Module 8

Ethernet Switching

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Ethernet Switching
Ethernet is a shared media

One node can transmit data at a time

More nodes increases the demands on the available bandwidth

The probability of collisions increases, resulting in more

retransmissions

Segmenting creates more collision domains

Ethernet

A solution to the problem is to segment.

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Layer 2 bridging
To accomplish this a bridge keeps a table of MAC addresses and the
associated ports. The bridge then forwards or discards frames based
on the table entries. The following steps illustrate the operation of a
bridge
The bridge has just been started so the bridge table is empty. The bridge
just waits for traffic on the segment. When traffic is detected, it is
processed by the bridge.
Host A pings Host B. Since the data is transmitted on the entire collision
domain segment, both the bridge and Host B process the packet.
The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table. Since
the address was in the source address field and the frame was received
on Port 1, the frame must be associated with Port 1 in the table.
The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge table.
Since the address is not in the table, even though it is on the same
collision domain, the frame is forwarded to the other segment. The
address of Host B has not been recorded yet.

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) (bridge ) MAC
( .
. :

) (bridge .
. ).(bridge
"" ) ping ( "" .
) (bridge
"" .
) (bridge .
) (frame 1
1 .
) (frame .
) (frame
. "" ) (frame.
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Layer 2 bridging
Host B processes the ping request and transmits a ping reply back to
Host A. The data is transmitted over the whole collision domain. Both
Host A and the bridge receive the frame and process it.
The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table.
Since the source address was not in the bridge table and was
received on Port 1, the source address of the frame must be
associated with Port 1 in the table.
The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge
table to see if its entry is there. Since the address is in the table, the
port assignment is checked. The address of Host A is associated with
the port the frame was received on, so the frame is not forwarded.
Host A pings Host C. Since the data is transmitted on the entire
collision domain segment, both the bridge and Host B process the
frame. Host B discards the frame since it was not the intended
destination.

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"" ) ping ( ping

"" . .
"" ) (bridge ) (frame.
.
1
1 . )(frame
) (bridge .
. ""
.
"" ) ping (
"" .
) (bridge "" . ""
.
) (bridge ) (bridge
. ) (bridge
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Layer 2 bridging
The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table.
Since the address is already entered into the bridge table the entry is
just renewed.
The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge
table. Since the address is not in the table, the frame is forwarded to
the other segment. The address of Host C has not been recorded yet.
Host C processes the ping request and transmits a ping reply back to
Host A. The data is transmitted over the whole collision domain. Both
Host D and the bridge receive the frame and process it. Host D
discards the frame since it is not the intended destination.
The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table.
Since the address was in the source address field and the frame was
received on Port 2, the frame must be associated with Port 2 in the
table.
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) (bridge )(bridge
. ) (bridge
.
) (frame
.
) (frame . ""
) (frame.
"" ) ping (
ping "" . .
"" ) (bridge . ""
) (frame .
.
) (frame 2
2 .
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Layer 2 bridging
The destination address of the frame is checked against the
bridge table to see if its entry is present. The address is in the
table but it is associated with Port 1, so the frame is forwarded to
the other segment.
When Host D transmits data, its MAC address will also be
recorded in the bridge table. This is how the bridge controls
traffic between to collision domains.
( frame)
1 .
.
)
MAC ""
.(bridge) (
.( bridge)
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Layer 2 Bridging

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Layer 2 switching
Generally, a bridge has only two ports and divides a collision
domain into two parts.
All decisions made by a bridge are based on MAC or Layer 2
addresses and do not affect the logical or Layer 3 addresses .
A bridge will divide a collision domain but has no effect on a
logical or broadcast domain.
If a network does not have a device that works with Layer 3
addresses, such as a router, the entire network will share the
same logical broadcast address space.
A bridge will create more collision domains but will not add
broadcast domains

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) - (bridge -
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) (bridge ) MAC
( .
. )(bridge
.

) (router
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) (bridge .

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Layer 2 switching
A switch is essentially a fast, multi-port bridge that can contain
dozens of ports. Each port creates its own collision domain. In a
network of 20 nodes, 20 collision domains.
A switch dynamically builds and maintains a content-addressable
memory (CAM) table, which holds all of the necessary MAC
information for each port.

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) (switch .
) (switch
) (CAM ) MAC
( .
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Layer 2 Switching

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Layer 2 Switching

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Switches
A switch is a fast, multi-port bridge
Each port creates its own collision domain
A switch dynamically builds and maintains a ContentAddressable Memory (CAM) table
The CAM holds all of the necessary MAC information
for each port
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( switch)
(CAM)
. ) ( MAC

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Switch Operation

It is possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously. The

ability to communicate in both directions at once is known as full duplex

Most switches are capable of supporting full duplex, as are most

network interface cards (NICs)

In full duplex mode, there is no contention for the media.

A collision domain no longer exists
Theoretically, the bandwidth is doubled when using full duplex
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( switches)
.( NICs)

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Latency
Latency is the delay between the time a frame begins to leave
the source device and when the first part of the frame reaches its
destination.
A variety of conditions can cause delays:
Media delays may be caused by the finite speed that signals can
travel through the physical media.
Circuit delays may be caused by the electronics that process the
signal along the path.
Software delays may be caused by the decisions that software
must make to implement switching and protocols.
Delays may be caused by the content of the frame and the
location of the frame switching decisions. For example, a device
cannot route a frame to a destination until the destination MAC
address has been read.
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Latency

) (frame
.

) (frame .

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) (frame
. ) (frame
) MAC ( .

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Switch modes

Store and Forward

Cut through

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Switch Modes
Cut-through switching
A switch transfers the frame as soon as the
destination MAC address is received
( frame) ( switch)
. ) ( MAC

lowest latency

no error checking

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Switch Modes
Store-and-forward switching
Higher latency

The switch receives the entire frame before

sending it out

) Verifies the Frame Check Sum (FCS

)(FCS
.

Invalid frames are discarded at the switch

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) (switch

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Switch Modes
Fragment-free switching
A compromise between cut-through and store-andforward switching

Switching begins before the entire data field and

checksum are read

64 )(frame

Reads the first 64 bytes

Including the frame header
Verifies the reliability of:
Addressing
Logical Link Control (LLC) protocol

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)(LLC
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Switch Modes
Synchronous switching
The source port and destination port must
be operating at the same bit rate

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Switch Modes
Asynchronous switching
The bit rates are not the same
The frame must be stored at one bit rate before
it is sent out at the other bit rate
Store-and-forward must be used
( frame)
. .
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Switch Modes
Asymmetric switching
Switched connections between ports of unlike bandwidths
Asymmetric switching is optimized for client/server
A server requires more bandwidth dedicated to the server port to
prevent a bottleneck at that port

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100 1000 .
/

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Spanning Tree Protocol

Switching loops can lead to broadcast storms that will
overwhelm a network.

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To counteract loops, switches are provided with the

)Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP

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STP .

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Spanning Tree Protocol

Switches in a LAN using STP
Send Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) out all its
ports
Lets other switches know of its existence
Elect a root bridge (switch) for the network
Switches use the Spanning-Tree Algorithm (STA) to
resolve and shut down the redundant paths.
( ) STP ) ( LAN
( BPDU)
.( bridge) ( switch)
( STA) ( switch)
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STP
Each port using Spanning-Tree Protocol is in one of the
following five states:
Blocking
Listening
Learning
Forwarding
Disabled
:( switch)

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STP
A port moves through five states as follows:
From initialization to blocking
From blocking to listening or to disabled
From listening to learning or to disabled
From learning to forwarding or to disabled
From forwarding to disabled

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STP
Resolving and eliminating loops creates a logical
hierarchical tree with no loops
The alternate paths are available if needed

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) STP (
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Spanning tree protocol

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Shared Media Environment

Shared media environment
multiple hosts have access to the same medium

Extended shared media environment

Using networking devices extends the environment
to accommodate multiple access or longer cable
distances

Point-to-point network environment

one device is connected to only one other device
(ex. dialup network connections)
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Shared media environments

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Layer 1 Devices
Layer 1 devices
repeaters and hubs

Extend collision domains

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Primary function is extending cable segments

Additional hosts increase the amount of traffic
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More traffic = greater chances of collisions

This results in diminished performance

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Repeater Rule
Four repeater rule:
No more than four repeaters between any
two computers
Contributing Factors
Repeater latency
Propagation delay
NIC latency
Late collision frames add delay that is
referred to as consumption delay

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Collision Domains
Collision Domains:
Connected physical network segments where
collisions can occur.

Collisions cause:
The network to be inefficient
Transmissions to stops for a period of time

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Collision domains

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Collision Domains

The types of devices that interconnect the media

segments define collision domains

Classified as OSI Layer 1, 2 or 3 devices

OSI
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Layer 1 devices do not break up collision domains

Layer 2 and Layer 3 devices break up collision domains

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Increasing the number of collision domains is known as
segmentation

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Segmentation

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Network segment

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Layer 2 Broadcasts
Ethernet Broadcasts
When a node needs to communicate with all hosts on the
network

A broadcast frame with a destination MAC address

0xFFFFFFFFFFFF is sent
The network interface card (NIC) of every host must
respond

) ( MAC
.0xFFFFFFFFFFFF
.( NIC)

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Layer 2 Broadcasts
Layer 2 devices must flood all broadcast and
multicast traffic

Broadcast Radiation
The accumulation of broadcast and multicast traffic from
each device

Broadcast storm
Circulation of broadcast radiation that saturates the network
There is no bandwidth left for application data

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Layer 2 Broadcasts

The three sources of broadcasts and multicasts:

3

Workstations
Workstations broadcast an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
request every time they need to locate a MAC address that is not in
the ARP table.
, MAC
(ARP request)

Routers
The routing protocols that are configured on a network can increase
broadcast traffic significantly

Multicast Applications
IP multicast applications can adversely affect the performance of large
) ( IP

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Broadcast & Collision Domain

Collision Domain

Collision Domain

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broadcast domain
A broadcast domain is a group of collision domains that are
connected by Layer 2 devices.
Broadcasts are forwarded by Layer 2 devices.
Excessive broadcasts can reduce the efficiency of the entire LAN.
Broadcasts have to be controlled at Layer 3 since Layers 1 and 2
devices cannot control them.
Broadcast domains are controlled at Layer 3 because routers do not
forward broadcasts.
Routers actually work at Layers 1, 2, and 3.
Like all Layer 1 devices, routers have a physical connection and
transmit data onto the media.
Routers also have a Layer 2 encapsulation on all interfaces and
perform the same functions as other Layer 2 devices.
Layer 3 allows routers to segment broadcast domains.

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broadcast domain

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) (routers
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) (router .

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) (router .

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Broadcast domain

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Data Flow
Data flow in the context of collision and broadcast domains
focuses on how data frames propagate through a network. It
refers to the movement of data through Layers 1, 2 and 3
devices and how data must be encapsulated

Layer 2 devices filter data frames based on the

destination MAC address
A Layer 2 device will forward the frame unless something prevents
it from doing so

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) (frame MAC
.
) (frame
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.
) (bridge .
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Data Flow
Layer 3 devices filter data packets based on IP
destination address
A Layer 3 device will not forward the frame unless it has to
Layer 3 device creates multiple collision and broadcast domains

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) (packet IP
) ( .
) (packet ) IP (
) (router ) .(packet
.

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Dataflow

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