodies
have been degraded lo a seudo-democralic facade, and lhereby enlireIy disabIed. The facl lhal
lhe rolesls have nol been Ied by individuaIs eIecled lhrough rocedures of reresenlalive de-
mocracy and have nol been associaled vilh arIiamenlary arlies, Iefl oIilicians, such as deans
or lhe Minisler of Science and Research erIexed, nol knoving hov lo handIe lhe rolesls. The
decenlraIisalion nol onIy refers lo lhe aforemenlioned uclualion, bul aIso refers lo direcl aclions,
such as lhe lemorary squalling of lhe vice dean's ofhce al lhe Academy of Iine Arls, squalling
lhe cafeleria al lhe Minislry of Science and Research or laking over lhe slage during a Iay al lhe
urglhealer, Vienna's mosl renovned lhealer.
T A K I N G O V E R T H E W H O L E D A M N B A K E R Y
veraII, lhe rolesls have nol been Iimiled lo de-hierarchisalion, arorialion of sace(s), seIf-
organisalion and lhe examinalion of lhe condilions of vork and sludy. They have ralher been
dominaled by demands, crilicism and cIaims lhal go beyond lhe immediale conlexl of educalion
and universilies, exanding lo lhe idenlihcalion of hov lhe neoIiberaI cailaIisl markel Iogic has
inhIlraled aII arls of Iife, commodifying and isoIaling lhem lhrough racisl and sexisl oIicies
of excIusion, delerioraling lhe very coIIeclivily lhe rolesls have aimed lo eslabIish. The reaIisa-
lion lhal lhe hghl for an imroved educalionaI syslem cannol be made secihc bul musl inslead
reecl and deend on changing lhe very slruclure and syslem lhal roduces il, nol lhrough ho-
mogenising lo-dovn reforms, bul lhrough grassrools democracy, evidences lhe aulhenlicily of
lhe rolesls. Il's nol aboul asking for a bigger iece of lhe ie or having lhe vhoIe ie lo yourseIf-
-il's aboul laking over lhe vhoIe damn bakery.
Slralegies of arorialion by reIaled oIilicaI Iayers began lvo veeks Ialer. They cuIminaled
inlo absurd decIaralions of soIidarily, consisling of grous such as lhe urgenIand Slale Govern-
menl. Such grous, as veII as lhe deans and reresenlalives of various universilies, began inslru-
menlaIising lhe imelus of lhe rolesl for lheir ovn aims, such as addilionaI budgelary oIicies
!zz U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
and agreemenls. Lven lhe Minisler of Science and Research lhanked lhe roleslors as lhey im-
roved his osilion vilhin lhe budgelary negolialions vilh lhe Minisler of Iinance. Hovever, lhe
vioIenl reressive measures laken in lhe I.S. and Germany againsl lhe eacefuI rolesls
4
sland in
conlradislinclion lo lhe 'reformed' measures of arorialion or 'non-hosliIe lakeover.'
The rebeIIions and rolesls of lhe 1968 movemenl (Iagging by severaI years in Auslria) Iefl be-
hind an underslanding of hov lo slralegicaIIy deaI vilh fulure rolesls, resuIling in reressive
measures becoming counler-roduclive. The inslrumenlaIisalion of rolesls enabIes lhe neulraIi-
salion of aII subversion. The arorialive slralegies lhen rogressed inlo lhe deveIoing neo-
IiberaIised syslem, in vhich many eoIe from lhe 1968 generalion nov hoId key over osi-
lions. eyond arorialion, lhere have been slralegies of infanliIisalion, vhich couId be seen as
being ralher veII-meaning. This is inherenl lo lhe very slruclure of lradilionaI educalion, vilh
lhe Iearned masler gaining conlroI of lhe unIearned one lhrough slruclures of sluIlihcalion, slra-
legicaIIy imarling knovIedge vhen seen hl. ased on lheir ovn Marx-lo-markel-biograhies,
lhe syslem reresenlalives accel a cerlain dose of rebeIIion, as lhey undersland il lo be an edu-
calionaI rocess in vhich lheir assumed successors are being laughl oIilicaI skiIIs and slralegies
lhal are fundamenlaI for successfuIIy fuIhIIing lheir fulure funclions and handIing lheir fulure
lask area--lurning lhe educalion rolesls inlo educalionaIised rolesls.
5
A R T A N D A R T 5 C H O O L 5 A 5 A P A R A D I G M F O R
N E O L I B E R A L C A P I T A L I 5 M
The facl lhal lhe rolesls in educalion in Auslria vere inilialed vilhin an arlislic inslilulion is
nol lo be disregarded. As lhe Iogic of (neo-)IiberaIism is based on lhe freedom of lhe individuaI,
lhe arlisl and his1her arlislic Iiberly erfeclIy hIIs ils shoes. In facl, nol onIy does lhe desire and
lrend of bringing arlislic inslilulions cIoser lo markelabIe crealive induslries exisl, ralher arl and
lhe arl schooI can be seen as a aradigm for neoIiberaI cailaIism, vilh lhe arlisl and lhe cuIluraI
roducer as roIe modeIs for an increasingIy neoIiberaIised |ob markel.
6
The exibiIily and inhnile
crealivily, leamed vilh seIf-disciIine and recarious vork reIalions Iie al lhe core of lhe arlisl's
rofession.
The imIemenlalion of oIogna Irocess-reIaled reforms al lhe Academy of Iine Arls Vienna, such
as lhe reIacemenl of lhe oId masler cIass syslem vilh lhe .A.1M.A. slruclure, vas deIayed due
lo a ercuIiar aIIiance belveen lhe individuaIs of lhe oIder lradilion and lhe more rogressive
ones, keeing lhe deveIomenls in Iimbo. Many of lhe former feIl lhrealened by lhe reforms, due
lo lheir orienlalion lovards science and scienlihc modeIs, an academic shere vhich lhrealened
bolh lheir knovIedge and lheir refuge in lhe 'aulonomy of arl'. The more rogressive generalion,
hovever, did nol beIieve in lhe aulonomy of arl, bul sub|ecl lo recarious Iabour condilions and
lhe economised markel Iogic, lhey oosed lhe reforms. Thus, a dubious symbiosis slaIIed lhe
nev syslem.
The slory of The Sorcerer's Arenlice, by Goelhe, begins vilh an oId masler sorcerer Ieaving
his arenlice lo do his chores in his vorksho. Tired of lhe ledious lask, he makes his valer-
felching more efhcienl by enchanling a broom. Nol being skiIIed enough lo conlroI lhe enchanled
broom, he lries lo deslroy il vilh an axe, sIinlering il lo ieces. NeverlheIess, aII of lhe ieces
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become nev brooms, conlinuing lhe lasks, oul of conlroI. The rogressive brooms lurn againsl
lheir nev masler. The slory ends, hovever, vilh lhe seII being broken as lhe oId masler relurns,
lhe brooms disenchanled and aII reslored lo lheir oId order. Neilher lhe syslem of lhe oId nor lhe
nev masler couId relain slabiIily vilhoul a bil of magic, bul lhe oId masler's melhod managed lo
direcl lhe brooms correclIy for lhe lime being.
In lhe case of lhe Academy, lhe co-oeralion belveen lhe oId masler cIass syslem suorlers and
lhe more rogressive individuaIs funclions, vhiIe lhe unconlroIIabIe enchanlmenl of lhe nev
neo-IiberaIised syslem brings lhings oul of order--nol because il is necessariIy lhe vorse syslem,
bul because lhose vho have deended on lhe oId slruclure for a Iong lime adal any rogressive-
ness lo lheir ovn modeI. The irony, hovever, is lhal lhis incIinalion lovards arlislic 'aulonomy'
lends very cIoseIy lo lhe arlislic 'Iiberly' lhal aIIovs lhe arlisl lo creale lhe erfecl neo-IiberaI
moId. The vhoIe Iogic begins rolaling al lhal oinl--Iike a dog chasing ils ovn laiI.
A rofession grealIy based on individuaIisalion, image and uniqueness has come lo ils ovn crisis,
vhere lhe slriking sludenls and leachers have sloed lraining each olher and lhemseIves in hov
lo conlinue a grealer individuaIisalion of lhemseIves, al lhe momenl vhen lhey |oined lo coIIec-
liveIy resisl lhe slruclure. Afler running in circIes for years, and being seriousIy endangered by
verligo-induced coIIase, il marks a oinl vhere lhe rolagonisls hnaIIy caughl vhal lhey vere
chasing, vhich made lhem reaIise lhal il vas in facl lheir ovn laiIs lhal lhey had been chasing
for years. Arl and educalion serving cailaI and serving as modeIs for cailaI had been exosed.
Hovever, one musl nol remain in lhe ceIebralion of lhal momenl, bul ralher conlinue lo chaIIenge
and queslion lhis as a momenl of lransilion, inslead of uliIising coIIeclivism as a lraining ground
for one's fulure career as a unique, innovalive ersona. The slruclure vhich has been rulured
and chaIIenged musl nol suorl a cycIing back lo lhe same slruclure. In facl, lhe greal irony of
lhe silualion is nol lhal lhe currenl vave of inlernalionaI rolesls vas sarked in a counlry Iike
Auslria, vhich is dominaled by a lradilion of 'sociaI arlnershi'.
7
Il Iies in lhe facl lhal lhe arl
schooI, being |usl anolher looI in lhe machinery of lhe roduclion of neo-IiberaIised individuaIs
surfaced, exosing lhe aradox of lhe enlire syslem lhal vas conslrucled around lhem.
T H E ' C R I 5 I 5 I N E D U C A T I O N ' A N D T H E C A P I T A L I 5 T
C R I 5 I 5
Hov can lhis lransilion be uliIised in a conslruclive vay in order lo conlinue lhese occualions
and resislance, and more imorlanlIy lo reslruclure lhe robIemalic aaraluses of educalion
and reIaled slruclures, such as lhe arls, from lhe bollom-u for lhe fulure` Some roleslors have
referred lo crealing an 'inhnile scenario' modeI of rolesl, in vhich lhe saces lhal vere recIaimed
and arorialed remain seIf-organised vilhoul comromise. In facl, afler lhe Iong-Iasling his-
lory of neo-IiberaI reforms, lhe deeesl oinl of de-oIilicisalion may have been reached, and lhe
vorIdvide educalion rolesls couId mark lhe lurning oinl for a re-oIilicisalion lo foIIov. In
lhis regard, il is necessary lo viev lhe currenl 'crisis' in educalion in direcl roorlion lo lhe eco-
nomic crisis. This correIalion very visibIy shovs lhe allemls of making educalion a nev fronlier
for lhe cailaIisl crisis lo invesl ils dvindIing assels inlo, and lherefore ve reeal... WL WILL
NT IAY IR YIR CRISIS!
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An economic crisis, vhich in facl reecls lhe very faiIure of cailaIism ilseIf--a syslem fundamen-
laIIy rooled in inequaIily, excIusion and lhe crealion of lhe 'olher', acluaIIy Ieading lo lhe dealh
of lhe 'olher' for rohl
8
--shovs a very exlreme IeveI of generaI sociaI crisis. This musl be laken
inlo accounl vhiIe ballIing aII reIaled crises, lhe one in educalion as veII. If lhis is nol laken inlo
consideralion, lhen an undeniabIe reelilion and reroduclion of lhe aII-embodying cailaIisl
reaIily viII resuIl.
R E 5 I D E N C E R I G H T 5 A N D T H E F R E E D O M O F
M O V E M E N T F O R E V E R Y O N E
During Ienums, inlervievs, resenlalions and seeches, eoIe vilh no rior seaking abiIily
look lhe slage. This has lvo olenliaIilies, as aforemenlioned--lhal of educaling beller managers
and lhal of crealing a decenlraIised slruclure of democralic discussion and reresenlalion. The
benehl lo lhose vho are incaabIe of seaking veII by being given a chance lo seak is a slarl.
ul vhal needs lo be Iooked al is lhe difference lo lhose vho are incaabIe of seaking al aII,
because lhey are eilher nol aIIoved lo seak (vomen being sexislicaIIy sIandered and assauIled,
MusIims being booed off of slages, migranls being ignored, elc.), and lhe difference lo lhose vho
cannol afford lo be resenl. Here, ve mean lhose vho are forced lo vork recarious iIIegaI or
semi-IegaI |obs al aII hours of lhe day and nighl as lhey are sub|ecled lo racisl immigralion Iavs
9

and lhe racisl Iniversily Lav,
1O
vhiIe having lo uhoId lhe besl grades and allain a maximaI
IeveI of roduclivily in lheir sludies in order lo IegaIIy remain in lhe given counlry. To relurn lo
lhe melahor of biling one's ovn laiI ralher lhan chasing il: lhose vho send lheir lime searching
for food cannol afford lo occuy lhemseIves Iaying vilh lheir laiIs. The cenlraI demand of lhe
roleslors, 'free educalion for everyone!' can onIy be aroached and granled if lhe freedom of
movemenl for everyone exisls beyond nalionaI or suranalionaI borders.
The Iasl Lisbon Agreemenl roosed lhal lhe coming agreemenl (December 2OO9) amend educa-
lion as lhe hflh freedom of lhe LI, aIong vilh cailaI, services, goods and cilizens, in order lo
slrenglhen lhe grounds of lhe LHLA. The slruclure shouId aIIov maximaI mobiIily of eoIe
lhroughoul lhe LHLA, suorled by lhe oIogna Irocess. The rohlabIe goaIs of crealing a Lu-
roean Higher Lducalion Area, vhich shouId suosedIy bring aboul lhe 'nev Renaissance'
11
in
Luroe, vouId begin lo crumbIe if lhe reaIily belveen mobiIily and migralion vere confronled.
AccordingIy, ve vouId Iike lo amend lhe slalemenls and demands made unliI nov, slaling lhal
unliI lhe menlioned sociaI reaIily is confronled, democracy as such cannol lruIy funclion. We,
lherefore, roose lhal as a hrsl sle, lhe 34 miIIion euro lhal vas recenlIy 'avarded' as an emer-
gency measure lo lhe universilies by lhe Minislry
12
be used lo creale a basic Ialform for hnancing
and suorling lhal LVLRYNL--laking lhose sub|ecled lo oressive racisl and sexisl oIicies
inlo consideralion--can arliciale in lhe rolesls, so lhe reaI rolesl can in facl begin. In addilion,
lhe nexl measure musl be lhal fulure monies be used for lhe crealion and mainlenance of a Ial-
form vhich vouId ensure lhal democralic arlicialion. nIy lhen can ve conlinue lo arlicuIale
our demands and direcl our allenlion lo lhe changes vilhin lhe universily slruclures for Ianning
lhe inveslmenl of fulure monies. SuccessfuI rogress, vhich does nol reroduce discriminaling
forms of unequaI advanlage and disadvanlage, is onIy ossibIe if each and every slruclure of o-
ression lhal vas consciousIy addressed in lhe rolesl, is direclIy and rimariIy confronled and
UCkU/Cvic ||eUUma(( sUalli(Q l|e c|isis !z
ISSN 2O78-3884
foughl againsl. Insofar as lhese slruggIes are isoIaled from one anolher, lhey inevilabIy become
arl of lhe cailaIisl arorialion of aII sheres of Iife. The onIy vay lo lruIy achieve radicaI
change is lo Iink logelher lhe various slruggIes vhich are a arl of il.
NOTE5
1
See IRL: hll:11vvv.vaIIslreel-onIine.
de1nachrichlen1nachrichl12488718.
hlmI, IRL: hll:11vvv.fl.com1cms1
s1O12126f74O-631b-11dd-9fdO-OOOO779fd2ac.
hlmI`ncIick_check=1
2
See lhe AuslraIian ureau of Slalislics.
IRL: hll:11vvv.isana.org.au1hIes1
ALI/2OMarch/2Osshol/2Oexl/2Oincome.
df
3
See IRL: vvv.linyurI.com1squalled-
universilies
4
See, for examIe, IRL: hll:11vvv.
youlube.com1valch`v=rI5I2_RghQ, IRL:
hll:11ov.Iy1Lh|x, IRL: hll:11lvilic.
com1qb6qu, IRL: hll:11linyurI.com1ygI-
zurr, IRL: hll:11edilion.cnn.com12OO91
IS1111221caIifornia.sludenl.rolesl1index.
hlmI, IRL: hll:11vvv.biIdungsslreik-hd.
de12OO91111221gevaIlsamer-oIizeiein-
salz-gegen-Iandesveile-biIdungsslreik-
demonslralion-in-slullgarl1
5
The 'educalionaIizalion of cailaI' is a
hrase coined by Marlin, Iedagogy of Hu-
man CailaI.
6
See, for examIe IRL: hll:11eic.nel1
lransversaI111O61Iorey1en
7
A cooeralive reIalionshi belveen lhe
lrade union and lhe Auslrian Chamber of
Commerce vilh lhe goaI of exlinguishing
sociaI and oIilicaI conicls lhrough oIicies
of consensuaI agreemenl, lherefore, Ieading
lo lhe imossibiIily of radicaIily, rolesl or
anlagonism.
8
'NecrooIilics and necroeconomics, as
raclices of accumuIalion in coIoniaI con-
lexls by secihc economic aclors--muIlina-
lionaI cororalions for examIe--lhal in-
voIve disossession, dealh, lorlure, suicide,
sIavery, deslruclion of IiveIihoods and
lhe generaI managemenl of vioIence'. See
anar|ee, Live and Iel die.
9
In Auslria, a non-LI1LLC cilizen musl
rovide roof of ossessing al Ieasl -6,21O
er year, aIong vilh olher evidence of suc-
cessfuI sludy, minimaI course comIelion,
cIean IegaI record, elc. in order lo receive
aroved or exlended IegaI residence under
a sludenl residenl ermil. Hovever, lhis
quanlily is nol ossibIe lo oblain lhrough
IegaI vork as income is slricIy reguIaled
and Iimiled lo under -3OO a monlh.
1O
AIlhough oflen being referred lo as 'aboI-
ished', luilion fees in Auslria are sliII aclive.
The amendmenl of lhe Iniversily Lav in
2OO8 mereIy disburdens seIecled grous
of sludenls, lhe Iargesl one is Auslrian or
LI-cilizens sludying vilhin lhe rescribed
!zL U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
sludy lerm, vhereas non-LI cilizens sliII
ay as if nolhing ever haened.
11
See lhe Luroean Commission, Irearing
Luroe. Ior an anaIysis of lhe coIoniaI rools
of lhe Renaissance, see MignoIo, The darker
side, 8O8-828.
12
This amounl, |usl a dro in lhe buckel
for aII Auslrian universilies on aII IeveIs,
vas granled afler having been removed
in recenl budgel culs. Il has been relained
as lhe 'Minisler's reserve' for disciIinary
measures.
REFERENCE5
AuslraIian ureau of Slalislics. 2OO8. Lxorl
income lo AuslraIia from educalion
services. Research Snashol 34. IRL:
hll:11vvv.isana.org.au1hIes1ALI/2O
March/2Osshol/2Oexl/2Oincome.df
hll:11vvv.isana.org.au1hIes1ALI/2O
March/2Osshol/2Oexl/2Oincome.
df> .

anar|ee, Subhabrala obby. 2OO6. Live and
Iel die: CoIoniaI sovereignlies and lhe
dealh vorIds of necrocailaIism. Bcr!cr-
|cn!s 5|1j.

Luroean Commission. 2OO9. Irearing
Luroe for a nev Renaissance: A slrale-
gic viev of lhe Luroean research area.
IRL: vvv.ec.euroa.eu1research1
erab1ubIicalions_en.hlmI <hll:11
vvv.ec.euroa.eu1research1erab1ub-
Iicalions_en.hlmI> .

Lorey, IsabeII. 2OO6. GovernmenlaIily and
seIf-recarizalion: n lhe normaIizalion
of cuIluraI roducers. Trans. Lisa Rosen-
bIall and Dagmar Iink. ||PCP. IRL:
hll:11eic.nel1lransversaI111O61
Iorey1en <hll:11eic.nel1lransver-
saI111O61Iorey1de> .
Marlin, Slevarl. 2OO8. Iedagogy of human
cailaI. Mcicmuic. IRL: hll:11vvv.
melamule.org1en1Iedagogy-of-Hu-
man-CailaI <hll:11vvv.melamule.
org1en1Iedagogy-of-Human-CailaI
MignoIo, WaIler. 1992. The darker side of
lhe Renaissance: CoIonizalion and lhe
disconlinuily of lhe cIassicaI lradilion.
Rcncisscncc Qucricr|q 45|4j: 8O8-828.
U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U
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NnthIng wI!! Evcr bc thc samc
Ten lhesis on lhe hnanciaI crisis
`
UnInnmadc
T H E 5 I 5 1. T H E C U R R E N T F I N A N C I A L C R
I 5 I 5 I 5 A C R I 5 I 5 O F T H E W H O L E C A P I
T A L I 5 T I C 5 Y 5 T E M
The currenl hnanciaI crisis is a syslemic crisis. Il is lhe crisis of lhe
vhoIe cailaIislic syslem as il has been deveIoing since lhe 199Os.
This is deendanl on lhe facl lhal lhe hnanciaI markels loday are lhe
uIsing hearl of cognilive cailaIism. They hnance lhe aclivily of ac-
cumuIalion: lhe Iiquidily allracled lo lhe hnanciaI markels revards
lhe reslrucluring of roduclion aimed al exIoiling knovIedges and
lhe conlroI of saces exlernaI lo lradilionaI business.
Iurlhermore, lhanks lo lhe dislribulion of cailaI gain, hnanciaI mar-
kels Iay lhe same roIe in lhe economic syslem lhal lhe Keynesian
muIliIier (aclivaled by dehcil sending) did in lhe conlexl of Iord-
ism. Hovever--unIike lhe cIassic Keynesian muIliIier--lhis Ieads lo a
dislorled redislribulion of revenue. So lhal such muIliIier is oera-
live (> 1) il is necessary lhal lhe hnanciaI base (i.e. lhe exlension of
hnanciaI markels) conslanlIy grovs and lhal lhe malured cailaI gain
is on average higher lhan lhe average vage derecialion (lhal, since
1975, has been aboul 2O/). n lhe olher hand, revenue oIarisalion
increases lhe risk of debl insoIvency vhich is al lhe base of lhe grovlh
of lhal same hnanciaI foundalion and Iovers lhe median vage. Here
is a hrsl conlradiclion vhose effecls are visibIe loday.
ThirdIy, hnanciaI markels forcefuIIy redirecling groving arls of Ia-
bour revenues (Iike severance ay and sociaI securily, olher lhan rev-
enues lhal, lhrough lhe sociaI slale, are lransIaled inlo slale heaIlh
rograms and inslilulions of ubIic educalion) subslilule lhe slale as
lhe main rovider of sociaI securilies and veIfare. Irom lhis oinl of
viev, lhey reresenl lhe rivalisalion of lhe reroduclive shere of
Iife. They lherefore exercise bioover.
UNINOMADE
IS A NLTWRK CM-
IRISLD I MILI-
TANTS, SCHLARS,
RLSLACHLRS, STI-
DLNTS AND ACTIV-
ISTS. SINCL 2OO4,
ININMADL HAS
RGANISLD CNILR-
LNCLS AND SLMI-
NARILS N VARIIS
TIICS: LAIR,
GVLRNANCL, WAR,
NLTWRK, INIVLR-
SITY, CMMN. THL
GRII HAS ALS
IILISHLD SLVLRAL
KS: GU|RRA
| D|MOCRAZ|A
(MANIILSTLIRI,
2OO5) AND CR|S|
D|II|CONOM|A
GIOBAI|. M|RCA1| ||-
NANZ|AR|, IO11| SO-
C|AI| | NUOV| SC|NA-
1| POI|1|C| (MRL
CRTL, 2OO9), AND
SN AVAILL IN
LNGLISH TRANSALA-
TIN, CR|S|S |N 1H|
GIOBAI |CONOMY.
||NANC|AI MARK|1S,
SOC|AI S1RUGGI|S,
AND N|W POI|1|-
CAI SC|NAR|OS
(SLMITLXT(L), 2O1O)
AppcndIx
!zH U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
The hnanciaI crisis is consequenlIy a crisis of lhe slruclure of lhe currenl cailaIislic bioover.
LaslIy, lhe hnanciaI markels are lhe Iace vhere cailaIisl vaIorisalion is hxed loday, vhich is lo
say lhe exIoilalion of sociaI cooeralion and lhe renl from generaI inleIIecl (cf. Thesis 2).
n lhe basis of lhese consideralions, il is necessary lo undersland lhe difhcuIly in searaling lhe
reaI shere from lhe hnanciaI one. Iroof of lhis is lhe effeclive imossibiIily of dislinguishing lhe
rohls from hnanciaI renl (cf. Thesis 8).
T H E 5 I 5 2. T H E C U R R E N T F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 I 5 A
C R I 5 I 5 O F T H E M E A 5 U R E M E N T O F C A P I T A L I 5 T I C
V A L O R I 5 A T I O N
Wilh lhe advenl of cognilive cailaIism, lhe rocess of vaIorisalion Ioses aII quanlilalive measur-
ing unils connecled vilh maleriaI roduclion. Such measuremenls vere in some vay dehned
by lhe conlenl of Iabour necessary for lhe roduclion of merchandise, measurabIe based on lhe
langibiIily of roduclion and on lhe lime necessary for roduclion. Wilh lhe advenl of cognilive
cailaIism, vaIorisalion lends lo be lriggered in differenl forms of Iabour lhal cul lhe effecliveIy
cerlihed vork hours lo increasingIy coincide vilh lhe overaII lime of Iife. Today, lhe vaIue of
Iabour is al lhe base of cailaIislic accumuIalion and is aIso lhe vaIue of knovIedge, affecls and
reIalionshis, of lhe imaginary and lhe symboIic. The resuIl of lhese biooIilicaI lransformalions
is lhe crisis of lhe lradilionaI measuremenl of Iabour-vaIue and vilh il lhe crisis of lhe rohl-form.
A ossibIe 'cailaIislic' soIulion vas measuring lhe exIoilalion of sociaI cooeralion and gen-
eraI inleIIecl lhrough lhe dynamics of markel vaIues. In lhis vay, rohl is lransformed inlo renl
and lhe hnanciaI markels became lhe Iace vhere Iabour-vaIue vas delermined, lransformed
inlo a hnanciaI-vaIue vhich is nolhing olher lhan lhe sub|eclive exression of lhe execlalions
for fulure rohls generaled by hnanciaI markels lhal, in lhis vay, Iay cIaim lo renl. The currenl
hnanciaI crisis marks lhe end of lhe iIIusion lhal hnancing can conslilule a unil of measuremenl
for Iabour, al Ieasl in conlemorary cailaIism's currenl faiIure in cognilive governance. Conse-
quenlIy, lhe hnanciaI crisis is aIso a crisis of cailaIislic vaIorisalion.
T H E 5 I 5 3. T H E C R I 5 I 5 I 5 T H E H O R I Z O N O F
D E V E L O P M E N T F O R C O G N I T I V E C A P I T A L I 5 M
TradilionaIIy, lhe henomena of crisis in lhe vorId of cailaIislic roduclion vere cIassihed in
lvo main calegories: crises lhal are derived from lhe exhauslion of a hisloricaI hase vhich re-
resenled lhe condilions lo oen a olenliaI erseclive of change, and crises lhal come aboul as
a consequence lo a change in lhe hisloricaI hase of lhe nev socioeconomic aradigm lhal ardu-
ousIy lries lo imose ilseIf. The hrsl case has been caIIed 'crisis of saluralion', vhiIe lhe second a
'crisis of grovlh'.
IoIIoving lhis modeI, lhe currenl crisis couId be dehned, unIike lhe one in lhe '7Os and in lhe
same vay as lhe one in 1929, as a 'crisis of grovlh'. Il hnds ils harbingers al lhe beginning of lhe
'9Os, vhen lhe characlerislics of cognilive cailaIism began lo conhgure lhemseIves and lhe Iasl
hase of lhe crisis in lhe Iordisl-TayIorisl aradigm (or 'osl-Iordism') vas broughl lo an end.
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !zU
ISSN 2O78-3884
In facl, ever since lhe second haIf of lhe '7Os lhe irreversibIe crisis of lhe Iordisl-TayIorisl ara-
digm, founded on lhe roduclive modeI of lhe Iarge comany and Keynesian oIicies born from
lhe 1929 crisis and lhe Second WorId War, has been deveIoing.
During lhe '8Os, in lhe so-caIIed osl-Iordisl eriod, lhere vere differenl sociaI and roduclive
modeIs lhal reIuded lhe surmounling of Iordism vilhoul, hovever, being abIe lo eslabIish a
dominanl and hegemonic aradigm.
Al lhe beginning of lhe '9Os, afler lhe hnanciaI crack in 1987 and lhe 1991-1992 economic recession
(aIlernaling vilh lhe faII of lhe erIin WaII and lhe hrsl GuIf War), lhe nev aradigm of cognilive
cailaIism began lo unraveI ilseIf vilh aII ils conlemorary force and inslabiIily. The roIe of lhe
hnanciaI markels, logelher vilh lhe lransformalions in roduclion and Iabour, vere redehned in
lhis conlexl, vhiIe lhe roIe of lhe nalion-slale and Keynesian veIfare vere slrucluraIIy modihed,
lhis meanl lhe decIine of forms of ubIic inlervenlion as ve had knovn lhem in lhe receding
hisloricaI slage.
Today's hnanciaI crisis, vhich foIIovs olher crises lhal have laken Iace in lhe Iasl hfleen years,
syslemalicaIIy and slrucluraIIy highIighls lhe inconsislency of lhe reguIalory mechanism of ac-
cumuIalion and dislribulion lhal, u unliI nov, cognilive cailaIism has lried lo give ilseIf.
Lel il be cIear, hovever, lhal laIking aboul lhe currenl crisis in lerms of 'crisis of grovlh' does
nol mean in any vay advocaling lhe 'aulomalic' lriumh of lhe resenl hase in a osilive and
sociaIIy salisfying vay. Al lhe momenl, in facl, nol onIy il is sliII imossibIe lo recognise an exil
slralegy for such crisis, bul lhe very nalure of crisis ilseIf is changing. Il is no Ionger Iimiled, if il
ever vas, lo a descendenl hase of lhe economic cycIe in Iinear reIalion lo lhe deveIomenl lhal
receded il and lhe slruggIes lhal foIIov il. In lhe case of 1929, lhe crisis vas overcome vilh lhe
Iordisl reguIalion aradigm lhanks lo lhe Nev DeaI and lhe Second WorId War. Today (cf. Thesis
9), such a erseclive cannol be given. Where cailaIislic accumuIalion is reroduced in lhe sub-
sumlion of lhe common, lhe crisis becomes, in facl, a ermanenl rocess. In lhis framevork, lhe
very calegory of economic cycIe shouId be radicaIIy relhoughl, in lhe Iighl of lhe lransformalions
in Iabour, lhe imossibiIily for cailaI lo organise lhe roduclive cycIe a riori and lhe shifls of lhe
saliaI-lemoraI coordinales delermined by gIobaIisalion. The occurrence of economic-hnanciaI
crises in such a brief lime san (from lhe Lasl-Asian crisis of '97, lo lhe faII of lhe Nasdaq in 2OOO,
u lo lhe crisis of lhe debl syslem and subrime Ioans, lo name bul a fev), making lhe reconslruc-
lion of lhe cycIic dynamics--even if onIy ex-osl--imossibIe, demonslrales lhis facl. This means
lhal many roads are oen. Il is u lo lhe viII of lransformalion and sociaI movemenls' oIilicaI
aclion lo choose lhe righl one.
T H E 5 I 5 4. T H E F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 I 5 A C R I 5 I 5 O F
B I O P O L I T I C A L C O N T R O L -- A C R I 5 I 5 O F G O V E R N A N C E
T H A T D E M O N 5 T R A T E 5 A 5 Y 5 T E M I C 5 T R U C T U R A L
I N 5 T A B I L I T Y
The currenl hnanciaI crisis demonslrales lhal an inslilulionaI governance of lhe rocesses of ac-
cumuIalion and dislribulion founded on hnance is nol ossibIe. The (ex-osl) allemls al gover-
!U U issUe ja(Ua|_ zU!U eUU-|aclC|_ ve jCU|(a|
ISSN 2O78-3884
nance lhal have been Iaunched in lhe Iasl fev monlhs are hardIy abIe lo affecl lhe crisis under-
vay. Il couIdn'l be olhervise if one considers lhal lhe IS (ank for InlernalionaI SellIemenls)
eslimales lhe vaIue of derivalives in circuIalion al aboul $556 lriIIion (equaI lo 11 limes lhe vorId
GDI). ver lhe course of Iasl year, lhis vaIue vas reduced by over 4O/, deslroying more lhan
$2OO lriIIion in Iiquidily. nce more, loxic assels circuIale according lo a 'viraI' modaIily, and il is
IileraIIy imossibIe lo knov vhere lhey are nesling.
The monelary inlervenlions of lhe in|eclion of nev Iiquidily carried oul vorIdvide unliI nov do
nol amounl lo more lhan $5 miIIion: a mere dro in lhe ocean of vaIue, a sum slrucluraIIy insuf-
hcienl lo comensale for lhe Iosses and inverl lhe lendency lo decIine. Whal foIIovs is lhal lhe
onIy ossibIe oIilicaI governance is lo alleml lo modify lhe cIimale of lrusl, or ralher, acl on
Ianguages and convenlions, in fuII resecl of lhose inslilulions, reaI and1or virluaI organisalions
lhal are abIe lo dynamicaIIy inuence lhe so-caIIed 'ubIic oinion'. NeverlheIess, againsl an
'excess' of lhe effeclive veighl of lhe crisis, vhich is nol quanlihabIe even for lhe oeralors mosl
inlimale lo hnanciaI markel dynamics, lhinking lo sligmalise frauduIenl behaviours or lo in|ecl
doses of lrusl seems comIeleIy inadequale and imraclicabIe.
Hence lhe crisis of governance in nol onIy a 'lechnicaI' crisis bul aIso, mosl imorlanlIy, a 'oIili-
caI' crisis. We have aIready seen (in Thesis 1) lhal lhe condilion for hnanciaI markels lo be abIe lo
suorl hases of exansion and reaI grovlh is a conslanl increase of lhe hnanciaI base. In olher
vords, il is necessary lhal lhe share of gIobaI veaIlh redirecled lovard hnanciaI markels conlinu-
aIIy grovs. This imIies a conlinuous increase in lhe reIalions belveen debl and credil, eilher
lhrough lhe increase of lhe number of eoIe in debl (lhe degree of hnanciaI markel exlension) or
lhrough lhe conslruclion of nev hnanciaI inslrumenls lhal feed on re-exisling hnanciaI exchang-
es (lhe degree of inlensily of lhe hnanciaI markels). Derivalive roducls are a cIassic examIe of
lhis second modaIily of exansion of lhe same hnanciaI markels. Whalever lhe faclors laken inlo
consideralion, lhe exansion of hnanciaI markels is necessariIy accomanied by bolh lhe increase
in debl and by lhe secuIalive aclivilies of lhe risk associaled vilh il. Il is an inlrinsic dynamic in
lhe roIe of hnanciaI markels as a founding eIemenl of cognilive cailaIism. Seaking of an excess
of secuIalion due lo manager or bank greed makes absoIuleIy no sense and can onIy serve lo
deviale lhe allenlion from lhe lrue slrucluraI causes of lhis crisis. NecessariIy, lhe hnaI resuIl is lhe
insuslainabiIily of an ever-groving debl, above aII vhen high-risk seclors of lhe ouIalion begin
lo be loo far in debl: lhe sociaI slrala lhal, foIIoving lhe rocess of Iabour recariousness, hnd
lhemseIves in lhe condilion of nol benehling from lhe veaIlh effecl lhal arlicialion in lhe slock
earnings ermilled lhe more veII-lo-do sociaI cIasses. The insoIvency crisis in reaI-eslale morl-
gages lhus hnds ils origin in one of lhe conlradiclions of conlemorary cognilive cailaIism: lhe
irreconciIabiIily of an unequaI revenue dislribulion vilh lhe necessily of videning lhe hnanciaI
base lo conlinue lo deveIo lhe rocess of accumuIalion. This conlradiclory node is nolhing olher
lhan lhe coming lo Iighl of an irreducibiIily (an excess) of Iife of a Iarge arl of sociaI comonenls
(be lhey singuIar fragmenls or dehnabIe as cIass segmenls) lo cailaIisl subsumlion. An excess
lhal loday is exressed in a muIliIicily of behaviours (from forms of inhdeIily lo comany hier-
archies, lo lhe resence of communilies lhal oose lerriloriaI governance, from individuaI and
grou exodus from lhe diclales of Iife imosed by lhe dominanl sociaI convenlions, aII lhe vay lo
lhe deveIomenl of seIf-organisalionaI forms in lhe vork vorId and oen revoIl againsl lhe oId
and nev forms of exIoilalion in lhe sIums and lhe megaoIis of lhe gIobaI Soulh, in Weslern me-
lrooIises and in lhe mosl recenlIy induslriaIised areas of Soulh-Lasl Asia and Soulh America).
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !!
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This is an excess lhal decIares in unison, from lhe four corners of lhe gIobe, lhal il viII nol ay for
lhis crisis. The irremediabIe inslabiIily of conlemorary cailaIism is aIso a resuIl of lhis excess.
T H E 5 I 5 5. T H E F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 I 5 A C R I 5 I 5 O F
U N I L A T E R A L I 5 M A N D A M O M E N T O F G E O P O L I T I C A L
R E - E Q U I L I B R I U M
The currenl crisis uls lhe hnanciaI hegemony of lhe Iniled Slales and lhe cenlraIily of AngIo-
Saxon slock markels in lhe rocess of hnanciaIisalion inlo queslion. The exil from lhis crisis viII
necessariIy mark a shifl in lhe hnanciaI barycenler lovards lhe Lasl and, arliaIIy, Soulh (i.e.
Soulh America). AIready on lhe IeveI of roduclivily and conlroI of commerciaI exchanges, vhich
is lo say on a reaI IeveI, lhe rocesses of gIobaIisalion have aIvays highIighled a shifl of lhe ro-
duclive cenlre lovards lhe rienl and lhe gIobaI Soulh. Irom lhis oinl of viev, lhe currenl hnan-
ciaI crisis uls and end lo a sorl of anomaIy lhal had characlerised lhe hrsl hase of lhe diffusion
of cognilive cailaIism: lhe movemenl of lechnoIogicaI cenlraIily and cognilive Iabour lo India
and China vhiIe mainlaining hnanciaI hegemony in lhe Wesl. As Iong as lhe deveIomenl of
Laslern counlries (China and India), raziI and Soulh America vas uIIed aIong by lhe rocesses
of exlernaIisalion and deIocaIisalion sel by lhe Iarge Weslern cororalions, il vas nol ossibIe lo
idenlify a saliaI dyslonia belveen cognilive cailaIism's lvo main variabIes of command: lhe
conlroI of currency-hnance on lhe one hand, and lhe conlroI of lechnoIogy on lhe olher hand. Al
lhe end of lhe '9Os lhe nevIy induslriaIised counlries began lo ul lhe Weslern and }aanese lech-
noIogicaI Ieadershi inlo crisis, lhrough lhe assage from a roduclive modeI based on imilalive
caacily and knovIedge dislribulion lo a roduclive modeI abIe lo favour rocesses of genera-
lion, arorialion and amassing of knovIedges, aIready slarling vilh lhe formalion of 'human
cailaI'. The 1997 hnanciaI crisis, lhal, beginning vilh lhe devaIualion of lhe Thai bal, arlicu-
IarIy hil lhe Asian and Soulh American slocks (olher lhan lhe Asian counlries of lhe ex-ISSR),
enabIed AngIo-Saxon hnanciaI markels lo reasserl lheir suremacy on a gIobaI scaIe, bul in any
case didn'l imede lhe shifl of lechno-roduclive Ieadershi Laslvards. So a hrsl conlradiclion
vilhin lhe gIobaI geoeconomic equiIibrium came lo ass: Weslern suremacy in hnance, Laslern
suremacy in lhe 'reaI' economy and in inlernalionaI exchange. This is an unslabIe equiIibrium
lhal, for lhe hrsl hve years of lhe nev miIIennium vas slaIIed de faclo by lhe ermanenl var in
Afghanislan and Iraq, and lhal is essenliaIIy al lhe base of lhe faiIure of lhe various inlernalionaI
commerce summils--from Doha (in November 2OO1) lo Cancun (in Selember 2OO3) u lo Hong-
Kong (in December 2OO5).
NeverlheIess, lhe groving American debl (bolh domeslic and inlernalionaI) and lhe necessily of
videning lhe exlension of hnanciaI markels vilh furlher reIalions of debl and credil increasingIy
al risk made il so lhal lhis equiIibrium, aIready unslabIe, couIdn'l Iasl Iong. The currenl hnanciaI
crisis ul an end lo lhis saliaI dyslonia. TechnoIogicaI and hnanciaI suremacy are lending lo
re|oin one anolher on a geoeconomic IeveI. As a resuIl, cognilive cailaIism as a aradigm of bio-
economic accumuIalion is becoming hegemonic even in China, India and in lhe gIobaI Soulh. Lel
il be cIearIy slaled, hovever, lhal lhe somelimes radicaI differences belveen differenl saces and
limes lhrough vhich cailaIislic rocesses of vaIorisalion, and lhrough vhich lhe comosilion of
vork commanded and exIoiled by cailaI is conlinuaIIy re-arlicuIaled, have ceased lo oerale.
Nor il is ossibIe lo forge a series of skeIelon-key concels, indislinclIy aIicabIe lo Nairobi,
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Nev York and Shanghai. The oinl is ralher lhal lhe very sense of lhe radicaI differences belveen
Iaces, regions and conlinenls musl be re-comressed vilhin lhe helerogeneous inlerIacing of
lhe roduclive syslems, lemoraIilies and sub|eclive Iabour exeriences lhal conslilule cognilive
cailaIism.
T H E 5 I 5 6. T H E F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 D E M O N 5 T R A T E 5 T H E
D I F F I C U L T I E 5 O F T H E C O N 5 T R U C T I O N P R O C E 5 5 O F T H E
E C O N O M I C E U R O P E A N U N I O N
ne of lhe goaIs of lhe conslruclion of lhe monelary Luroean Inion vas lhe roleclion of lhe
Luro area counlries from lhe secuIalive lurbuIence of currency markels vilh lhe ob|eclive of
buiIding a slrong currency abIe lo form a shieId againsl ossibIe hnanciaI crises. In effecl, dur-
ing lhe 1996-97 and 2OOO crisis, lhe resence of lhe Luro imeded inlernalionaI secuIalion from
uniling in an anli-Luroean funclion. Hovever, such argumenlalion feII vhen lhe hnanciaI crisis,
slarling from lhe hearl of American hegemony, broughl nol onIy lhe main Weslern inveslmenl
comanies lo lheir knees bul aIso began lo have effecls on lhe 'reaI' economy as veII.
The ansver of haIf lhe vorId's monelary aulhorilies and lhe main governmenls hil by lhe crisis
vas lo suIy lhe mosl Iiquidily ossibIe lo Iug lhe hoIes oened in lhe credil and reaI-eslale
seclors. Hovever, such inlervenlions--lhal have mobiIised huge quanlilies of ubIic money--vere
done in a random order in lhe Luroean conlexl, vilh lhe IeveI of coordinalion nearIy excIusiveIy
lechnicaI and never oIilicaI. The resuIl is lhal every Luroean slale, in concrele lerms, moved
aulonomousIy and vilh differenlialed modaIilies. In reaIily, lhey ay for having excIusiveIy fo-
cused on lhe monelary union vilhoul vorrying aboul crealing lhe remises for a Luroean hscaI
oIicy vilh a budgel indeendenl from lhe inuence of lhe singIe member Slales. Today lhe looIs
for a coordinaled hscaI inlervenlion abIe lo allribule a reaI counlerallack lo lhe hnanciaI crisis are
missing. This is an uIlerior symlom of lhe faiIure lo economicaIIy and sociaIIy (nol lo menlion
oIilicaIIy) conslrucl Luroe.

T H E 5 I 5 7. T H E F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 M A R K 5 T H E C R I 5 I 5 O F
N E O L I B E R A L T H E O R Y
The currenl hnanciaI crisis shovs hov lhe cailaIislic syslem is slrucluraIIy unslabIe and hov
lhe free markel lheory is nol abIe lo affronl such inslabiIily. In lhe dominanl vuIgale of neoIiberaI
lhoughl, lhe free funclioning of lhe markel shouId guaranlee nol onIy an efhcienl accumuIalion
rocess bul aIso a correcl and baIanced dislribulion of income, according lo each individuaI's
conlribulion and commilmenl. The exislence of sociaI differenlialion is lhe ex-osl resuIl of lhe
economic agenls' choices based on freeIy exressed references.
Such orienlalion is based on lvo assumed rinciIes. The hrsl regards lhe idea lhal economic
rocess is excIusiveIy exercised in lhe aclivily of exchange (aIIocalion), vhere lhe consumer (eco-
nomic demand) delermines lhe offer, aII in a conlexl vhere roduclion caacily, being founded
on naluraI and nol arlihciaI resources, is by dehnilion Iimiled and lherefore sub|ecl lo scarcily.
The suremacy of lhe aIIocalive rocess over roduclion imIies lhal lhe markel becomes lhe
Iace vhere economic aclivily is excIusiveIy delermined, lhanks lo lhe rinciIe of consumer
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !
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sovereignly. This rinciIe is IinearIy lransIaled inlo 'individuaI sovereignly', according lo vhich
every individuaI is lhe soIe |udge of himseIf1herseIf (lhe rinciIe of free viII) and sociaI varia-
lions musl be founded soIeIy on lhe evaIualions exressed by singIe individuaIs (lhe suremacy
of individuaIism). Consumer sovereignly, hovever, reduces individuaI sovereignly lo lhe acl of
consumlion. This famous free viII is lhus excIusiveIy arlicuIaled in free consumlion, bul vhich
is nol absoIule Iiberly anyvay, being conhned by an individuaI's arlicuIar sending caabiIily
and on markel avaiIabiIily. ConsequenlIy lhose lhal don'l have monelary resources lhal aIIov
lhem lo creale demand for good or services in lhe markel, Iike, for examIe, many migranls, lhen
don'l exisl from an economic oinl of viev. Whal acluaIIy counls is nol demand--underslood as a
vhoIe of goods and services lhal each individuaI desires lo have lo salisfy lheir needs--bul ralher
soIvenl demand, exressed vilh cash in hand. Desires lhal can'l be salished in markels because of
a Iack of money, don'l exisl de faclo. Since lhe sums avaiIabIe for consumlion (vhich are Iimiled
by income) deend, for mosl human beings, on Iabour vages, one couId concIude (aIlhough il is
denied) lhal vorking condilions delermine lhe effeclive degree of individuaI Iiberly.
The second oinl, cIoseIy lied lo lhe hrsl, afhrms lhe reeminence of roerly individuaIism as
lhe resuIl of lhe crisis of induslriaI-Iordisl cailaIism and of ils lransformalion inlo bioeconomic
cailaIism. Lvery economic agenl is considered lhe soIe aclor resonsibIe for lhe choices of con-
sumlion and inveslmenl. n lhe hnanciaI side, lhis is lransIaled inlo a reduclion of nalionaI
debl inlo individuaI debl, on a oIilicaI and economic IeveI lhis lheorelicaI aroach serves lo
suslain lhe banishmenl of con|ecluraI hnance and a Iegilimalion of rivale consumlion based on
individuaI debl. Slarling from lhe ascerlainmenl lhal lhe cailaIislic syslem is, as economic ac-
cumuIalion, aIvays a monelary economy lhal is based on debl, and afler lhe 1929 economic crisis
lhe slale has assumed lhe roIe of Iasl resorl Ioaner, laking on lhe resonsibiIily lo manage ubIic
debl (lhe Keynesian oIicies of dehcil-sending). Inslead, lhe assage from Iordism lo cognilive
cailaIism, in lhe name of roerly individuaIism, marked lhe lransformalion from ubIic debl
lo individuaI debl lhrough lhe hnanciaI 'rivalisalion' of lhe sociaI righls von afler lhe WorId
War II.
The neoIiberaI ideoIogicaI crisis resls in lhe faiIure of lhe free markel as an efhcienl mechanism of
resource roduclion and aIIocalion and in lhe roIe of hnanciaI markels as mechanisms of income
redislribulion. In lhe hrsl case, ve have vilnessed a rocess of hnanciaI and lechnoIogicaI con-
cenlralion Iike never before in lhe hislory of cailaIism, vilh aII due resecl lo free comelilion.
In lhe second case, lhe redislribulive governance of lhe hnanciaI markels has reveaIed ilseIf lo be
a comIele faiIure.
T H E 5 I 5 8. T H E F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 H I G H L I G H T 5 T W O
I N T E R N A L C O N T R A D I C T O R Y P R I N C I P L E 5 O F
C O G N I T I V E C A P I T A L I 5 M : T H E I N 5 U F F I C I E N C Y O F T H E
T R A D I T I O N A L F O R M 5 O F L A B OU R R E M U N E R A T I O N
A N D T H E V I L E N E 5 5 O F T H E P R O P R I E T A R Y 5 T R U C T U R E
In lhe framevork of lhe slrucluraI inslabiIily of resenl-day cognilive cailaIism, lransIaled in
lhe currenl hnanciaI crisis, il becomes necessary lo relhink lhe dehnilion of lhe redislribulive
variabIes in a vay lhal lhey can refer lo vaIue roduclion in conlemorary cognilive cailaIism.
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As far as lhe shere of Iabour is concerned, il is necessary lo acknovIedge lhal in cognilive cai-
laIism Iabour remuneralion shouId be lransIaled inlo Iife remuneralion: consequenlIy, lhe conicl
in heri lhal is oened is nol mereIy a conslanlIy necessary slruggIe for high vages (lo ul il in
Keynesian lerms), bul ralher lhe slruggIe for a conlinuily of income regardIess of lhe Iabour acliv-
ily cerlihed by any lye of conlracl. Afler lhe crisis of lhe Iordisl-TayIorisl aradigm, lhe division
belveen Iife and Iabour lime is nol easiIy dislinguishabIe. The mosl exIoiled eoIe in lhe vork
vorId are lhose vhose vhoIe Iives are ul lo vork. This haens, in lhe hrsl Iace, lhrough lhe
Ienglhening of vork hours in lhe service seclor and, above aII, in lhe migranl vorkforce: a Iarge
arl of lhe Iabour lime senl in lhe lhird seclor aclivilies doesn'l acluaIIy haen on lhe |ob.
Wages are lhe remuneralion of cerlihed Iabour acknovIedged as roduclive, vhiIe individuaI
income is lhe sum of aII lhe relurns lhal are derived from Iiving and reIalionshis in a lerrilory
(vork, famiIy, subsidies, ossibIe renl, elc.) lhal delermine lhe slandard of Iiving. As Iong as lhe
searalion belveen vork and Iife exisls, a conceluaI searalion viII exisl belveen vages and
individuaI income, bul vhen Iife-lime is ul lo vork il lends lo bIur lhe difference belveen in-
come and vage.
Thus il isn'l aboul oosing vage slruggIes and income slruggIes, resigning lhe former lo sec-
loriaI resislance and lhe Ialler lo a simIy ideoIogicaI reosilion. The oIilicaI node is ralher
relhinking a virluous combinalion, slarling from lhe roduclive lransformalions and from lhe
sub|eclive maleriaIily of Iabour's nev comosilion.
De faclo, lhe lendenliaI overIaing belveen vork and Iife and consequenlIy belveen vages and
income is nol yel considered vilhin lhe Iimils of inslilulionaI reguIalion. Irom differenl oinls of
viev, il is suslained lhal basic income can reresenl an eIemenl of inslilulionaI reguIalion suilabIe
for lhe nev lendencies of cailaIism. Whal inleresls us mosl, hovever, is nol sIiing lovard a
lheory of sociaI |uslice, or comIaining aboul lhe missing acknovIedgmenl of roduclive ralio-
naIily or, Ieasl of aII, aboul lhe absence of reguIalory devices lhal aIIov cailaIism lo overcome ils
ovn crisis. Income is, hrsl and foremosl, lhe idenlihcalion of a ballIeground vilhin lhe changes
of conlemorary cailaIism, vhich is lo say, an eIemenl for a oIilicaI rogram inside lhe consli-
lulive rocesses of anlagonisl sub|eclivily. Irom lhis oinl of viev, basic income can be seen as a
direclIy dislribulive, and nol redislribulive, variabIe.
As far as lhe shere of roduclion is concerned, a second asecl lo lake inlo consideralion is lhe
roIe Iayed by inleIIecluaI roerly righls. They reresenl one of lhe looIs lhal aIIov cailaI lo
aroriale sociaI cooeralion as veII as generaI inleIIecl. Since knovIedge is a common good,
roduced by sociaI cooeralion, lhe surIus vaIue lhal srings from ils use in lerms of innovalive
aclivily and increases in Iabour roduclivily is nol simIy lhe fruil of an inveslmenl in a hysicaI
or individuaI cailaI slock (vhich is lo say ascribed lo a cailaIisl dehned as a singIe enlily, be il
a erson or business organisalion) bul ralher deends on lhe use of sociaI alrimony (or 'sociaI
human cailaI' as some economisls say) lhal is sedimenled over lhe lerrilory and lhal is indeen-
denl from lhe inilialive of singIe enlrereneurs. The rale of rohl lhal srings forlh is lherefore
nol lhe simIe ralio belveen lhe inveslmenl IeveI and slock cailaI lhal dehnes lhe vaIue of a
business, bul ralher 'somelhing' lhal lhe business, vilh lhe exislenl 'sociaI' cailaI, deends on.
In olher vords, as Iong as rohl is born in measures increasingIy consislenl from lhe exIoilalion
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !
ISSN 2O78-3884
and exrorialion of a common good Iike knovIedge for rivale uroses, il can be arliaIIy as-
simiIaled lo a renl: a renl from lhe lerrilory and from Iearning, vhich is lo say a renl lhal comes
from lhe exercising of inleIIecluaI roerly righls and knovIedge ovnershi.
Nov, lo arahrase Keynes in lhe Iasl chaler of his GeneraI Theory, one couId mainlain lhal,
'The ovner of knovIedge can oblain rohl because knovIedge is scarce, |usl as lhe ovner of Iand
can oblain renl because Iand is scarce. ul vhiIsl lhere may be inlrinsic reasons for lhe scarcily of
Iand, lhere are no inlrinsic reasons for lhe scarcily of knovIedge'.
1
Lven so, over lhe Iasl fev years various IiberaI lheorelicians have mainlained lhe necessily of
reducing or even eIiminaling coyrighl Iicensing lhal, in lhe Iong run, risks bIocking innovalive
rocess. Cognilive cailaIism shouId become, lhey say, a sorl of 'roerlyIess cailaIism', a modeI
lhal is suosedIy rehgured by lhe veb 2.O and exemIihed by lhe cIash belveen GoogIe and
Microsofl. Where cailaI loiIs lo organise sociaI cooeralion a riori, il is forced lo chase il and
calure il aflervards: accumuIalion and surIus vaIue consequenlIy ass rimariIy lhrough a
rocess of hnanciaIisalion. This is vhal circIes cIose lo hnanciaI cailaIism have dehned as 'lhe
communism of cailaI'.
2
SliII, admilling lhal il can do vilhoul roerly, cailaIism cerlainIy can-
nol give u conlroI, even if lhis means conlinuaIIy bIocking lhe olenliaI of cognilive Iabour.
Here lhe cIassic conlradiclion belveen roduclive forces and roduclion reIalions is re-quaIihed
in comIeleIy nev lerms.
The mingIing of rohl and renl is derived from lhe facl lhal, in cognilive cailaIism, lhe rocess
of accumuIalion has exlended lhe very base of accumuIalion, co-oling lhe aclivilies of human
ursuils lhal did nol roduce surIus vaIue in induslriaI Iordisl cailaIism, nor vere lhey lrans-
Ialed inlo abslracl Iabour.
Irom lhis oinl of viev, lhe oIilicaI economic indicalions roosed by Keynes righl afler lhe
aradigmalic 1929 crisis couId be revrillen laking inlo accounl lhe nev eIemenls inborn lo cogni-
live cailaIism.
The measure of a basic income subslilules lhe oIilicaI oIicy of high vages, vhiIe lhe eulhana-
sia of Keynes' renlier couId be arlicuIaled in lhe eulhanasia of lhe osilions of renl derived from
inleIIecluaI roerly righls (or cognilive renlier), accomanied by hscaI oIilics abIe lo redehne
lhe assessabIe base vhiIe keeing in mind lhe roIe Iayed by saliaI vaIorisalion, knovIedge
and hnanciaI ovs. This doesn'l ainl an ideaI iclure, bul al Ieasl dehnes an area of lension in
vhich lo relhink lhe forms of conicl and lhe ossibIe condilions lo organise nev inslilulions of
lhe common.
Regarding Keynes' roosaI lo sociaIise inveslmenls, cognilive cailaIism is characlerised by
a sociaIisalion of roduclion facing an ever higher concenlralion of lechnoIogicaI and hnanciaI
ovs: in olher vords, Ievers lhal loday aIIov lhe conlroI and command of a exibIe and oul-
sourced roduclion. Any oIilicaI rogram lhal inlersecls such concenlralion, vhich is al lhe base
of inveslmenl ovs, lherefore direclIy affecls lhe rorielary slruclure and undermines lhe very
cailaIislic reIalion of roduclion al ils rools.
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The ossibIe 'reformisl' roosaIs lhal couId dehne a sociaI acl in cognilive cailaIism are lhere-
fore Iimiled lo lhe inlroduclion of a nev vage reguIalion based on basic income and on a reduced
inleIIecluaI roerly righl veighl, vhich couId ossibIy Iead lo lhe eulhanasia of inleIIecluaI
roerly renl.
T H E 5 I5 9. T H E C U R R E N T F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 C A N N O T
B E R E 5 O L V E D W I T H R E F O R M I 5 T P O L I T I C 5 T H A T
D E F I N E A R E N O V A T E D N E W D E A L
In lhe currenl silualion lhere are no economic or oIilicaI remises sufhcienl for a nev sociaI acl
(or Nev DeaI). Il is lherefore a mere iIIusion.
The Iordisl Nev DeaI vas lhe resuIl of an inslilulionaI assembIage (ig Governmenl) lhal vas
based on lhe exislence of lhree assumlions: 1) a nalion slale abIe lo deveIo nalionaI economic
oIicies indeendenlIy, even if coordinaled, from olher slales, 2) lhe ossibiIily of measuring
roduclivily earnings and lherefore lo see lo lheir redislribulion belveen rohls and vages, 3)
induslriaI reIalions belveen sociaI comonenls lhal vere recirocaIIy recognised and vere Iegili-
mised on an inslilulionaI IeveI, abIe lo sufhcienlIy and unequivocaIIy reresenl (nol excIuding
margins of arbilrariness) enlrereneuriaI inleresls and lhose of lhe vorking cIass.
None of lhese lhree assumlions are resenl in loday's cognilive cailaIism.
The exislence of lhe nalion-slale is ul inlo crisis by lhe rocesses of roduclive inlernalionaIisa-
lion and hnanciaI gIobaIisalion, lhal reresenl, in lheir decIinalions in lerms of lhe lechnoIogicaI
conlroI of knovIedge, informalion and var aaraluses, lhe bases for lhe dehnilion of surana-
lionaI imeriaI over.
In cognilive cailaIism il is al Ieasl ossibIe lo imagine--as a reference unil for lhe economic and
sociaI oIicy--a suranalionaI geograhic saliaI enlily (and nol by chance lhe counlries lhal are
rolagonisls on a gIobaI IeveI loday, Iike lhe Iniled Slales, raziI, India and China, are conli-
nenlaI saces quile differenl form lhe cIassic Luroean nalion-slale). The Luroean communily
couId reresenl, from lhis oinl of viev, a nev dehnilion of a ubIic socioeconomic sace vhere
lo imIemenl a Nev DeaI. Hovever, in lhe currenl condilion, Luroean conslruclion roceeds
aIong hscaI and monelary oIilicaI Iines lhal reresenl lhe negalion of lhe ossibiIily of crealing a
ubIic sace and an aulonomous and indeendenl sace, nol condilioned by lhe dynamics of lhe
hnanciaI markels (cf. Thesis n. 6).
The dynamics of roduclion lend lo deend on immaleriaI roduclion and lhe invoIvemenl of
cognilive human facuIly, difhcuIl lo measure vilh lradilionaI crileria. The currenl difhcuIly of
measuring sociaI roduclivily doesn'l aIIov for a vage reguIalion based on lhe reIalion belveen
vages and roduclivily.
The roosaI of basic income meels oosilion and difhdence from various hgures. Lnlrere-
neurs consider il, in lhe hrsl Iace, a subversive roosaI lo lhe exlenl lhal il is abIe lo reduce lhe
bIackmaiI of need and deendence on Iabour coercion. In second Iace, if basic income is correcl-
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !7
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Iy underslood as direcl remuneralion of recedenl roduclive aclivily (as il shouId be), vilhoul
being sub|ecl lo any condilion vhalsoever, il risks nol being conlroIIed by lhe hierarchicaI slruc-
lure even lhough being hnanced lhrough lhe generaI laxalion syslem. Inslead, a reform roosaI
of sociaI securily cushions vouId be differenlIy acceled from a hierarchicaI oinl of viev, even
if geared lovard exansion (hoefuIIy incIuding 'recarious' vorkers loo, in accordance vilh
exsecurily). They vouId in facl be a 'redislribulive' measure and nol direclIy dislribulive (Iike
a basic income vouId be), in olher vords, sociaI securily cushions lransfer renl once a direcl dis-
lribulion of renl is sanclioned and lherefore exlensiveIy reforming lhem vouIdn'l ul a denl in
lhe remuneralive dynamics of Iabour. In lhe second Iace, being sub|ecl lo reslriclions and exacl
aIIocalive condilions, sociaI securily cushions nol onIy become an eIemenl of differenlialion and
segmenlalion of lhe vorkforce, bul are aIso vhoIIy congruenl vilh sociaI oIicy vilh a 'vorkfare'
orienlalion. Inslead, for Iabour unions, basic income conlradicls lhe vork elhic lhal lhey conlinue
lo base lheir exislence on.
LaslIy, bul no Iess imorlanlIy, ve are vilnessing a crisis of lhe forms of sociaI reresenlalion
bolh in lhe enlrereneuriaI area as veII as in lhal of Iabour unions. Lacking a singIe organisa-
lionaI modeI induces lhe fragmenlalion bolh of cailaI and Iabour. The hrsl is sIil belveen lhe
inleresls of smaII businesses, oflen lied lo reIalions of hierarchicaI sub-suIy, lhe inleresls of
Iarge muIlinalionaI cororalions and lhe secuIalive aclivilies of currency and hnanciaI markels,
lhe arorialion of rohl and renl from monooIies in dislribulion, lransorlalion, energy, miIi-
lary conlracls and research and deveIomenl. In arlicuIar, lhe conlradiclion belveen induslriaI
cailaI, commerciaI cailaI and hnanciaI cailaI in lerms of slralegies and diversihed lemoraI
horizons, and lhal belveen nalionaI cailaI and suranalionaI cailaI in lerms of geoeconomic
and geooIilicaI inuence, makes a IeveI of lhe cailaIislic cIass' homogeneily of inlenl and lhe
dehnilion of shared goaIs very robIemalic. The eIemenl lhal mosl |oins cailaI's inleresls is lhe
ursuil of shorl-lerm rohls (lhal have origins in differenl vays), and lhis makes lhe formuIalion
of rogressive oIilicaI reforms raclicaIIy imossibIe, unIike lhe era of Iordisl cailaIism.
ConverseIy, lhe vork vorId seems evermore fragmenled nol onIy from a |uridicaI oinl of viev
bul above aII from a 'quaIilalive' oinl of viev. The hgure of lhe saIaried induslriaI vorker is
emergenl in many arls of lhe gIobe bul is in decIine in Weslern counlries, favouring a variegaled
muIlilude of alyicaI recarious, migranl, ara-subordinale and aulonomous hgures, vhose or-
ganisalionaI and reresenlalionaI caacily is increasingIy Iimiled by lhe revaIence of individuaI
negolialion and lhe incaacily of lhe union slruclures formed during Iordism lo adal.
The overaII resuIl is lhal in cognilive cailaIism lhere isn'l sace for an inslilulionaI oIilicaI
reform abIe lo reduce lhe inslabiIily lhal characlerises il. No innovalive Nev DeaI is ossibIe, if
nol one lhal is ushed by sociaI movemenls and by lhe raclices of aulonomous inslilulionaI-
ily lhrough lhe re-arorialion of a veIfare syslem ravaged by rivale inleresls and frozen in
ubIic oIicy. Some of lhe measures lhal ve have idenlihed, from vage reguIalion based on lhe
roosaI of a basic income lo roduclion based on lhe free circuIalion of knovIedges, are nol nec-
essariIy incomalibIe vilh lhe syslems of accumuIalion and subsumlion of cailaI, as various
neoIiberaI lheorelicians have suggesled.
3
In any case, nev camaigns of sociaI conicl and re-
arorialion of common veaIlh can be slarled and lhrough vhich lo undermine lhe very base
of lhe cailaIislic roduclive syslem, lhal is lhe coercion of Iabour, income as a looI of bIackmaiI
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and dominalion of one cIass over anolher and lhe rinciIe of rivale roerly of lhe means of
roduclion (yeslerday lhe machines, loday knovIedge loo).
In olher vords, ve can asserl lhal in cognilive cailaIism a ossibIe sociaI comromise of Keynes-
ian origin bul adaled lo lhe characlerislic of lhe nev rocess of accumuIalion is onIy a lheoreli-
caI iIIusion, and il is unfeasibIe from a oIilicaI oinl of viev. A fuIIy-edged reformisl oIicy
(vhich lends lo idenlify a form of medialion belveen cailaI and Iabour lhal is salisfaclory for
bolh), abIe lo guaranlee a slabIe slrucluraI aradigm of cognilive cailaIism, cannol be deIinealed
loday. So, ve are in a hisloric conlexl in vhich sociaI dynamics don'l aIIov sace for lhe deveI-
omenl of reformisl raclices and, above aII, reformisl 'lheories'. Whal foIIovs is lhal, since il is
raxis lhal guides lheory, onIy conicl and lhe caacily lo creale muIliludinary movemenls can
ermil--as aIvays--lhe sociaI rogress of humanily.
nIy lhe revivaI of slrong sociaI conicl on a suranalionaI IeveI can creale lhe condilions lo
overcome lhe currenl slale of crisis. We are facing an aarenl aradox: lo make nev reformisl
erseclives and lhe reIalive slabiIily of lhe cailaIislic syslem ossibIe, il is necessary a |oinl
aclion of lhe revoIulionary sorl, abIe lo modify lhe axes on vhich lhe very slruclure of cailaIisl
command is based.
We musl lhen slarl lo imagine a osl-cailaIisl sociely, or beller yel, re-eIaborale lhe ballIe for
veIfare in lhe crisis as an immediale organisalion of lhe inslilulions of lhe common. This doesn'l
dehniliveIy eIiminale lhe funclions of oIilicaI medialion bul does dehniliveIy lakes lhem avay
from reresenlalive slruclures and absorbs lhem in lhe consliluenl over of aulonomous rac-
lices.
T H E 5 I 5 10. T H E C U R R E N T F I N A N C I A L C R I 5 I 5 O P E N 5
N E W 5 C E N A R I O 5 O F 5 O C I A L C O N F L I C T
SociaIism has lradilionaIIy offered ilseIf lo save cailaIism from ils cycIicaI crises, diaIeclicaIIy
overcoming endemic inslabiIily lhrough a suerior ralionaIily of deveIomenl. In olher lerms,
laking on lhe resonsibiIily lo acluale lhe romises of rogress lhal cailaIism has nol slruclur-
aIIy been abIe lo mainlain. Today, lhe era in vhich sociaIism and cailaIism have mirrored one
anolher in an assumed ob|eclivily in lhe hierarchy of Iabour, lechnoIogy and roduclion, is ha-
iIy over.
nce again, onIy our behaviours can smash lhe un|usl sociaI syslem lhal ve are forced lo Iive
in and deveIo lhe maleriaI basis for equaI Iife chances and freedom. The silualion of economic
crisis is aIabIe. nce again, il is lhe IeveI of resislance lhal conlinuaIIy uls lhe forms of com-
mand under slress. There are lhose vho, nol abIe lo ay lhe morlgage, afler an iniliaI momenl of
anic reaIise lhal lhey have al Ieasl lhree years before being evicled, and lhink. There are lhose
vho never beIieved in lhe chimera of lhe slock markel and decided lo nol deosil lheir severance
ay in inveslmenl funds, desile lhe massive media and Iabour union camaigns lhal romised
Iavish earnings in lhe hnanciaI markels.
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Such behaviours--logelher vilh many olhers lhal exressed resislance and insubordinalion--ac-
quire a arlicuIar imorlance because lhey reresenl cracks in lhe imaIabIe sociaI conlroI lhal
lhe rheloric of rorielary individuaIism vas abIe lo buiId vilh lhe heI of a seudo-imaginary
sociaI cohesion, founded on meril and IoyaIly behaviours.
An imorlanl signaI vas senl in IlaIy by lhe 'AnomaIous Wave' movemenl.
4
The facl lhal lhis
movemenl made a breaklhrough regarding lhe lhemes of income and veIfare of lhe common is
hugeIy imorlanl. Il vasn'l Iimiled lo a mere lheorelicaI eIaboralion or an avanl-garde oIilicaI
osilion: lhe robIem of income became common sense in lhe emergency of sociaI comosilion
moIded by conicls over knovIedge roduclion and againsl cIass de-cIassihcalion and recari-
ousness. In lhis vay il vas de-ideoIogised, idenlifying ilseIf in concrele goaIs (for examIe lhe
demand for money, or vages, for lhe free Iabour rovided lo suorl lhe cororalisalion of lhe
universily, from inlernshis lo vocalionaI lraining rograms, lo didaclic resonsibiIilies heId by
recarious researchers). In lhe AnomaIous Wave, lhe loic of income has lherefore become a o-
IilicaI rogram vilhin lhe crisis, giving concrele meaning lo lhe sIogan 've viII nol ay for lhe
crisis'.
The crilique of knovIedge as a commerciaI roducl, lhe acknovIedgmenl lhal lhe difference
belveen lhe momenl of educalion and lhe momenl of roduclion lends lo bIur (vhich is vhere
lhe need lo remunerale educalionaI eriods comes from), lhe demand lo access maleriaI and im-
maleriaI services lhal conslilule lhe environmenl of sociaI cooeralion and generaI inleIIecl, lhe
roduclion of lhe common as a nev narralive, a nev horizon of sociaI reIalions and cooeralion,
hnaIIy goes beyond lhe 'ubIic-rivale' dicholomy: lhese are, in synlhesis, a fev rogrammalic
eIemenls lhal are exlremeIy usefuI in deIinealing a oIilicaI rocess abIe lo overlurn lhe syslemic
crisis inlo a sace of ossibiIily for aclion and roosaI.
If ve simIy Iook al lhe Luroean anorama, lhere are numerous insurgenl signaIs lhal in lhe Iasl
fev monlhs have srung u: olher lhan lhe Greek revoIl and lhe sociaI movemenls lhal svel
across lhe educalionaI seclor in Sain, Irance and Germany, ve can aIso oinl lo lhe conicluaI
lensions lhal, deaIing vilh differenl sociaI slrala, vere manifesled in Coenhagen, MaImo, Riga
and in olher Luroean melrooIises. We are deaIing vilh overlurning lhe 'communism of cailaI'
inlo lhe 'communism of generaI inleIIecl', as a Iiving force of conlemorary sociely, abIe lo de-
veIo a slruclure of commonfare and eslabIish ilseIf as an effeclive and reaI condilion of human
choice for freedom and equaIily. elveen lhe 'communism of cailaI' and lhe inslilulions of lhe
common lhere is no secuIalion or Iinear reIalion of necessily: il is, in olher lerms, aboul coIIec-
liveIy re-arorialing roduced sociaI veaIlh and deslroying lhe devices of subsumlion and
cailaIislic command in lhe ermanenl crisis. In such a rocess, lhe aulonomous roIe Iayed by
sociaI movemenls is increasingIy imorlanl, nol onIy as a oIilicaI rogram and aclion bul aIso,
and above aII, as a reference oinl for lhose sub|eclivilies, singuIarilies or segmenls of cIass lhal
are hil hardesl and defrauded by lhe crisis.
The caacily of lhe reaI subsumlion of Iife inlo vork and roduclion rocesses, lhe diffusion of
ervasive cuIluraI and symboIic imagery from eIemenls of individuaIism (beginning vilh 'ro-
rielary' individuaIism) and 'securily' measures conslrucl lhe main hinges of lhe rocess of sociaI
and cognilive conlroI of vorker and roIelarial behaviour. The achievemenl and lhe organisalion
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of an aulonomous sub|eclivily, lhal aIready Iives in lhe raclices of resislance and roduclion of a
nev cIass comosilion, are necessary condilions for lriggering conicluaI rocesses lhal are abIe
lo modify lhe currenl socioeconomic hierarchies. Irom lhis oinl of viev, aII of lhe excesses and
lhe insurgencies lhal nomadic sub|eclivilies are caabIe of achieving and animaling are veIcome.
Il is onIy in lhis vay, Iike a lhousand dros lhal meel lo form a river or a lhousand bees lhal form
a svarm, does il become ossibIe lo ul inlo molion forms of re-arorialion of veaIlh and
knovIedges, inverling lhe redislribulive dynamics, forcing lhose vho caused lhe crisis lo ay for
il, relhinking a nev slruclure of sociaI and common veIfare, imagining nev ossibiIilies of seIf-
organisalion and roduclion comalibIe vilh lhe resecl of lhe environmenl and of lhe dignily
of lhe men and vomen vho inhabil lhis Ianel.
The king has no cIolhes. The alh before us is arduous bul, reaIIy, ve have aIready begun lo vaIk
dovn il.
NOTE5
* The resenl lexl is lhe fruil of a coIIeclive
discussion lhal began vilh lhe seminar on
lhe hnanciaI crisis organised by IniNomade
in oIogna on lhe 12lh and 13lh of Selem-
ber 2OO8 and lhal sliII conlinues loday. Mar-
co ascella, Iederico Chicchi, Andrea Iuma-
gaIIi, Slefano LucareIIi, Chrislian Marazzi,
Sandro Mezzadra, Crislina Morini, Anlonio
Negri, Gigi Roggero, CarIo VerceIIone aII
arlicialed vhiIe Andrea IumagaIIi drafl-
ed lhe lexl.
TransIaled by }ason Irancis Mc Gimsey and
revised by Sabrina DeI Iico.
1
Here ve have laken lhe cilalion of Keynes
from lhe Iasl chaler of Gcncrc| 1nccrq, 'The
ovner of cailaI can oblain inleresl because
cailaI is scarce, |usl as lhe ovner of Iand
can oblain renl because Iand is scarce. ul
vhiIsl lhere may be inlrinsic reasons for lhe
scarcily of Iand, lhere are no inlrinsic rea-
sons for lhe scarcily of cailaI' and ve have
subsliluled lhe lerm 'cailaI' vilh lhe lerm
'knovIedge' and lhe lerm 'inleresl' vilh
'rohl'.
2
n lhe discussion surrounding lhe differ-
enl inlerrelalions of lhe formuIa 'Commu-
nism of cailaI', see Marazzi, SociaIismo,
155-168.
3
Here ve are refering lo lhe debale aboul
lhe inlerrelalion of basic income as a lem-
orary, mean-lesled and condilioned looI lo
hghl overly. n one side, lhere are 'ure'
IiberaIisls such as MiIlon Iriedman vho
vere in favour of a negalive income lax
hyolhesis and lhe reduclion of slale inler-
venlion (see Iriedman, Ccpiic|ism). n lhe
olher, lhere are so-caIIed IiberaIs (or sociaI-
reformisls in Luroe), Iike }.L. Meade (see
U(i(CmaUe (Cl|i(Q vi|| eve| e l|e same !/!
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Meade, Agcincpic), or Tony Alkinson (see
Alkinson, |nccmcs).
4
The AnomaIous Wave, or 'nda anomaIa'
in IlaIian, vas a sludenl movemenl lhal
broke oul in lhe faII of 2OO8 afler a massive
funding cul and organisalionaI reform lhal
lhrealens lo rivalise ubIic universilies.
Ior resources in LngIish see, hll:11edufac-
lory.org |lransIalor's nolej.
REFERENCE5
Keynes, }ohn. 1936. Gcncrc| inccrq cj cm-
p|cqmcni, inicrcsi cn! mcncq. Nev York:
IaIgrave MacmiIIan. IRL: hll:11vvv.
marxisls.org1reference1sub|ecl1eco-
nomics1keynes1generaI-lheory1ch24.
hlm |May 3O, 2OO9j.
Marazzi, Chrislian. 2OO8. SociaIismo deI
cailaIe. In Icssicc Mcrxicnc, by Aa.Vv.,
155-168. Roma: ManifesloIibri.
Iriedman, MiIlon. 1982. Ccpiic|ism cn!
jrcc!cm. Chicago: Iniversily of Chicago
Iress.
Meade, }.L. 1989. Agcincpic. 1nc cccncmics cj
pcrincrsnip. Aberdeen: Aberdeen Iniver-
sily Iress.
Alkinson, Tony. 1996. |nccmcs cn! inc uc|jcrc
sicic. Cambridge: Cambridge Iniversily
Iress.