Biology

SPARKClAR1S
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Biology page " of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
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BlDCHEmlSTRY
mENDELlAN GENETlCS
NUCLEIC ACIOS
A. DNA uccurs nust uItan us u dcub|e he||x, u slrul stulrcusa-shuad nulacula cunusad
uI twu nuclautlda chulns hydruan-bundad tu auch uthar.
. Ona uI thasa chulns ulwuys ands wlth u Iraa 3'-OH ruu, whlla tha uthar ulwuys ands
wlth u Iraa 5'-hushuta ruu.
2. Tha chulns blnd ln uusln dlractluns. tha 5' and uI una chuln ls hydruan-bundad tu
tha 3' and uI lts urtnar.
8. ln duubla-strundad DNA, udanlna hydruan-bunds tu thynlna, und uunlna hydruan-
bunds tu cytuslna.
. TharaIura, tha ruurtlun ln DNA uI udanlna ls ulwuys aquul tu thut uI thynlna, und tha
ruurtlun uI uunlna ls ulwuys aquul tu thut uI cytuslna. A = 1, C = C.
2. Thara ls ulwuys un aquul ruurtlun uI urlnas (A, C) und yrlnldlnas (C, T).
ONA REPLICATIDN
A. Ccmp|ementor|ty: Tha busa saquanca uI una chuln uI DNA cunlataly datarnlnas tha
saquanca uI lts urtnar ln tha duubla hallx. Euch chuln ls u cunlanantury nlrrur lnua uI
tha uthar (a.., tha chuln ACCCTAT nust ulr wlth tha chuln TCCCATA).
8. 5em|ccnservot|ve rep||cot|cn: AItar una
ruund uI rallcutlun, tha urllnul ulr ls
nut cunsarvad. Euch strund bacunas
urt uI u naw dulax.
. Whan u DNA nulacula rall-
cutas, lt saurutas ut una
and tu Iurn u rep||cot|cn
fcrk. Euch strund sarvas
us u tanluta Iur syntha-
sls uI u naw strund.
2. DNA pc|ymerose ls tha
anyna thut cutulyas tha rallcutlun rucass. lt nuvas ulun auch DNA strund Irun
tha 5' tu 3' dlractlun, su naw strunds ura synthaslad 5' and Irst, 3' and lust.
3. Tha laudln DNA strund ls synthaslad cuntlnuuusly.
4. Tha luln DNA strund ls synthaslad dlscuntlnuuusly ln sanants uI nuclautldas cullad
Okuukl Irunants, whlch lutar juln tuathar wlth tha hal uI DNA llusa.
GENE EXPRESSIDN [PRDTEIN SYNTHESIS]
A. kNA tronscr|pt|cn
. Tha ralun uI DNA
ancudln tha daslrad
ana ls unlad, und
tha anyna kNA pc|y-
merose culas tha
nuclautlda saquanca tu
nuka u strund uI nas-
sanar (n)RNA. Thuuh
tha twu strunds uI DNA
ura cunlanantury, unly una strund (tha temp|ote strond) ls trunscrlbad lntu nRNA.
2. Nuncudln saquancas uI nRNA cullad |ntrcns ura ranuvad, und tha ranulnln saquanc-
as, cullad excns, ura sllcad tuathar.
3. Tha nRNA lauvas tha nuclaus.
8. 1rons|ot|cn
. A rlbusuna (u cunlax uI rlbusunul (r)RNA und ru-
taln) blnds tu un nRNA trunscrlt und rauds u trllat
uI nuclautldas, cullad u ccdcn.
2. Tha rlbusuna blnds tha nutchln ont|ccdcn uI u
trunsIar (t[ kNA nulacula, whlch ls uttuchad tu u sa-
clIc unlnu ucld, lntu tha rlbusuna's A-s|te.
3. Saquantlul nRNA cuduns cull naw tRNA-unlnu uclds
lntu tha A-slta, shlItln ravluus tRNA-unlnu uclds tu
tha P-s|te, whara thay llnk tu Iurn u ulyatlda chuln
untll u "stu" cudun ls rauchad.
THE CENTRAL ODGNA
Tha rucass uI ana axrasslun/rutaln synthasls Iulluws u saclIc urdar.
A. DNA ls trunscrlbad lntu nRNA.
8. nRNA ls than trunslutad lntu rutaln.
GENE REGULATIDN
Cene regu|ot|cn |n prckoryctes: Prukuryutas huva anas urunlad ln un cpercn cuntuln-
ln ull tha anas ln u natubullc uthwuy, u runutar, und un cperotcr (un-uII swltch). Tha
uarutur cuntruls whathar RNA ulynarusa wlll blnd tu tha runutar und trunscrlba RNA. Tha
uarutur cun ba cuntrullad by buth nautlva und usltlva ana raulutlun.
A. Negot|ve gene regu|ot|cn:
. kepress|b|e cpercns ura raulutad by represscr prcte|ns (ancudad alsawhara thun
tha uarun). Thasa rutalns blnd tu tha uarutur und ravant anatlc trunscrltlun.
Ccrepresscrs rauluta tha rarassur rutalns by blndln untu un ullustarlc slta.
o. Rarasslbla uaruns Iunctlun ln unubullc uthwuys thut synthasla and ruducts Irun
sturtar rauctunts.
b. Tha and ruduct ltsalI cun uct us tha curarassur, su thut unca anuuh ruducts ura
synthaslad tha nuchlnary shuts uII.
2. |nduc|b|e cpercns ura ulsu cuntrullad by rarassur rutalns, but un |nducer blnds tu un
ullustarlc slta un tha rarassur rutaln und lnuctlvutas lt, trlarln trunscrltlun.
o. lnduclbla uaruns Iunctlun ln cutubullc uthwuys thut brauk duwn nutrlants.
b. Tha nutrlant ltsalI sunatlnas ucts us tha lnducar, such thut anynas ura unly crautad
whan thay wlll ba usad.
8. Pcs|t|ve gene regu|ot|cn:
. An uctlvutur rutaln blnds tu un uarutur und hals RNA ulynarusa uttuch tu tha ru-
nutar.
2. Mulaculas cun cuntrul tha uctlvutur by blndln tu un ullustarlc slta und uanln lts uctlva
slta, ulluwln tha uctlvutur tu blnd untu tha uarutur
Cene regu|ot|cn |n eukoryctes: Eukuryutlc ana raulutlun uccurs ut savarul lavals.
A. Mcd|hcot|cns cn chrcmot|n: Chrunutln ls u tlhtly uckad Iurn uI DNA. MudlIcutluns un
chrunutln cun ravant ur runuta trunscrltlun by ulluwln ur burrln uccass tu lndlvlduul
anas.
. DNA methy|ot|cn (tha uttuchnant uI u CH3 nathyl ruu tu DNA busas) lnhlblts anatlc
axrasslun.
2. H|stcne ocety|ot|cn (tha uddltlun uI u COCH3 ucatyl ruu tu tha DNA-blndln hlstuna
rutalns) luusans tha rl uI hlstunas un chrunutln und ulluws trunscrltlun.
8. Ccntrc| e|ements: Dlstul cuntrul alanants ("anhuncars") und ruxlnul cuntrul alanants
ura buth rutalns thut blnd tu DNA ut saclIc (nun-cudln) DNA blndln dunulns. Cuntrul
alanants uctlvuta trunscrltlun by uttuchln tu RNA ulynarusa und Iurnln u trunscrl-
tlun lnltlutlun cunlax ulun tha runutar.
C. 5terc|d hcrmcnes: Staruld hurnunas cuurdlnuta axrasslun uI nultlla ralutad anas by
blndln tu saclIc racaturs thut uctlvuta trunscrltlun ln thusa anas.
D. kegu|otcry prcte|ns: Raulutury rutalns cun cuntrul tha ruta uI darudutlun uI nRNA und
cun bluck nRNA trunslutlun by ravantln rlbusunas Irun blndln tu nRNA. Prcteostcmes
ura rutaln cunlaxas thut cun racunla und daruda rutalns, tharaby curtullln thalr
uctlvlty.
NUTATIDN
A. Pc|nt mutot|cns: Mututluns thut uIIact slnla anas thruuh u busa-ulr substltutlun, dala-
tlun, ur lnsartlun.
. Dalatluns ur lnsartluns thut ura |ut ln u nultlla uI thraa cuusa u fromesh|ft mutot|cn,
ln whlch ull duwnstraun cuduns ura ultarad.
2. Pulnt nututluns nuy huva nu aIIact, nuy lnruva ur dunua tha rutaln, nuy crauta u
nuval rutaln, ur nuy crauta u nunIunctlunul una.
8. Chrcmcscmo| mutot|cns: Mututluns thut uIIact un antlra urunlsn.
. Ncnd|sjunct|cn: An arrur ln chrunusunul dlstrlbutlun durln nalusls, whlch rasults ln
oneup|c|dy, ur unatas wlth un ubnurnul chrunusuna cuunt.
2. Pc|yp|c|dy: A nututlun ln whlch unatas cuntuln nura thun twu Iull sats uI chrunu-
sunas. Pulyluldy ls anarully lass Iutul (ur ultarln) thun unaululdy.
3. Mututluns cun ulsu uccur un lndlvlduul chrunusunas. Thasa lncluda.
o. De|et|cn: A chrunusunul Irunant ats datuchad durln call dlvlslun,
b. Dup||cot|cn: Thut suna Irunant julns lts hunuluuus chrunusuna,
c. |nvers|cn: Thut Irunant ats ralnsartad buckwurd, ur
d. 1rons|ccot|cn: Thut Irunant ats uttuchad tu u nunhunuluuus chrunusuna.
4. Tha aIIacts uI chrunusunul nututlun ura uItan Iutul ur cun rasult ln anatlc dlsausa but
ln rura cusas nuy lnruva un urunlsn's Itnass.
THE BUILOING BLDCKS DF LIFE
Fuur tyas uI mocrcmc|ecu|es (lura, curbun-busad urunlc
nulaculas) ura Iuund ln llvln urunlsns. Must ura pc|ymers-
chulns uI nulaculas thut Iurn thruuh dehydrot|cn synthes|s
(tha luss uI u wutar nulacula).
A. Corbchydrotes: Enary-stur-
ln nulaculas cuntulnln cur-
bun, hydruan, und uxyan ln u
1.2.1 rutlu. Mcncsocchor|des,
such us lucusa (CH12O), ura
slnla-suur subunlts uItan
Iuund us rlns. D|socchor|des
huva twu nunusucchurlda
subunlts. Pc|ysocchor|des,
such us sturch, lycuan, und
callulusa, ura lun chulns uI
suurs.
8. L|p|ds: Hydrucurbun-busad nulaculas thut ura hydrcphcb|c-
lnsulubla ln wutar. Thara ura thraa rlnury Iunlllas uI lllds.
. Fots: Lura, anary-sturln nulaculas, auch bullt Irun
twu cununants.
o. Ona nulacula uI g|ycerc|, u thraa-curbun ulcuhul.
b. Thraa fotty oc|ds, lun hydrucurbun chulns thut uttuch
tu tha lycarul buckbuna. (Hanca, Iuts ura ulsu cullad
tr|g|ycer|des.)
2. 5terc|ds: Fuur Iusad-hydrucurbun rlns, such us chulastarul.
3. Phcsphc||p|ds: Clycarul wlth twu Iutty uclds und u hus-
huta ruu uttuchad (Iuund ln nanbrunas).
C. Prcte|ns: Lun ulynar chulns cullad pc|ypept|des bullt
Irun om|nc oc|d subunlts llnkad by pept|de bcnds. Evary
unlnu ucld cuntulns u cantrul curbun wlth un unlnu ruu
(NH2), u curbuxyl ruu (COOH), hydruan (H), und una uI 20
slda ruus (R) thut daIna tha uttrlbutas uI tha unlnu ucld.
D. Nuc|e|c oc|ds: Pulynars uI
nuc|ect|des thut ancuda
anatlc lnIurnutlun. Thara
ura twu Iurns. decxyr|-
bcnuc|e|c oc|d (DNA[ und
r|bcnuc|e|c oc|d (kNA[.
lndlvlduul nuclautldas ura
llnkad by hushudlastar
bunds und cuntuln thraa
buslc urts.
. Phcsphote grcup
2. F|ve-corbcn sugor:
dauxyrlbusa ln DNA,
rlbusa ln RNA.
3. Ona uI Iuur n|trcgencus boses:
o. Aden|ne und guon|ne, duubla-rlnad pur|nes.
b. 1hym|ne und cytcs|ne slnla-rlnad pyr|m|d|nes.
c. RNA cuntulns tha yrlnldlna uroc|| lnstaud uI thynlna.
THERNDOYNANICS
Tha hrst |ow cf thermcdynom|cs stutas thut anary ls navar cra-
utad ur dastruyad, unly trunsIurnad. Tha seccnd |ow cf thermc-
dynom|cs stutas thut antruy, ur rundunnass, ls ulwuys lncraus-
ln. Evary trunsIurnutlun uI anary crautas rautar dlsurdar.
Blululcul llIa survlvas by ralyln uun hlh-ylald anary suurcas
(such us sulur rudlutlun) tu Iual llIa rucassas baIura ralausln thut
suna anary us slnlar, luw-ylald and ruducts (such us haut).
FREE ENERGY CHANGE
All chanlcul rauctluns lnvulva u chonge |n free energy, C.
xergcn|c rauctluns ralausa Iraa anary (C ls nautlva) und ura
suntunauus. ndergcn|c rauctluns ubsurb Iraa anary (C ls
usltlva) und ura nun-suntunauus. Tha oct|vot|cn energy uI u
rauctlun raIars tu tha anary raqulrad tu lnltluta tha rauctlun.
ENZYNES
nzymes ura blululcul cutulysts, rutalns cuubla uI saadln
chanlcul rauctluns wlthuut baln cunsunad. Enynas luwar
tha uctlvutlun anary uI u rauctlun (but du nut uIIact C, tha
Iraa anary chuna). Tha substrote blnds tu tha anyna's
oct|ve s|te ln un lnducad It, ln whlch tha anyna chunas lts
shua tu wru ltsalI uruund tha substruta. Enynutlc uctlvlty
cun ba uctlvutad ur lnhlbltad by uthar nulaculas.
A. Ccfoctcrs: Suna anynas raqulra lnurunlc cuIucturs ur
urunlc cuanynas tu rauct.
8. Ccmpet|t|ve |nh|b|tcrs: Nun-substruta nulaculas thut bluck
tha anyna's uctlva slta.
C. Ncnccmpet|t|ve |nh|b|tcrs: Blnd tu un o||cster|c s|te (racatur
slta uwuy Irun tha uctlva slta) und chuna tha anyna's ccn-
fcrmot|cno| shope su thut lt nu lunar uccats tha substruta.
D. Act|votcrs: Flt lntu un ullustarlc slta und uan tha anyna's
uctlva slta.
. Feedbock |nh|b|t|cn: Hults anynutlc uctlvlty by un and
ruduct thut ullustarlcully lnhlblts Iurnutlun uI un lntarnadl-
uta ruduct.
F. Cccperot|v|ty: Occurs whan u substruta blnds tu un uctlva
slta, uanln uddltlunul uctlva sltas.
CDN1|NUD DN D1Hk 5|D
CELLULAR RESPlRATlDN
Ce||u|or resp|rot|cn |s lh c||u|or procss ol ox|d|z|ng
g|ucos lo oblo|n nrgy |n lh lorm ol odencs|ne
tr|phcsphote (A1P[.
GLYCDLYSIS
C|ycc|ys|s ls tha uldast natubullc uthwuy, usad by ull calls,
und u racursur tu buth tha uarublc und unuarublc raslrutury
uthwuys. Clyculysls uccurs ln tha cytulusn. Tha slx-curbun
suur g|uccse ls darudad tu Iurn twu nulaculas uI thraa-cur-
bun yruvuta, rasultln ln twu NADH und twu nat ATP.
FERNENTATIDN
ln tha ubsanca uI uxyan, raslrutlun rallas un lyculysls tu
ruduca ATP ln un unarublc rucass cullad fermentot|cn. Thls
rucass usas un urunlc nulacula tu uccat tha alactrun Irun
NADH und raIurn NAD
+
Iur lyculysls tu run uuln. Much anar-
y ranulns ln bunds uI and-ruducts, such us athunul ur luctlc
ucld. Thara ura thraa tyas uI Iarnantutlun.
A. Hcmc|oct|c: Buctarlu cunvarts yruvuta lntu luctlc ucld.
8. A|cchc||c: Yaust und buctarlu cunvart yruvuta lntu athunul
und CO2.
C. Heterc|oct|c: Orunlsns ruduca luctlc ucld us wall us
uthar uclds und ulcuhuls.
DXIOATIVE RESPIRATIDN
lI uxyan ls rasant, lyculysls lauds tu oercb|c resp|rot|cn,
whlch ruducas u nat tutul uI 3 ATP ar nulacula uI lucusa.
A. Dx|dot|cn cf pyruvote: Curbun dluxlda sllts uII Irun yru-
vuta tu ruduca ucatyl-CuA und NADH.
8. C|tr|c oc|d cyc|e ( Krebs cyc|e[: Balns wlth ucatyl-CuA juln-
ln uxuluucatlc ucld tu Iurn cltrlc ucld, whlch ls uxldlad
tu CO2, ylaldln ATP, NADH, und FADH2. Oxuluucatlc ucld ls
raanarutad Iur unuthar cycla. Occurs ln tha nltuchundrlu
uI aukuryutas und tha cytulusn uI uarublc rukuryutas.
C. Chem|csmct|c (cx|dot|ve[ phcsphcry|ot|cn: ln nltuchun-
drlu, alactruns Irun NADH und FADH2 Iuw thruuh un e|ec-
trcn tronspcrt cho|n Irun hlh tu luw anary stutas thruuh
anary-ralausln stas, astubllshln un alactruchanlcul
rutun rudlant ucruss tha lnnar nanbruna uI nltuchun-
drlu. O2 uccats tha alactruns tu Iurn wutar. ATP ls syn-
thaslad whan H
+
luns dlIIusa buck ucruss tha nanbruna
thruuh anbaddad rutalns.
CELL REPRDDUCTlDN
DNA |s lh c||'s gnl|c molr|o|, chrcmcscmes or
lh corr|rs ol lh|s gnl|c |nlormol|on. |n pro|oryols,
lh chromosom |s o s|ng| c|rc| ol 0N/. |n u|oryols,
och chromosom |s o comp|x ol 0N/ ond h|slon
prol|ns lound |n lh nuc|us.
BINARY FISSIDN
Prukuryutlc calls raruduca vlu b|nory hss|cn. ln thls rucass,
DNA ls rallcutad, und tha call sllts ln twu ruuhly aquul urts,
auch wlth u cuy uI tha call's DNA.
EUKARYDTIC CELL CYCLE
Eukuryutlc calls raruduca vlu tha crautlun uI twu ldantlcul dl-
luld calls Irun una d|p|c|d call. Dlluld (2N) raIars tu tha tutul
nunbar uI chrunusunas ln uutusunul (nunsaxuul) calls.
A. |nterphose: Tha arlud batwaan nltutlc dlvlsluns durln whlch
chrunusunas ura nut vlslbla, cunrlsad uI thraa husas.
. C phose: Mujur arlud uI call ruwth.
2. 5 phose: Chrunusuna rallcutlun tukas luca, ruducln
ulrs uI slstar chrunutlds (ldantlcul chrunusunas) thut
ura auch cunnactad by u cantrunara.
3. C2 phose: Synthasls uI call nuchlnary ln raurutlun Iur
call dlvlslun.
8. M|tcs|s ( M[ phose: Tha dlvlslun uI anatlc nutarlul und cal-
lulur cuntants.
. Prcphose: Rallcutad chrunusunas cundansa. 5p|nd|e
Iurns ulun call aquutur. Nuclaur anvalua brauks duwn,
slndla nlcrutubulas antar nuclaur ralun, avantuully
uttuchln tu cantrunaras uI chrunusunas.
2. Metophose: Chrunusunas ulln ulun call aquutur cullad
tha metophose p|ote but du nut yat sarauta tu uuslta
ulas. Cantrunaras dlvlda, Iraaln slstar chrunutlds.
3. Anophose: Slstar chrunutlds sauruta tu uuslta ulas.
4. 1e|cphose: Chrunusunas uncull ut uuslta ands und
bacuna anclusad by u raIurnad nuclaur anvalua.
C. Cytck|nes|s: Physlcul dlvlslun uI tha cytulusn lntu twu
duuhtar calls.
NEIDSIS
Malusls ruducas Iuur hop|c|d nuclal cullad gometes Irun u slnla
dlluld call. Hululd (N) ls hulI uI tha dlluld nunbar. ln |nterphose,
chrunusunas ura rallcutad und ulln ln hcmc|cgcus po|rs. Euch
ulr cuntulns u nutarnul und utarnul hunuluua lnharltad Irun
tha ravluus anarutlun. An lnurtunt cunsaquanca uI nalusls ls
thut tha gencmes ura m|xed und reccmb|ned.
A. Me|cs|s |:
. Prcphose |: Crcss|ng-cver uccurs, un uvarlu batwaan
hunuluuus chrunusunas ut x-shuad juncturas cullad
ch|osmoto und u rasultunt axchuna uI nutarlul.
2. Metophose |: Slndla Iurns, julnad hunuluuus ulrs
llna u ut tha cantar uI tha call.
3. Anophose |: Slndla shurtans, chlusnutu brauk uurt, nutar-
nul/utarnul chrunusunas druad tu uuslta ulas.
4. 1e|cphose |: Chrunusunas ura sat u ut auch ula, naw
hululd nuclal Iurn.
8. Me|cs|s ||: Prucaads us u nltutlc dlvlslun, wlth auch duuhtar
call Irun nalusls l sllttln lntu twu hululd unatas.
CELL CYCLE REGULATIDN
Calls dlvlda ln urdar tu nulntuln u surfoce-tc-vc|ume rot|c su
thut tha call hus anuuh surIuca urau tu ubsurb nutrlants und
axal wustas ralutlva tu lts vuluna.
A. Tha call cycla ls raulutad lntarnully by checkpc|nts ut tha
C1, C2, und M husas. Tha chackulnts hult call dlvlslun untll
uvarrlddan (a.., whan tha M chackulnt hults unuhusa
untll tha slstar chrunutlds ura ruarly ullnad).
. Cyc||n-dependent k|noses (anynutlc cunlaxas thut
uctlvuta anynas rasunslbla Iur call dlvlslun) rauluta tha
chackulnts, uctlvutln anynas by hushurylutln than
(chunln thalr shua und uanln thalr uctlva sltas).
2. Tha klnusas ura ln turn raulutad by cyc||n, u rutaln ras-
ant ln tha calls ut vurlubla (cyclln) cuncantrutluns.
8. Extarnul slnuls cun ulsu rauluta call dlvlslun.
. Crcwth foctcrs ura rutalns thut urllnuta ln una call
tya und runuta dlvlslun ln unuthar call tya.
2. Dens|ty-dependent |nh|b|t|cn stus calls Irun dlvldln unca
thay rauch u cartuln danslty uvar u lvan surIuca urau.
3. Anchcroge dependence ravants calls Irun dlvldln
unlass thay uttuch tu saclIc surIucas.
C. Concer ce||s ura calls thut lnura call cycla raulutluns und
dlvlda unchackad.
|vry ||v|ng orgon|sm |s mod up ol ce||s, wh|ch or lh
|owsl |v| ol slruclur copob| ol prlorm|ng o|| lh
ocl|v|l|s ol ||l. /|| c||s or|s lrom prx|sl|ng c||s.
CELLULAR PRECURSDRS
Cundltluns un tha aurly Eurth ulluwad Iur tha spcntonecus
ob|ct|c synthes|s uI urunlc cunuunds. Thls synthasls wuuld
huva raqulrad un obsence cf otmcspher|c cxygen, bacuusa
uxyan nuturully brauks duwn cunuunds und bacuusa tha
uuna (O3) luyar tuduy blucks tha lntansa Uv rudlutlun thut
Iualad such synthasls.
A. Prctcb|cnts (cullactluns uI ublutlcully synthaslad urunlc
cunuunds) Iurnad suntunauusly us tha racursurs tu
calls. Prutublunts such us ccocervotes (cullactluns uI nuc-
runulaculas thut ussanbla suntunauusly whan shukan ln
wutar), m|crcspheres (cullactluns uI rutanulds), und ||pc-
scmes (nulaculas wlthln u llld blluyar) cun cunblna lntu
lurar calls ur bud lntu snullar unas, und cun usa anynas
tu cutulya rauctluns.
8. Tha anasls uI kNA, wlth lts cuuclty tu uct us buth u cutu-
lyst und u haradlty bluarlnt, wuuld huva uvad tha wuy Iur
tha Irst raul calls.
CELL STRUCTURE
A. Ce|| membrone: Sarvas us un axtarnul burrlar und anclusas
crgone||es.
. Tha buslc unlt ls u phcsphc||p|d mc|ecu|e, wlth u ulur
hushuta ruu us lts hydruhlllc haud und twu nun-
ulur Iutty ucld chulns us hydruhublc tulls.
2. lndlvlduul hushulllds Iurn u Iuld phcsphc||p|d b||oyer,
wlth hydruhlllc hauds Iucln uut und hydruhublc tulls
Iucln ln tu Iurn u nunulur una thut saurutas tha
wutary call lntarlur Irun tha axtrucallulur anvlrunnant.
3. Call nanbrunas ura sem|permeob|e, ulluwln ussua uI
usas, lllds, und snull ulur nulaculas but |ut churad
nulaculas (luns und rutalns) ur lura ulur nulaculas.
8. Membrone prcte|ns: Prutaln nulaculas anbaddad ln tha
blluyar thut t|J|su|t nulaculas unubla tu cruss tha nan-
bruna lndaandantly, Jss|st ln blululcully lnurtunt rauc-
tluns, und ||te|Jct wlth nanbrunas uI nalhburln calls.
C. Cytcp|osm: SanlIuld nadlun cullad cytcsc| und ull tha urun-
allas lnslda tha lusnu nanbruna but uutslda tha nuclaus.
D. Cytcske|etcn: A systan uI rutaln Ilunants ln tha cytu-
lusn, lncludln m|crctubu|es und m|crch|oments, thut
lvas tha call shua und hals dlract nuvanant.
. k|bcscmes: Prutalns thut wurk wlth RNA tu synthasla uly-
atldas.
F. Chc|esterc|: Tya uI sterc|d (llld wlth u curbun skalatun uI Iuur
Iusad rlns) thut ucts us racursur tu nuny unlnul hurnunas. lt
stublllas tha llld blluyar uI unlnul calls, ravantln sulldlIcu-
tlun ut luw tanaruturas und Iuldlty ut hlh tanaruturas.
TYPES DF CELLS
CELLS DF EUKARYDTES
ukoryctes lncluda nultlcallulur lunts und unlnuls und suna
unlcallulur rutlsts. Thalr calls cuntuln nanbruna-buund
crgone||es, auch uI whlch arIurns saclIc Iunctluns und
lncrausas aIIclancy.
A. Nuc|eus: Manbruna-buund sturua slta uI anatlc lnIurnutlun
thut datarnlnas haradlty und dlracts tha uctlvltlas uI u call.
8. M|tcchcndr|o: Duubla-nanbrunad uwar lunt uI tha call
und tha lucutlun uI uarublc raslrutlun.
C. 5mccth/rcugh endcp|osm|c ret|cu|um ( 5k/kk[: Natwurk
uI nanbrunas whara lllds und rutalns ura synthaslad.
Ruuh ER ls cuvarad wlth rlbusunas.
D. Cc|g| opporotus: Orunalla thut uckuas und axurts ru-
talns und lllds ruducad ln tha ER.
. Ves|c|es: Sucs ln whlch substuncas ura trunsurtad ur sturad.
F. Lyscscmes: vaslclas uI dlastlva anynas thut daruda uld
callulur cununants.
C. P|ont ce||s cuntuln savarul uddltlunul cununants.
. Ch|crcp|osts: Sltas uI hutusynthasls. Cuntuln chluru-
hyll (u raan lnant) und huva u duubla nanbruna.
2. Vocuc|e: vaslcla usad tu stura wutar, rutalns, und wustas.
3. Ce|| wo||: Rlld callulusa luyar uruund tha call nanbruna.
CELLS DF PRDKARYDTES
Prckoryctes lncluda tha slnlast unlcallulur urunlsns und aurll-
ast calls tu avulva (bocter|o). Mujur dlIIarancas Irun aukuryutas.
A. Canatlc nutarlul Iuuts ln
tha cytulusn ln u cun-
cantrutad but unbuundad
ralun cullad tha nuc|ec|d.
8. Thara ura nu nanbruna-
buund urunallas.
CELL TRANSPDRT
PASSIVE NECHANISNS [RLOLlRL lO LlLROY]
A. D|ffus|cn: Mulaculas nuva Iraaly ucruss u nanbruna tu bul-
unca u cuncantrutlun rudlant, Irun raluns uI hlh tu luw
cuncantrutlun. DlIIuslun uI wutar ls cullad csmcs|s.
8. Foc|||toted d|ffus|cn: Mulaculas cruss un lnarnaubla ur
sanlarnaubla nanbruna duwn thalr cuncantrutlun rudl-
ant but nust du su vlu saclul chunnals.
ACTIVE NECHANISNS [RLOLlRL LlLROY]
A. Act|ve tronspcrt: Trunsurt uI nulaculas Irun luw tu hlh
cuncantrutluns ucruss u nanbruna usln un anary-daan-
dant trunsurt rutaln.
8. ndccytcs|s: Envaluln uI un axtarlur substunca wlthln u
nanbrunuus vaslcla Iur udnlsslun tu tha call lntarlur.
. P|nccytcs|s: Enducytusls uI dlssulvad llquld nulaculas.
2. Phogccytcs|s: Enducytusls uI undlssulvad sulld nuttar.
C. xccytcs|s: Extruslun uI nutarlul Irun u call by dlschura
Irun vaslclas ut tha call surIuca.
CELLS [oontinued]
NENOEL'S SECDNO LAW [LAv Ol llLLPLlLLl1 ASSOR1lLl1]
A. Mandal ulsu cunductad savarul nultl-trult (d|hy-
br|d) crussas, ln whlch ha crussad aus thut wara
hataruyuus Iur twu anas.
8. ln auch cusa, ha ubsarvad u .3.3.1 hanutya
rutlu und cuncludad thut anas lucutad un dlIIarant
chrunusunas Jssu|t ||Jee|Je|t|y uI una unuthar.
GENETICS
A. Cenctype: Tha anas un lndlvlduul hus.
8. Phenctype: Tha hyslcul uaurunca uI un lndl-
vlduul.
8. |nccmp|ete dcm|nonce: sunatlnas hataruyuus
anutyas rasult ln hanutyas thut du nut ra-
clsaly rasanbla una urant.
. Phanutya ls lntarnadluta batwaan tha twu urantul hanutyas (|nccmp|ete dcm|-
nonce).
2. Phanutya rasanblas hunuyuus dunlnunt, but ls stlll dlstlnulshubla Irun lt (port|o|
dcm|nonce).
3. Buth urantul hanutyas cun ba ldantlIad ln tha uIIsrln (ccdcm|nonce).
C. P|e|ctrcpy: lnstunca whan u ana ruducas nura thun una hanutylc aIIact.
D. 5ex chrcmcscmes: SaclIc chrunusunas thut dlctuta tha sax uI cartuln urunlsns (tha
ranulnln chrunusunas ura cullad outcscmes).
. ln hununs, thara ura twu sax chrunusunas, X und .
o. Mo|es ussass una auch uI X und Y chrunusunas.
b. Femo|es ussass twu X chrunusunas.
2. 5ex-||nked |nher|tonce: ln hununs, u nula axrassas ull trults unlqua tu tha X chrunu-
suna ha lnharlts Irun hls nuthar. Mulas ura uIIlctad wlth X-||nked d|scrders bacuusa
thara ls nu cuuntarurt un tha Y chrunusuna tu axrass tha Iunctlunul ullala.
Cenet|cs |s lh sludy ol lh hrd|ly ol orgon|sms. /
gene |s lh bos|c un|l ol hrd|ly, on o||e|e |s on ol
lwo or mor o|lrnol|v lorms ol o spc|lc gn.
INTRDOUCTIDN
A. Untll tha 20th cantury, sclantlsts ballavad thut trults Irun
tha urants wuuld bland ln tha uIIsrln (a.., u tull Iuthar
und shurt nuthar rasults ln u chlld uI nadlun halht).
Evantuully, ull nanbars uI u saclas wuuld luuk tha suna.
8. Cregcr Mende|, by crussln dlIIarant strulns uI urdan aus
und unulyln tha rasults, crautad tha anatlc thaury stlll
usad tuduy.
NENOEL'S FIRST LAW [LAv Ol SLORLOA1lOl]
A. 5|ng|e-tro|t crcsses: Mandal tuuk twu dlIIarant strulns uI trua-
braadln au lunts, una wlth raan
aus und una wlth yalluw aus, und
crussad than. ln nudarn tarns, thls
mcnchybr|d crcss usad hcmczy-
gcus lunts, huvln tha suna ullala
lnharltad Irun auch urant.
. Tha Irst-anarutlun lunts, F1,
wara heterczygcus (huvln lnhar-
ltad twu dlIIarant ullalas uI u ana)
but shuwad unly una trult. Thls
uccurrad bacuusa tha dcm|nont o||e|e datarnlnas tha ha-
nutya ln hataruyutas by nuskln tha recess|ve o||e|e.
2. Than, Mandal crussad twu F1 lunts. 3/4 uI tha lunts
ln F2, tha sacund anarutlun uI au lunts, shuwad tha
dunlnunt trult, 1/4 shuwad tha racasslva.
8. Frun thasa rasults, Mandal cuna u wlth thraa ustulutas.
. Altarnutlva Iurns uI u trult ura cuntrullad by J|lle|e|t
J||e|es uI tha ana rasunslbla Iur thut trult.
2. Whan gometes (hululd raruductlva calls) Iurn ln dl-
luld lndlvlduuls, tha twu ultarnutlva ullalas Iur u ana se-
|eJte Irun auch uthar.
3. Evary unata hus un euJ| c|J|ce uI racalvln althar
nanbar uI un ullala ulr.
mENDELlAN GENETlCS [oontinued]
mDLECULAR GENETlCS
CELLS
SPARKClAR1S
"
Biology page P of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
SPARKClAR1S
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SPARKClAR1S
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BlDCHEmlSTRY
mENDELlAN GENETlCS
NUCLEIC ACIOS
bunds tu cytuslna.
ONA REPLICATIDN
urt uI u naw dulax.
. Tha ralun uI DNA
ancudln tha daslrad
ana ls unlad, und
tha anyna kNA pc|y-
merose culas tha
sanar (n)RNA. Thuuh
8. 1rons|ot|cn
THE CENTRAL ODGNA
GENE REGULATIDN
sturtar rauctunts.
nutar.
anas.
axrasslun.
uctlvlty.
NUTATIDN
tlun, ur lnsartlun.
suurs.
twu cununants.
tr|g|ycer|des.)
buslc urts.
. Phcsphote grcup
dauxyrlbusa ln DNA,
rlbusa ln RNA.
THERNDOYNANICS
FREE ENERGY CHANGE
ENZYNES
uctlva slta.
uta ruduct.
tr|phcsphote (A1P[.
GLYCDLYSIS
FERNENTATIDN
NADH und raIurn NAD
+
und CO2.
thaslad whan H
+
CELL REPRDDUCTlDN
BINARY FISSIDN
call dlvlslun.
lulur cuntants.
duuhtar calls.
NEIDSIS
A. Me|cs|s |:
hululd nuclal Iurn.
dlvlda unchackad.
CELLULAR PRECURSDRS
CELL STRUCTURE
crgone||es.
atldas.
TYPES DF CELLS
CELLS DF EUKARYDTES
callulur cununants.
buund urunallas.
CELL TRANSPDRT
CELLS [oontinued]
GENETICS
vlduul.
nonce).
dcm|nonce).
INTRDOUCTIDN
usad tuduy.
mDLECULAR GENETlCS
CELLS
SPARKClAR1S
"
Biology page B of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
SPARKClAR1S
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SPARKClAR1S
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8
BlDCHEmlSTRY
mENDELlAN GENETlCS
NUCLEIC ACIOS
bunds tu cytuslna.
ONA REPLICATIDN
urt uI u naw dulax.
. Tha ralun uI DNA
ancudln tha daslrad
ana ls unlad, und
tha anyna kNA pc|y-
merose culas tha
sanar (n)RNA. Thuuh
8. 1rons|ot|cn
THE CENTRAL ODGNA
GENE REGULATIDN
sturtar rauctunts.
nutar.
anas.
axrasslun.
uctlvlty.
NUTATIDN
tlun, ur lnsartlun.
suurs.
twu cununants.
tr|g|ycer|des.)
buslc urts.
. Phcsphote grcup
dauxyrlbusa ln DNA,
rlbusa ln RNA.
THERNDOYNANICS
FREE ENERGY CHANGE
ENZYNES
uctlva slta.
uta ruduct.
tr|phcsphote (A1P[.
GLYCDLYSIS
FERNENTATIDN
NADH und raIurn NAD
+
und CO2.
thaslad whan H
+
CELL REPRDDUCTlDN
BINARY FISSIDN
call dlvlslun.
lulur cuntants.
duuhtar calls.
NEIDSIS
A. Me|cs|s |:
hululd nuclal Iurn.
dlvlda unchackad.
CELLULAR PRECURSDRS
CELL STRUCTURE
crgone||es.
atldas.
TYPES DF CELLS
CELLS DF EUKARYDTES
callulur cununants.
buund urunallas.
CELL TRANSPDRT
CELLS [oontinued]
GENETICS
vlduul.
nonce).
dcm|nonce).
INTRDOUCTIDN
usad tuduy.
mDLECULAR GENETlCS
CELLS
SPARKClAR1S
"
Biology page 4 of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
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DNA TECHNDLDGY
EVDLUTlDN AND DlVERSlTY
PDPULATlDN GENETlCS
CLASSlFYlNG DRGANlSmS: THE THREE-DDmAlN SYSTEm
CLASSlFYlNG DRGANlSmS: THE THREE-DDmAlN SYSTEm [oontinued]
PLANTS
HUmAN DRGAN SYSTEmS
VlRUSES
ECDLDGY AND THE BlDSPHERE
HUmAN DRGAN SYSTEmS [oontinued]
tunt nutrlants und sacratlun uI tuxlc sulutas. Tha Iunctlunul
unlt uI u kldnay ls tha nephrcn. Bluud antars tha nahrun ln u
nuss uI culllurlas cullad tha g|cmeru|us, whlch Iltars nula-
culas uut uI tha bluud und lntu tha 8cwmon's copsu|e. Tha Il-
tarad nutarlul than ussas thruuh tha |ccp cf Hen|e, tha slta
uI sacratlun und raubsurtlun. Tha Iltarad bluud cullactlvaly
axlts tha kldnay thruuh tha ranul valns, wustas rucaad tu u
cullactln duct ut auch nahrun. Thasa ducts uss tha urlna
lntu tha ureters, tubas thut axlt tha kldnay und stura urlna ln
tha b|odder, whara lt wults tu ba axcratad.
REPRDOUCTIVE SYSTEN
Tha nula testes ura cuntulnad ln tha scrutun, u suc uutslda tha
budy wull whara tanaruturas ura cuular thun tha lntarnul budy.
5perm Iurn ln tha tastas und uss tu tha ep|d|dym|s, u tuba ln
whlch tha sarn bacuna cuubla uI Iartlllutlun und nublllty.
Sarn axlt tha aldldynls thruuh tha vos deferens, u tuba thut
julns wlth tha sem|no| ves|c|es. Tha sanlnul vaslclas cuntrlbuta
sacratluns thut crauta semen, u nutrlant- und anyna-rlch Iuld
cuntulnln tha sarn. Sanan axlts thruuh tha ejocu|otcry duct
und ust tha nula urethro und lntu tha Ianula vog|no. Euch a
ruws ln tha Ianula cvor|es wlthln u fc|||c|e, u nuurlshln call.
Evary nunth, una a call axlts tha Iulllcla und cun ba Iartll-
lad by u nula sarn call. Tha Iulllcla tlssua Iurns u nuss ln tha
uvury cullad tha ccrpus |uteum, whlch sacratas tha hurnunas
thut llna tha utarus durln ranuncy. Tha a ussas thruuh
tha cv|duct, u tuba thut lauds tu tha uterus. Tha a than ludas
ltsalI wlthln tha wulls uI tha utarus. A p|ocento Iurns, whlch cun-
nacts tha Iatus wlth tha nuthar thruuh un umb|||co| ccrd und
ulluws Iur dlract nuurlshnant, us axchuna, und wusta ranuvul
batwaan tha Iatus und tha nuthar's bluudstraun.
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cullad hyphoe wlth call wulls nuda uI chltln, u lusnu nan-
bruna, und aukuryutlc urunallas, 2. dlvlsluns batwaan hyhua
cullad septo, whlch sauruta hyhua lntu calls but ulsu ulluw
tha ussua uI urunallas Irun call tu call, 3. nultlla hyhua
urunlad lntu u natwurk cullad u myce||um.
Zygcmyccto: Tarrastrlul dacunusars thut huva suras
raslstunt tu hursh anvlrunnantul chunas. xomp|es: 1.
braud nuld, 2. nycurrhlua (synblusls batwaan u Iunus und
tha ruuts uI lunts, ln whlch tha Iunus ubsurbs nlnaruls thut
lt ussas tu tha ruuts ln axchuna Iur suurs Irun tha lunt).
Asccmyccto: Tarrastrlul und uquutlc dacunusars thut Iurn
suras ln osc| (whlch luuk llka sucs) und huva lura Irultln
budlas cullad oscccorps thut ralausa tha uscl. xomp|es: 1.
truIIas, 2. Irult nulds, 3. llchans (synblusls batwaan u Iunus
und un ulua), 4. suna yausts und ulsu suna nycurrhlua.
8os|d|cmyccto: Club-shuad, saxuully-raruducln dacun-
usars thut huva lura Irultln budlas cullad bos|d|ccorps.
xomp|es: 1. nushruuns, 2. suna yausts.
KINGODN PLANTAE
Mutlcallulur aukuryutas chuructarlad (wlth suna axcatluns) by
phctcsynthet|c nutr|t|cn. Fu| c|Jss|lcJt|u|, see Plunts, |ext Je.
KINGODN ANINALIA
Multlcallulur aukuryutas chuructarlad by |ngest|ve nutr|t|cn,
anarully raruduca saxuully. All unlnuls ura ballavad tu huva
urllnutad Irun u slnla ruanltur.
Mojcr cr|ter|o fcr on|mo| c|oss|hcot|cn
A. Porozco vs. eumetozco
. Porozco luck trua tlssuas, auch call ls buslcully nudulur.
2. umetozco huva trua tlssuas (l.a., saclullutlun uI calls
by Iunctlun).
8. kod|oto vs. b||oter|o
. kod|oto huva rod|o| symmetry, l.a., huva u tu und u but-
tun, but budlas ura shuad llka clrclas wlthuut u Irunt ur
u buck and. Huva unly twc germ |oyers (anbryunlc call
luyars thut u un tu cunstltuta udult tlssuas). un actu-
darn und un andudarn.
2. 8||oter|o huva b||otero| symmetry, l.a., huva dursul (tu),
vantrul (buttun), untarlur (Irunt), und ustarlur (buck)
sldas. Ara chuructarlad by cepho||zot|cn (sansury uruns
Iuca tha untarlur and). Huva three germ |oyers (lncludln
u nasudarn batwaan tha actudarn und andudarn).
C. Acce|cmotes vs. pseudccce|cmotes vs. cce|cmotes
. Acce|cmotes huva nc bcdy cov|ty saurutln tha dlas-
tlva truct Irun tha rast uI tha budy.
2. Pseudccce|cmotes huva u s|mp|e bcdy cov|ty, but lt ls
nut cunlataly llnad by nasudarnul tlssua.
3. Cce|cmotes huva u bcdy cov|ty cunlataly llnad wlth
nasudarnul tlssua thut susands tha dlastlva truct und
lntarnul uruns ln Iuld.
D. Prctcstcmes vs. deutercstcmes
. Prctcstcmes huva anbryunlc calls thut dlvlda ln uttarn
knuwn us sp|ro| c|eovoge. Calls ura determ|note (l.a.,
auch dlvldln call hus u saclIc Iuta ln Iurnln tha udult
budy). Durln anbryunlc clauvua, tha mcuth ls Iurnad
Irun tha b|ostcspcre (anbryunlc callulur lnIuldln).
2. Deutercstcme anbryunlc calls dlvlda ln uttarn uI rod|o|
c|eovoge. Calls ura |ndeterm|note (l.a., auch call, lI sau-
rutad, cuuld Iurn lts uwn anbryu). Durln anbryunlc
clauvua, tha onus ls Iurnad Irun tha blustuura.
An|mo| phy|o
Phy|um Pcr|fero (spcnges[: 5ess||e (uttuchad by u busa) sus-
anslun Iaadars wlth nu trua tlssuas ur uruns. 5pcngccce|
(cantrul cuvlty) druws ln wutar thruuh cscu|um (lura
hula), Iuud ls slhunad uut. Amcebccytes dlast Iuud, curry
nutrlants tu uthar calls.
Phy|um Cn|dor|o ( seo onemcnes, je||yhsh[: Huva u sucllka
budy lun wlth u slnla uanln us buth nuuth und unus.
Pc|yps ura sasslla wlth nuuths Iucln u, medusos ura
Iraa-Iuutln wlth nuuths Iucln duwn. Buth huva cn|doe,
urunallas thut shuut uII nemotccysts (stlnln burbs).
Phy|um Ctencphcro (ccmb je|||es[: Slnllur ln uaurunca tu
cnldurluns, nunad Iur cunbllka lutas uI clllu usad Iur nutlun.
Tantuclas huva cc||cb|osts (stlcky thrauds Iur cuturln Iuud).
Phy|um P|otyhe|m|nthes ( otwcrms[: Cun ba tarrastrlul ur
nurlna, suna ura urusltlc. Huva trua nuscla tlssua but, llka
rudlutu, huva unly una dlastlva truct uanln thut sarvas us
buth nuuth und unus. xomp|es: lunurlu, tuawurns.
Phy|um kct|fero (rct|fers[: Tlny nultlcallulur urunlsns wlth u
dlastlva truct thut hus twu uanlns (nuuth und unus). Huva u
whaal-llka cruwn uI clllu ut tha nuuth, usad tu suck ln wutar.
Phy|um Nemotcdo (rcundwcrms[: Wurns wlthuut sa-
nants. Cuvarad wlth u rutactlva cutlcla. Raruduca saxu-
ully, wlth lntarnul Iartlllutlun uI as. Nu clrculutury systan,
su nutrlants trunsurtad thruuh Iuld uI tha sauducualun.
Phy|um Nemerteo (prcbcsc|s cr r|bbcn wcrms[: Acualunuta
but huva u Iull dlastlva truct und clusad clrculutury systan.
Cutura ray usln u Iuld-Illad suc thut uarutas u rubuscls.
Phy|o 8ryczco, Phcrcn|do, 8roch|cpcdo ( |cphcphcrotes[:
Sasslla uquutlc susanslun Iaadars wlth luhuhuras, Iuld
uI clllutad tantuclas thut druw wutar lntu tha nuuth. Nu
trua haud. 8ryczcons luuk llka nussas, thalr hurd axuskal-
atuns crauta raaIs. Phcrcn|ds ura uquutlc wurns thut bulld
hurd chltlnuus tubas. 8roch|cpcds ura sasslla nurlna crau-
turas thut luuk llka cluns und llva llka Bryuuu.
Phy|um Mc||usco (mc||usks[: Huva u thraa-urt budy. u mus-
cu|or fcct (Iur nuvln), u v|scero| moss (cuntulnln tha uruns),
und u mont|e (tlssua cuvarln tha vlscarul nuss thut nuy ru-
duca u shall). Muny Iaad usln u rodu|o, u scruln urun thut
drus Iur nutrlants. xomp|es: 1. snulls (ustruudu), 2. cluns,
nussals (blvulvlu), 3. squlds, uctuus (cahuluudu).
Phy|um Anne||do ( segmented wcrms[: Trua cualunutas,
huva u dlastlva truct wlth saclullad raluns, narvas, und
u clusad clrculutury systan. Euch sanant hus metone-
phr|d|o, axcratury tubas thut ranuva wustas. xomp|es: 1.
aurthwurns (ulluchuatu), 2. laachas (hlrudlnau).
Phy|um Arthrcpcdo (orthrcpcds[: Huva u chltlnuus excske|-
etcn, saclullad oppendoges wlth julnts, und sanantad
budlas, und ruw by mc|t|ng thalr axuskalatuns tu Iurn
lncrauslnly lurar unas. Huva un uan clrculutury systan
wlth u haurt, und sansury uruns Iur tuuch, snall, und slht.
5ubphy|um Che||ceroto ( sccrp|cns ond sp|ders[: Faad
wlth cluwllka che||ceroe. Must huva slnla ruthar thun
cunuund ayas. 5p|ders (uruchnlds) huva bcck |ungs,
stucks uI uruns thut curry uut us axchuna.
5ubphy|um Un|rom|o (cent|pedes, m||||pedes, |nsects[:
Huva cunuund ruthar thun slnla ayas. Huva untannua
und Iaad wlth juwllka nundlblas. |nsects (lnsactu) huva
u three-port bcdy wlth u haud, thurux, und ubdunan.
Ranuva wusta wlth Mo|p|gh|on tubu|es und brautha usln
u truchaul systan thut lats uxyan dlractly lntu calls. Muny
lnsacts cun Iy und ulsu undaru metomcrphcs|s, u chun-
ln uI tha budy Irun u lurvul tu un udult stua.
5ubphy|um Crustoceo (crobs, shr|mp, |cbsters, borno-
c|es[: Huva juwllka nundlblas (us uusad tu challcarua)
und twu ulrs uI untannua. Huva nuny ulrs uI uand-
uas un tha ubdunan (unllka lnsacts, whlch huva uand-
uas un tha thurux), und cun raanaruta uanduas.
Phy|um ch|ncdermoto (ech|ncderms[: Murlna urunlsns
rudlully synnatrlcul ln udult Iurn but bllutarully synnatrlcul ln
lurvul Iurn. Enduskalatuns darlva Irun tha nasudarn. Wutar
vusculur systan uwars tube feet usad ln nuvanant und
Iaadln. xomp|es: 1. sau sturs (Astaruldau), 2. sau urchlns,
sund dullurs (Echlnuldau), 3. sau cucunbars (Huluthuruldau).
Phy|um Chcrdoto (chcrdotes[: Huva un anbryunlc nctcchcrd
Iur skalatul suurt und u hc||cw dcrso| nerve ccrd (ull uthar
unlnuls huva sulld vantrul narva curds) thut davalus lntu u
bruln und slnul churd. Phoryngeo| s||ts Iltar uut wutar wlth-
uut lts cuntlnuln thruuh tha antlra dlastlva truct. ln uquutlc
vartabrutas, thasa huva avulvad tuwurd us axchuna, ln
hlhar unlnuls, usad Iur juw suurt und uudltury sansutlun.
Huva u pcstono| to|| urllnully usad Iur uquutlc ruulslun
(uthar unlnuls' dlastlva tructs axtand thruuhuut tha budy).
Vertebrote c|osses
5uperc|oss Agnotho: Juwlass vartabrutas luckln ulrad
uanduas. Skalatun nuda uI curtllua, nutuchurd axlsts
thruuhuut llIa. xomp|es: huIshas, lunrays.
5uperc|oss Cnothcstcmoto: All uthar vartabrutas. Huva
hlnad jows und vertebroe thut raluca tha nutuchurd. Ara
dlvldad batwaan tha hsh und tha tetropcds ("Iuur Iaat").
C|oss Chcndr|chthyes (cort||og|ncus hshes[: Huva cor-
t||oge skalatuns, juws. Brautha usln g|||s darlvad Irun
tha hurynaul sllts. Fartlllutlun ls lntarnul. Lutarul llna
systan ls u sansury systan thut datacts chunas ln ras-
sura ur vlbrutluns ln tha wutar. xomp|es: shurks, ruys.
C|oss Dste|chthyes (bcny hshes[: Huva bcne skalatuns.
Brautha thruuh g|||s thut ura cuvarad wlth u rutactlva
luyar cullad tha cpercu|um. Fartlllutlun ls lntarnul. Stuy
uIuut vlu ulr-Illad swln bluddars. xomp|es: tunu, sulnun.
C|oss Amph|b|o (omph|b|ons[: Oldast tatruuds, nust llva
clusa tu wutar, Huva domp sk|n usad ln us axchuna und
she||-|ess eggs thut nust ba luld ln wutar. Frus undaru
metomcrphcs|s batwaan un uquutlc lurvul stua und u tar-
rastrlul udult stua. Tha udult stua nurks tha luss uI llls
und uI tha lutarul llna systan. xomp|es: 1. Irus, tuuds
(Anuru), 2. sulunundars (Urudalu), 3. cuacllluns (Audu).
C|oss kept|||o ( rept||es[: Es ura omn|ct|c, wlth u ru-
tactlva wutar-Illad suc (omn|cn) ln whlch tha anbryu
ruws ulunslda u rausltury uI nutrlants (yc|k). Es
huva lauthary shalls und ura luld un lund. Huva rutac-
tlva karutlnlad sco|es Iur skln, brautha usln luns, und
ura ectctherm|c (cuntrul tanarutura vlu bahuvlurul
ur anvlrunnantul ruthar thun natubullc raulutluns).
xomp|es: 1. turtlas, turtulsas (Chalunlu), 2. llurds,
snukas (Squunutu), 3. crucudllas, ullluturs (Crucudlllu).
C|oss Aves (b|rds[: Evulvad Irun ratllas. Huva w|ngs, sa-
clullad bunas, bauks, Iauthars nuda uI karutln, nu taath,
lnstaud rlnd Iuud ln u g|zzord. Luy unnlutlc as wlth
hurd shalls. Fuur-chunbarad haurt. ndctherm|c (rauluta
tanarutura natubullcully). xomp|es: launs, aulas.
C|oss Mommo||o (mommo|s[: Alsu avulvad Irun ratllas.
ndctherm|c, huva ho|r nuda uI karutln und nuka nllk
Irun mommory g|onds. Huva lura brulns, saclullad
taath, und un lnnar aur darlvad Irun tha hurynaul sllts.
5ubc|oss Mcnctremoto ( mcnctremes[: Hutch Irun
as. xomp|es: lutyusas, achldnus.
5ubc|oss Morsup|o||o ( morsup|o|s[: Fartlllutlun ls
lntarnul, anbryu davalus lnslda tha utarus. Tha
anbryu cuntlnuas tu davalu uItar blrth, us tha Iad-
lln urunlsn nursas lnslda tha nuthar's axtarnul
rutactlva uuch. xomp|es: kuulus, kunuruus.
5ubc|oss P|ocento||o (p|ocento| mommo|s[: Fartlllutlun
ls lntarnul, anbryu davalus lnslda tha utarus. A rutac-
tlva und nurturln cunlax cullad tha p|ocento Iurns
uruund tha anbryu, whlch davalus Iully lnslda tha
utarus baIura blrth. xomp|es: nlca, dus, cuts, hursas,
whulas, hununs.
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V|ruses or |nlroc||u|or poros|ls mod up ol o
gnom ol doub|- or s|ng|-slrondd 0N/ |or PN/|
w|lh|n o cops|d, or prol|n cool. Som v|russ hov
v|ro| enve|cpes, ||p|d mmbrons lhol ncos lh
cops|d ond oss|sl |n |nvod|ng o hcst.
VIRUS REPLICATIDN
vlrusas cunnut rep||cote wlthuut u hcst. Tha hcst ronge
raIars tu tha saclIc call tya (buctarlul, lunt, ur unlnul)
thut auch tya uI vlrus nuy lnIact. vlrusas anarully rallcuta
vlu una uI twu nudas, buth uI whlch ura bast undarstuud ln
buctarlul vlrusas (ur phoges).
A. Lyt|c cyc|e:
. Tha hua antars tha hust's call, ralausas lts DNA Irun
tha cusld, und than usas tha hust's callulur aqulnant
tu rallcuta.
2. Tha vlrus's anatlc nutarlul ls trunscrlbad, und vlrul ru-
talns (such us tha cusld rutalns) ura trunslutad Irun u
vlrul RNA tanluta.
3. Onca tha vlrus rallcutas und raussanblas ltsalI, tha hust
call lysas, ralausln tha hua culas. Tha cycla raauts.
8. Lyscgen|c cyc|e:
. Tha hua antars tha hust und lncururutas lts anuna
lntu tha hust's anuna ut cartuln chrunusunul lucutluns.
2. Tha vlrul anuna llas durnunt und ls rallcutad auch tlna
thut tha hust ltsalI rallcutas (wlth avary call dlvlslun).
3. Envlrunnantul cuas cuusa tha hua anuna tu axtrlcuta
ltsalI Irun tha hust's DNA und baln tha lytlc cycla.
RETRDVIRUSES
ketrcv|ruses ura unlnul vlrusas thut raruduca ln u nunnar slnl-
lur tu u hua lysuanlc cycla uslda Irun tha Iuct thut thut tha
vlrul anuna ls kNA-bosed. Ravarsa trunscrltusa trunscrlbas
tha RNA anuna lntu u DNA tanluta thut ls lncururutad lntu
tha hust's anuna ut saclIc sltas.
PLASNIOS
P|osm|ds ura salI-rallcutln rlns uI buctarlul DNA. A lus-
nld cun ba usad us u c|cn|ng vectcr, ln whlch u ana uI
lntarast ls sllcad lntu thut lusnld und ralntruducad lntu tha
buctarlu Iur nuss rallcutlun.
A. kestr|ct|cn enzymes (anynas thut cut DNA ut saclIc
saquancas) cut uan tha lusnld und axclsa tha ana uI
lntarast Irun lts hust DNA.
8. DNA ||gose luas tha cut Irunants ln sulutlun wlth hus-
hudlastar bunds, crautln u laca uI reccmb|nont DNA
cuntulnln buth tha ana und tha lusnld.
C. 1ronsfcrmot|cn uI tha lusnld ralntruducas tha racun-
blnunt DNA lntu buctarlu by e|ectrcpcrot|cn, un alactrlc
shuck thut tanururlly nukas tha buctarlu's lusnu nan-
bruna arnaubla.
D. 8octer|o| grcwth ln cultura rallcutas tha ana (wlthln
tha lusnld). Tha racunblnunt lusnld DNA ls lsulutad
Irun tha buctarlu, und tha clunad ana ls ra-axclsad usln
rastrlctlun anynas.
PDLYNERASE CHAIN REACTIDN
A PCk ( pc|ymerose cho|n reoct|cn[ cun ba usad tu cluna
DNA ln vltru.
A. Heot|ng tha ana uI lntarast saurutas lt lntu slnla
strunds.
8. Ccc||ng tha sulutlun ulluws tha ana tu blnd wlth rlnars
thut ura cunllnantury tu tha ands uI tha turat ana.
C. DNA pc|ymerose udds naw nuclautldas tu tha rlnars,
crautln naw culas uI tha turat ana.
D. keheot|ng tha ruducts cuntlnuas ln cyclas such thut naw
DNA ls crautad ln nuss.
GEL ELECTRDPHDRESIS
Ce| e|ectrcphcres|s ls usad tu lsuluta DNA Irunants by sla.
A. DNA cut wlth rastrlctlun anynas ls lucad ln walls ut tha
and uI u al, und thls al ls buthad ln un uquauus sulutlun.
8. An e|ectr|co| chorge ls ussad thruuh tha al, ullln tha
ulur DNA nulaculas thruuh tha al.
C. Vor|ot|cns |n s|ze unun DNA Irunants nuka tha Iru-
nants nlruta ut dlIIarantlul rutas. shurtar Irunants
truval Iurthar duwn tha al thun lunar unas du.
D. A DNA |odder ls run ln una uI tha walls, cuntulnln Iru-
nants uI banchnurk slas usad tu ldantlIy tha slas uI tha
uthar Irunants.
. Tha al ls dyed wlth u sulutlun thut blnds tu DNA und nukas
lt luw undar ultruvlulat llht. Tha DNA luws lnk undar tha
llht und cun ba hyslcully cut Irun tha al und lsulutad.
BLDTTING
5cuthern b|ctt|ng, un axtanslun uI alactruhurasls, ulls
DNA Irunants Irun un alactruhurasls al untu u laca
uI nltrucallulusa uar by tha culllury uctlun uI un ulkullna
sulutlun. Tha uar ls ranuvad, und u rudluuctlva ruba uI
slnla-strundad DNA blnds tu tha turat DNA. Tha rudluuctlva
DNA shuws u un u laca uI Iln lucad untu tha uar.
Ncrthern b|ctt|ng ls slnllur tu Suutharn bluttln axcat Iur
tha Iuct thut lt unulyas whula nulaculas uI nRNA ruthar
thun Irunants uI DNA cut by rastrlctlun anyna dlast.
vc|ut|cn |s lh procss by wh|ch spc|s chong
groduo||y ovr l|m. |l or|ss lrom procsss ol
se|ect|cn lhol lovor |nd|v|duo|s hov|ng crlo|n lovorob|
lro|ls ovr lhos |oc||ng lhos lovorob| lro|ls.
NED-OARWINIAN THEDRY
A. Pr|nc|p|e cf vor|ot|cn: vurlutluns ln nurhuluy, hysluluy,
und bahuvlur uccur unun lndlvlduuls ln uny lvan uulutlun.
8. Pr|nc|p|e cf hered|ty: OIIsrln rasanbla urants nura
thun thay rasanbla uthar nanbars uI tha uulutlun.
C. Pr|nc|p|e cf se|ect|cn: lndlvlduuls wlth cartuln trults nura
succassIully survlva und raruduca, ussln thusa trults
tu tha naxt anarutlun.
EVDLUTIDNARY FACTDRS
A. Mutot|cn: A arnunant chuna ln u call's DNA, cuusln
dlvarslty unun lndlvlduuls.
8. Cenet|c dr|ft: A rundun chuna ln tha Iraquancy uI ullalas.
Twu lnstuncas uI anatlc drlIt cuusa lndlvlduuls' anas tu
ba unnuturully uvaraxrassad.
. Fcunder effect: Only u Iaw lndlvlduuls uI u saclas sturt
u naw uulutlun.
2. 8ctt|eneck effect: Only u Iaw lndlvlduuls uI u saclas
survlva u dlsustar.
C. Cene cw: Muvanant uI anas Irun una uulutlun tu
unuthar thruuh nlrutlun uI lndlvlduuls batwaan uulu-
tluns und/ur nutln batwaan sauruta uulutluns.
TYPES DF SELECTIDN
A. Noturo| se|ect|cn: lndlvlduuls ruduca nura uIIsrln
thun cun survlva. Bacuusa lndlvlduuls cunata Iur llnltad
rasuurcas, thusa wlth Iuvurubla vurlutluns und trults ura
nura succassIul ut ussln un thusa trults tu succaadln
anarutluns. Ovar tlna, thusa trults bacuna ravulant, whlla
dlsudvuntuauus trults uccur wlth dacrausad Iraquancy.
. D|rect|cno| se|ect|cn: Salactlun Iuvurs un axtrana ha-
nutya, tha Iraquancy uI whlch lncrausas uvar tlna.
2. 5tob|||z|ng se|ect|cn: Salactlun ucts tu allnlnuta buth
axtrana hanutyas. Tha Iraquancy uI tha lntarnadl-
uta hanutya lncrausas uvar tlna.
3. D|srupt|ve se|ect|cn: Salactlun ucts tu allnlnuta tha
lntarnadluta hanutya Irun u uulutlun, Iuvurln tha
axtranas.
8. 5exuo| se|ect|cn: lndlvlduuls wlth trults thut uaul tu
saxuul urtnars ura nura llkaly tu uss un thusa trults tu
succaadln anarutluns. vurluus trults nuy ba rasarvad
nut bacuusa thay anhunca survlvurshl but bacuusa thay
lncrausa raruductlva succass.
C. Art|hc|o| se|ect|cn: Hununs lntantlunully braad unlnuls
tu anhunca saclIc trults.
CDEVDLUTIDN
Ccevc|ut|cn ls tha lun-tarn avulutlunury udjustnant uI una
ruu uI urunlsns tu unuthar.
A. Predotcr-prey |nteroct|cns: Buth lunts und unlnuls
davalu saclul daIansas whan thay lntaruct cunatltlvaly
wlth uthar urunlsns.
8. 5ymb|cs|s: A ralutlunshl ln whlch twu klnds uI urunlsns
cunslstantly llva tuathar.
. Ccmmenso||sm: A ralutlunshl ln whlch una lndlvlduul
ls clusaly ussuclutad wlth unuthar und banaIts wlthuut
duln hurn tu tha hust.
2. Mutuo||sm: A ralutlunshl thut banaIts buth urunlsns
lnvulvad.
3. Poros|t|sm: A tya uI radutlun ln whlch una urunlsn
llvas ln ur un u hust und banaIts whlla hurnln tha hust.
Pcpu|ot|cn genet|cs |s lh sludy ol lh proprl|s ol
gns |n popu|ol|ons | os opposd lo |n |nd|v|duo|s|.
PDPULATIDNS
A. 5|ze: Snull uulutluns ura nura llkaly tu u axtlnct bacuusa
rondcm events ur dlsturbuncas nuy uIIact tha uulu-
tlun dlsruurtlunutaly. Alsu, |nbreed|ng nuy allnlnuta tha
anatlc dlvarslty nacassury Iur tha uulutlun tu thrlva.
8. D|spers|cn: Wldaly sucad uulutluns nuy nut thrlva
bacuusa lndlvlduuls nuy nut lntaruct uItan anuuh tu
raruduca suIIclantly.
PDPULATIDN GRDWTH
A. 8|ct|c pctent|o|: dN/dt = rlN, tha ruta ut whlch u uulutlun
lncrausas whan thara ura nu llnlts un lts ruta uI ruwth. N ls
tha uulutlun sla, dN/dt ls tha ruta uI chuna ln uulutlun
sla uvar tlna, und rl ls tha uulutlun's cuuclty Iur ruwth.
8. Corry|ng copoc|ty: dN/dt = rNj(K - N)/K|, tha sla ut whlch u
uulutlun stublllas ln u urtlculur anvlrunnant, busad un
uvullubla rasuurcas, radutlun, cunatltlun, und nlcha.
HAROY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
ln tha ubsanca uI nututlun, nlrutlun, anatlc drlIt, und nun-
rundun salactlun, ullala und anutya Iraquanclas ranuln
cunstunt ln u rundun-nutln uulutlun. Dunlnunt ullalas du
nut raluca racasslva unas bacuusa tha Iraquanclas du nut
chuna. Muthanutlcully.
ll lhe lrequency ol ollele o is p, ond lhe lrequency ol ollele b is q,
lhen lhe genolype lrequencies oller one generolion ol rondom
moling ore represenled by:
p
2
(o[ + 2pq(ob[ + q
2
( b[ =
or
= ( p + q[
2
= p
2
+ 2pq + q
2

|onls or outctrcphs, ob| lo synlhs|z lh|r own
orgon|c nulr|nls |pr|mor||y v|o phctcsynthes|s|. Ih p|ont
||fe cyc|e o|lrnols blwn lh d|p|o|d |spcrcphyte|
ond hop|o|d |gometcphyte| gnrol|ons. Ih sporophyl
producs spors v|o m|ol|c d|v|s|on, lh gomlophyl,
lormd lrom lh spor, g|vs r|s lo hop|o|d gomls.
Pproducl|on occurs bolh sxuo||y ond osxuo||y.
PHDTDSYNTHESIS
A. Plunts usa ch|crcphy||, phctcp|gments tu cutura anary Irun
sunllht. Furnulu. CO2 + 12H2O CH12O + H2O + O2
8. Phutusynthasls lnvulvas tha Iulluwln chanlcul rucassas.
. L|ght reoct|cns: TrunsIar uI llht anary tu alactruns.
Occurs un hutusynthatlc nanbrunas ln chlurulusts. ln
pr|mory phctcevent, lnant cuturas hutuns uI llht,
axcltln alactruns wlthln lnant. Enary brauks H2O tu
ralausa O2 und drlvas |nword tronspcrt uI hydruan luns
ucruss nanbruna Iur chem|csmct|c synthes|s uI ATP.
2. Dork reoct|cns ( Co|v|n Cyc|e[: Enyna-cutulyad rauc-
tluns usa ATP und NADPH Irun tha llht rauctluns
tu drlva Iurnutlun uI urunlc nulaculas usln CO2.
Elactruns raturn tu tha lnant.
NAJDR PLANT CLASSIFICATIDNS
Ch|crcphyto (green o|goe[: Aquutlc raan ulua.
8rycphyto ( ncnvoscu|or p|onts[: Luck vusculur systan tu
trunsurt wutar und nutrlants, su ranuln snull und raqulra
nulst anvlrunnants. xomp|es: nussas, llvarwurts.
1rochecphyto (voscu|or p|onts[: Huva hlhly davaluad
vusculur systan tu trunsurt wutar und nutrlants. Xy|em
currlas wutar und dlssulvad nutarluls u Irun ruuts,
ph|cem dlstrlbutas ruducts uI hutusynthasls. kccts
usa myccrrh|zoe (synblutlc Iunus) tu druw wutar und
nlnaruls Irun sull und stura tha lunt's urunlc nutrlants.
Pr|mory grcwth (vartlcul) uccurs dua tu unuln nltusls
ut op|co| mer|stem (tl) uI ruuts und shuuts. 5eccndory
grcwth (thlcknass) rasults us naw xylan ushas uld xylan
lnwurd, naw hluan ushas uld hluan uutwurd.
F|||ccps|do ( ferns[: Laust avulvad vusculur lunts, raru-
duca by suras. Daand un nulst anvlrunnants.
5permotcps|do (seed-beor|ng p|onts[: Raruduca by saads.
Cymncsperms (ccn|fers[: Cunatas Iuund ln ccnes, ul-
lan rulns sraud by wlnd, whlch currlas nunIuallutad
sarn. Nut daandant un nulstura tu raruduca.
Ang|csperms ( cwer|ng p|onts[: Huva nunIuallutad
sarn nut daandant un wutar Iur dlsarsul. Cunatas
anarully dlstrlbutad by wlnd ur unlnuls. Mura saclul-
lad vusculur natwurk thun ln ynnusarns. 5tomen
(ullan-ruducln urt uI Iuwar) cunslsts uI unthar
und Ilunant, p|st|| (a-ruducln cantrul urt uI
Iuwar) cunslsts uI uvury, styla, und stlnu.
Mcncccts: A s|ng|e ccty|edcn (saad lauI) Iurns dur-
ln anbryunlc davalunant. LauI valns ura poro||e|.
Fluwar urts uccur ln nultllas uI three. vusculur tls-
sua scottered thruuhuut stan. F|brcus rcct systan.
xomp|es: russas, rulns, srln-Iuwarln bulbs.
D|ccts: 1wc ccty|edcns Iurn durln anbryunlc
davalunant. LauI valns ln netwcrk uttarn. Fluwar
urts uccur ln nultllas uI fcur ur hve. vusculur tls-
sua urrunad ln tubu|or uttarn ln stan. 1oprcct sys-
tan. xomp|es: rusas, sunIuwars, nust traas.
GYNNDSPERN LIFE CYCLE
Dlluld suruhyta ls dunlnunt. Mulas nuka m|crcspcres,
Ianulas nuka megospcres. Suras lva rlsa tu unatuhytas,
whlch ruduca unatas.
ANGIDSPERN LIFE CYCLE
Dlluld suruhyta dunlnunt. Dlluld lunt ruducas nula und
Ianula hululd suras, whlch lva rlsa tu unatuhytas (cw-
ers) thut ruduca unatas. Cunatas Iurn u dlluld yuta vlu
se|f-pc|||not|cn ur crcss-pc|||not|cn.
C4 ANO CAN PLANTS
Phctcresp|rot|cn uccurs whan u lunt uvulds wutar luss by clus-
ln stcmoto un hut, dry duys. Tha lunt, unubla tu tuka ln ulrburna
CO2 Iur tha Co|v|n cyc|e, lnstaud lncururutas lntarnul O2-raduc-
ln aIIclancy uI hutusynthasls by crautln anaratlcully usalass
cunuunds. C4 und CAM lunts raslst huturaslrutlun.
C4 p|onts: Nunad Iur tandancy tu Ix curbun lntu u 4-cur-
bun cunuund ruthar thun 3-curbun cunuund uI nust
(C3) lunts. F|xot|cn uccurs ln luusaly lucad nasuhyll
calls banauth lauI surIuca, usln un anyna (PEP curbuxyl-
usa) thut ls nura aIIclant ut Ixln curbun thun tha C3 lunt
anyna (rublscu). Culvln cycla uccurs ln tlhtly uckad bun-
dla shauth calls banauth nasuhyll, whara 4-curbun cun-
uund ralausas curbun us CO2. By lucullln Culvln cycla ln
bundla shauth calls und by suturutln thusa calls wlth CO2,
C4 lunts ravant huturaslrutlun. xomp|e: curn.
CAM (crossu|oceon oc|d metobc||sm[ p|onts: Raslst wutar
luss by clusln stunutu durln duy, uanln ut nlht. At nlht,
tuka ln CO2, cunvart tu urunlc uclds thut ura sturad untll duy-
tlna. Aclds ralausa CO2 Iur Culvln cycla (uwarad by ATP an-
arutad ln llht rauctluns uI hutusynthasls). xomp|e: cuctl.
PLANT TRDPISNS
Plunts rasund tu vurluus stlnull by u dlIIarantlul ruwth uI
calls un una slda uI tha lunt ur tha uthar such thut tha lunt
nuvas tuwurd ur uwuy Irun tha stlnulus.
A. Phctctrcp|sm: Plunt shuuts ruw tuwurd u suurca uI llht.
8. Crov|trcp|sm: Ruuts ruw duwnwurd, shuuts ruw uwurd
ln rasunsa tu ruvlty.
C. 1h|gmctrcp|sm: Plunt ruws ln rasunsa tu tuuch (a..,
cllnbln lunts thut cull uruund suurt structuras).
Ih hve-k|ngdcm system ol c|oss|ly|ng orgon|sms
hos g|vn woy lo o three-dcmo|n system lhol bllr
rlcls currnl vo|ul|onory rsorch. Dcmo|n 8octer|o
ond Dcmo|n Archoeo or ollshools ol whol wos onc
K|ngdom Monro. Dcmo|n ukoryo conlo|ns o|| lour
olhr ||ngdoms bul subd|v|ds whol wos onc K|ngdom
rol|slo |nlo lv sporol ||ngdoms. /rchozoo,
|ug|nozoo, /|vo|olo, Slromnop||o, ond Phodophylo.
DDmAlN ARCHAEA
Cunslsts uI thusa prckoryctes thut lnhublt tha hurshast anvl-
runnants. Ballavad tu ba tha uncasturs uI Klndun Eukuryu.
A. Methoncgens: Strlct unuarubas (uxyan ls Iutul tu than)
thut llva ln swuns und cunvart CO2 tu nathuna (CH4).
8. xtreme ho|cph||es: Llva ln lukas sultlar thun tha ucaun.
C. xtreme thermcph||es: Llva ln hut daa-sau vants und
sulIur srlns.
DDmAlN BACTERlA
Cunslsts uI ull uthar prckoryctes.
DDmAlN EUKARYA
Arusa Irun rukuryutas thruuh twu avulutlunury stas.
A. An |nterno| membroncus system (lncludln u nuclaur anva-
lua) darlvad Irun lnIuldlns uI tha lusnu nanbruna.
8. 5ymb|cs|s w|th prckoryctes thut lutar bacuna nltuchun-
drlu und chlurulusts.
KINGODN ARCHAEZDA
Parhus tha uldast Eukuryu, |ock m|tcchcndr|o, ura Iual-
lutad, huva duul nuclal und u slnla cytuskalatun. xomp|e:
6|J|J|J, u rutlst Iuund ln wutar.
KINGODN EUGLENDZDA
Fluallutad unlcallulur rutlsts w|th m|tcchcndr|o. xomp|es:
1. Fu|e|J (whlch hus u Iuallu cunln Irun un untarlur Iuld-
ln), 2. klnatulustlds (whlch huva u klnatulust, u unlqua
urunalla thut huusas anatlc nutarlul uutslda tha nuclaus).
KINGODN ALVEDLATA
Chuructarlad by o|vec|| (vaslclas baluw tha lusnu nan-
bruna). xomp|es: 1. dlnuIuallutas (hutusynthatlc hy-
tulunktun thut cuusa ulul bluuns knuwn us rad tldas), 2.
A|cum|exJ (unlnul urusltas such us P|JsmuJ|um, whlch
cuusas nulurlu), 3. clllutas (unlcallulur clllutad calls cuubla
uI blnury Isslun ur cunjuutlun, such us PJ|Jmec|um).
KINGODN STRANENDPILA
Chuructarlad by oge||o thot hove ho|r||ke prctrus|cns.
Aututruhlc strunanullu huva chlurulusts thut nura clusa-
ly rasanbla tha urllnul rukuryutlc synblunts. xomp|es: 1.
dlutuns (unlcallulur rutlsts wlth slllcutad axuskalatuns), 2.
bruwn und uldan ulua.
KINGODN RHDODPHYTA
Prutlsts thut avulvad tu lusa thalr Iuallu. xomp|e: rad ulua.
KINGODN FUNGI
Dacunusln urunlsns chuructarlad by obscrpt|ve nutr|-
t|cn. lncludas yausts, whlch ura unlcallulur, but ulsu nultlcal-
lulur Iunl thut huva tha Iulluwln Iauturas. 1. tubulur unlts
SKELETAL ANO NUSCULAR SYSTENS
Hununs huva un endcske|etcn (us uusad tu un axtarlur axu-
skalatun) thut suurts, rutacts, und ulluws Iur nuvanant ut tha
jc|nts. Thara ura thraa tyas uI nuscla. 5ke|eto| (str|oted[ musc|e
uttuchas tu bunas und cuurdlnutas nuvanant. Tha buslc unlt uI
u skalatul nuscla ls tha sorccmere, whara thln oct|n Ilunants
ura lntarsarsad wlth thlck mycs|n Ilunants. Whan tha Ilunants
sllda ulunslda auch uthar, tha nusclas cuntruct. Cord|oc musc|e,
Iuund unly ln tha haurt, ls structurad llka skalatul nuscla but cun
trlar lts uwn cuntructlun lndaandantly uI tha narvuus systan.
Alsu, tha antlra haurt cuntructs us una unlt whanavar un uctlun
utantlul ls anarutad ln uny una urt uI tha haurt. Fllunants ln
smccth musc|e ura urunlad ln u uttarn thut ulluws Iur lass uvar-
ull tanslun thun ln skalatul nuscla but Iur cuntructlun uvar rautar
lanths. Snuuth nuscla ls Iuund ln vassals, such us tha urtarlas
und tha dlastlva truct, thut curry Iulds uvar lun dlstuncas.
NERVDUS SYSTEN
Tha narvuus systan cuntruls sansury lnut und nutur uutut.
Tha buslc unlt uI tha narvuus systan ls u neurcn, auch uI whlch
cuntulns. 1. u ce|| bcdy cuntulnln tha nuclaus und urunallas, 2.
dendr|tes, u Ibruus natwurk thut racalvas nassuas, 3. un oxcn,
u Ibruus budy thut sands nassuas. Tha uxun ls lnsulutad by u
mye||n sheoth. Tha u batwaan tha dandrltas uI una naurun und
tha uxun uI unuthar naurun ls cullad u synopse, nassuas Iuw
thruuh tha synusa althar alactrlcully ur chanlcully. 5enscry
neurcns cunvay sansury lnut tu tha cantrul narvuus systan,
|nterneurcns cuurdlnuta sansury lnIurnutlun wlth nutur uutut,
und mctcr neurcns cunvay lnstructluns tu tha budy. Tha centro|
nervcus system (CN5[ cunslsts uI tha bro|n und sp|no| ccrd, tha
per|phero| nervcus system (PN5[ cunslsts uI tha crunlul narvas,
slnul narvas, und unllu. Tha cron|o| nerves cunnact tha bruln
tu tha uruns uI tha uar budy, whlla sp|no| nerves cunnact
tha slnul curd tu tha rast uI tha budy. Cong||o ura clustars uI
narvas thut ura ralutad ln Iunctlun. Tha PNS hus u sansury (uIIar-
ant) dlvlslun rasunslbla Iur lncururutln uutslda stlnull und
u nutur (aIIarant) dlvlslun rasunslbla Iur rasundln tu thusa
stlnull. Wlthln tha nutur dlvlslun, tha scmot|c nervcus system
cuntruls vuluntury Iunctluns (a.., nuvanant) und tha outcncm-
|c nervcus system cuntruls lnvuluntury Iunctluns (a.., dlastlun
ur curdluvusculur uctlvlty). Tha uutununlc narvuus systan ls
Iurthar dlvldad batwaan tha porosympothet|c nervcus system
(whlch cunsarvas anary ln tha budy) und tha sympothet|c ner-
vcus system (whlch raudlas tha budy Iur uctlun).
CIRCULATDRY SYSTEN
Dauxyanutad bluud ussas thruuh tha suarlur und lnIarlur
veno covo lntu tha rlht utrlun uI tha heort. Bluud than Iuws
lntu tha rlht vantrlcla, whlch uns lt tu tha luns vlu tha pu|-
mcnory orter|es. Oxyanutad ln tha luns, bluud Iuws thruuh
tha pu|mcnory ve|ns buck lntu tha laIt utrlun uI tha haurt, than
lntu tha laIt vantrlcla, Irun whlch lt ls unad tu tha antlra budy
vlu tha ocrto. Arter|es curry bluud uwuy Irun tha haurt, braukln
duwn lntu u natwurk uI orter|c|es. Ve|ns urlsa Irun u natwurk uI
venu|es tu brln bluud buck tuwurd tha haurt. Batwaan urtarlulas
und vanulas ura cop|||or|es, tlny vassals whara callulur axchuna
(usas, nutrlants, wustas) uccurs. Tha |ymphot|c system raturns
lust Iuld tu tha bluud. Lynh Iuld cun lntarnlnla wlth bluud
ulun |ymph cop|||or|es, whlch run ulunslda clrculutury culllur-
las. Lymph ncdes Iltar tha lynh Iuld by tha uctlun uI wh|te b|ccd
ce||s, rutactlva calls thut saquastar und lsuluta Iuraln budlas.
RESPIRATDRY SYSTEN
Tha |orynx cuntruls tha dascant uI Iuud lntu tha dlastlva sys-
tan und ulr lntu tha raslrutury systan. Alr ussas thruuh tha
lurynx lntu tha trocheo, whara lt sllts lntu twu brcnch| thut
laud tu tha |ungs. Tha brunchl brunch lntu brcnch|c|es, whlch
huva buds ut tha ands cullad o|vec|| thut ura tha surIuca uI
raslrutury axchuna. ln tha culllurlas surruudln tha ulvaull,
curbun dluxlda ln tha bluud ls axchunad Iur uxyan. Tha d|o-
phrogm, u wlda, Iut nuscla ut tha busa uI tha chast cuvlty,
cuntruls lnhulutlun und axhulutlun uI ulr ln tha luns.
OIGESTIVE SYSTEN
Fuud ussas thruuh tha phorynx (thruut) lntu tha escphogus,
u lun tuba thut brlns Iuud lntu tha stcmoch by por|sto|s|s, u
rhythnlc nutlun. Tha stunuch brauks duwn Iuud lntu chyme,
u nutrlant Iuld. Fuud ussas Irun tha stunuch lntu tha smo||
|ntest|ne, whara anynas Iurthar brauk duwn chyna. Tha
snull lntastlna ls llnad wlth v||||, tlny rujactluns thut ubsurb
nutrlants und ut than lntu tha bluudstraun. Tha Iuud than
ussas tu tha |orge |ntest|ne, whara wutar ls raclulnad. Wusta
nuttar ls sturad ln tha rectum untll axcratad Irun tha onus.
EXCRETDRY SYSTEN
Tha ||ver cunvarts tuxlc n|trcgen woste (unnunlu) tu lass tuxlc
ureo. Tha ranul urtarlas curry urau tu tha k|dneys, whlch Iltar
urau uut uI tha bluudstraun und cuntrul raubsurtlun uI lnur-
ECDSYSTENS ANO BIDNES
A. Pcpu|ot|cn: An lntarbraadln ruu uI tha suna saclas.
. Evary saclas hus u n|che daInad by lts llIastyla Iucturs
(a.., bahuvlur, hubltut, radutlun).
2. Ovarlu uI nlchas rasults ln ccmpet|t|cn untll cunatl-
turs ura allnlnutad ur dlslucad lntu u dlIIarant nlcha.
8. Ccmmun|ty: All tha uulutluns (blutlc Iucturs) ln un urau.
C. ccsystem: All tha blutlc J|J ublutlc Iucturs ln un urau.
D. 8|cme: A lura ralun wlth dlstlnct lunt und unlnul llIa.
. 1rcp|co| ro|n fcrest: lnIartlla sull but hauvy rulnIull,
dansa vaatutlun. Crautast bludlvarslty uI uny bluna.
2. 5ovonno: Oan russlund wlth scuttarad traas, trunsltlunul
batwaan ruln Iurast und dasart, Iuund rlnurlly ln AIrlcu.
3. Desert: Sursa, urld, lura dully Iuctuutlun ln tanarutura.
4. Choporro| : Cuustul urau wlth shurt avarraan shrubs,
nlld, rulny wlntar, hut, dry sunnar.
5. 1emperote gross|ond: Rlch sulls, ubundunt raclltutlun,
urlculturully ruductlva, cuvars nuch uI tha Anarlcus.
6. 1emperote dec|ducus fcrest: Daclduuus traas (dru
lauvas avary wlntar), wurn, rulny sunnar, cuul wlntar.
7. 1o|go: Nurtharn cunlIaruus Iurast wlth lun, culd wlntar.
8. 1undro: Culd, llttla raclltutlun ur vaatutlun, arnuIrust
axlsts naur tha surIuca, cuvars ~20% uI Eurth's lund urau.
9. Mor|ne: Sult wutar, cuvars ~75% uI Eurth's surIuca,
huna tu 10% uI llvln saclas. Dlvldad lntu unas.
o. |ntert|do|/||ttcro| zcne: Shurallnas und cuusts, sub-
jact tu arluds uI wat und dry.
b. Ner|t|c zcne: Shulluw wutars tu tha cuntlnantul shalI.
c. Dceon|c/pe|og|c zcne: SurIuca luyars uI tha uan ucaun.
d. Aphct|c/obysso| zcne: Daa-wutar uraus, nu sunllht.
0. Freshwoter: Punds, lukas, rlvars, tlad clusaly tu tarrastrlul
hubltuts. Lukas ln tanaruta raluns saa tharnul strutlI-
cutlun. <3% uI tha Eurth's surIuca.
ECDLDGICAL SUCCESSIDN
Cunnunltlas chuna thruuh un urdarly rucass uI success|cn.
A. P|cneer crgon|sms nuva lntu un unlnhubltad urau.
8. Wlth succasslun, tha cunnunlty's blunuss, cunlaxlty, sa-
clas dlvarslty, und cuuclty tu rucass nutrlants ull lncrausa.
C. Tha rasult ls u stubla c||mox ccmmun|ty.
ENERGY FLDW
Enary ln un acusystan Iuws unun urunlsns uI dlIIarant trc-
ph|c |eve|s. Pr|mory prcducers (lunts, chanusynthatlc buctarlu)
huva tha nust blunuss, Iulluwad by pr|mory ccnsumers (harbl-
vuras) und seccndory ond tert|ory ccnsumers (curnlvuras, unnl-
vuras). Flnully, deccmpcsers (soprcphytes[ brauk duwn urunlc
ranulns und axcratluns. Only 10% uI u truhlc laval's anary
Iuws tu tha naxt, tha rast ls lust tu raslrutlun, haut, und su un.
CYCLES IN THE ENVIRDNNENT
Woter cyc|e: Sulur anary cuusas wutar tu evopcrote Irun
ucauns lntu utnushara. Plunts tronsp|re, ulsu sandln wutar
lntu utnushara us vuur. Wutar vuur ccndenses lntu cluuds
und prec|p|totes lntu ruln. Ruln Iulls buck tu Eurth, cullacts un
lund us runcff ur grcundwoter, und runs buck lntu ucauns.
Corbcn cyc|e: Plunts lncururuta o|rbcrne CD2 lntu urunlc
cunuunds. Prlnury cunsunars aut lunts. Whan urunlsns
dla, thalr curbun ls luckad lntu fcss|| fue|s ur dacunusad by
nlcrubas. 8urn|ng uI Iussll Iuals, deccmpcs|t|cn uI urunlsns,
und ce||u|or resp|rot|cn ull ralausa CO
2
buck lntu tha ulr.
N|trcgen cyc|e: N|trcgen-hx|ng bocter|o cunvart utnushar-
lc N
2
us lntu unnunlun (NH
4
+
). N|tr|fy|ng bocter|o cunvart
unnunlun lntu nltrltas (NO
2
-
) und nltrutas (NO
3
-
), whlch ura
usslnllutad by lunts, whlch ura than autan by unlnuls. AItar
lunt ur unlnul dauth, deccmpcsers (buctarlu, Iunl) cunvart
nltruan buck tu unnunlun (NH
4
+
). Den|tr|fy|ng bocter|o ru-
cass nltruanuus cunuunds buck lntu utnusharlc N
2
us.
Phcsphcrcus cyc|e: Phcsphcrcus-ccnto|n|ng rccks wauthar
lntu sull, lunts tuka u hushutas (PO
4
3-
) Irun sull. Anlnuls
aut lunts, deccmpcsers brauk duwn daud lunts und unl-
nuls, raturnln hushutas tu sull. Leoch|ng ranuvas hus-
hutas Irun sull vlu wutar thut runs lntu lukas und strauns.
5ed|mentot|cn Iurns naw hushuruus-cuntulnln rucks.
SPARKClAR1S
"
Biology page L of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
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DNA TECHNDLDGY
PDPULATlDN GENETlCS
PLANTS
HUmAN DRGAN SYSTEmS
VlRUSES
REPRDOUCTIVE SYSTEN
W
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:

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KINGODN PLANTAE
KINGODN ANINALIA
by Iunctlun).
An|mo| phy|o
Vertebrote c|osses
whulas, hununs.
7
2
0
5
9
3
3
6
2
7
8
0
VIRUS REPLICATIDN
A. Lyt|c cyc|e:
tu rallcuta.
vlrul RNA tanluta.
8. Lyscgen|c cyc|e:
RETRDVIRUSES
PLASNIOS
bruna arnaubla.
rastrlctlun anynas.
DNA ln vltru.
strunds.
GEL ELECTRDPHDRESIS
uthar Irunants.
BLDTTING
u naw uulutlun.
survlva u dlsustar.
TYPES DF SELECTIDN
axtranas.
CDEVDLUTIDN
lnvulvad.
PDPULATIDNS
PDPULATIDN GRDWTH
p
2
(o[ + 2pq(ob[ + q
2
( b[ =
or
= ( p + q[
2
= p
2
+ 2pq + q
2

PHDTDSYNTHESIS
C4 ANO CAN PLANTS
PLANT TRDPISNS
DDmAlN ARCHAEA
sulIur srlns.
DDmAlN BACTERlA
DDmAlN EUKARYA
KINGODN ARCHAEZDA
KINGODN EUGLENDZDA
KINGODN ALVEDLATA
KINGODN RHDODPHYTA
KINGODN FUNGI
NERVDUS SYSTEN
CIRCULATDRY SYSTEN
RESPIRATDRY SYSTEN
OIGESTIVE SYSTEN
EXCRETDRY SYSTEN
ENERGY FLDW
2
buck lntu tha ulr.
lc N
2
4
+
2
-
) und nltrutas (NO
3
-
), whlch ura
4
+
2
us.
4
3-
SPARKClAR1S
"
Biology page G of G 1his downloadable PLl oopyright POOL by Sparklotes LLC.
$
P
A
k
K
C
H
A
k
I
$
4
-
$
4
.
9
5

$
6
.
9
5

C
A
N
P
e
p
o
r
l

e
r
r
o
r
s

o
l
:
w
w
w
.
s
p
o
r
k
n
c
t
e
s
.
c
c
m
/
e
r
r
c
r
s
DNA TECHNDLDGY
PDPULATlDN GENETlCS
PLANTS
HUmAN DRGAN SYSTEmS
VlRUSES
REPRDOUCTIVE SYSTEN
W
r
|
t
e
r
s
:

B
e
r
n
e
l
l

K
.

0
o
w
n
e
r
,

1
e
s
s
i
c
o

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n
g
,

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u
l

|
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e
,

M
i
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h
o
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|
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w
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s
|
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:

0
o
n

O
.

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i
l
l
i
o
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s
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|
|
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t
r
o
t
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r
:

M
o
l
l

0
o
n
i
e
l
s
,

0
o
n

O
.

W
i
l
l
i
o
m
s
5
e
r
|
e
s

d
|
t
c
r
s
:

S
o
r
o
h

|
r
i
e
d
b
e
r
g
,

M
o
l
l

B
l
o
n
c
h
o
r
d
KINGODN PLANTAE
KINGODN ANINALIA
by Iunctlun).
An|mo| phy|o
Vertebrote c|osses
whulas, hununs.
7
2
0
5
9
3
3
6
2
7
8
0
VIRUS REPLICATIDN
A. Lyt|c cyc|e:
tu rallcuta.
vlrul RNA tanluta.
8. Lyscgen|c cyc|e:
RETRDVIRUSES
PLASNIOS
bruna arnaubla.
rastrlctlun anynas.
DNA ln vltru.
strunds.
GEL ELECTRDPHDRESIS
uthar Irunants.
BLDTTING
u naw uulutlun.
survlva u dlsustar.
TYPES DF SELECTIDN
axtranas.
CDEVDLUTIDN
lnvulvad.
PDPULATIDNS
PDPULATIDN GRDWTH
p
2
(o[ + 2pq(ob[ + q
2
( b[ =
or
= ( p + q[
2
= p
2
+ 2pq + q
2

PHDTDSYNTHESIS
C4 ANO CAN PLANTS
PLANT TRDPISNS
DDmAlN ARCHAEA
sulIur srlns.
DDmAlN BACTERlA
DDmAlN EUKARYA
KINGODN ARCHAEZDA
KINGODN EUGLENDZDA
KINGODN ALVEDLATA
KINGODN RHDODPHYTA
KINGODN FUNGI
NERVDUS SYSTEN
CIRCULATDRY SYSTEN
RESPIRATDRY SYSTEN
OIGESTIVE SYSTEN
EXCRETDRY SYSTEN
ENERGY FLDW
2
buck lntu tha ulr.
lc N
2
4
+
2
-
) und nltrutas (NO
3
-
), whlch ura
4
+
2
us.
4
3-

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