_ ILLUSTRATED ~ PHYSIOLOGY B. R. Mackennna secs pi reece Formerly Senior Lecturer, Insitute of Physiology University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK R. Callander rrr: ras sino: Formerly Dirtor of Medi Tustin, University of Glasgow, Glagow, UR SIXTH EDITION ) CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE NEW YORK EDINBURGH LONDON MADRID MELBOURNE SAN FRANCISCO AND TOKYO 1997WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY viii 1, INTRODUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS 1 2. NUTRITION AND METABOLISM: THE SOURCES, RELEASE AND USES OF ENERGY 29 3, CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS 59 4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM a ‘TRANSPORT SYSTEM — THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS AND BODY FLUIDS: HAEMOPOIETIC SYSTEM 99 6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 147 7. EXCRETORY SYSTEM 165 8, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 193 9, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 219 10. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM — LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM. 287 11. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND CHEMICAL TRANSMISSION AT NERVE ENDINGS 317 CONTENTSCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS Elements, Atoms and Isotopes 2 Electrons, Atomic Numbers and Weights; Mass Numbers 3 e Bonds between Atoms 4 Basic Constituents of Protoplasm 5 ‘The Amoeba 6 ‘The Phenomena which characterize all living things are shown by the amocba 7 ‘The Paramecium 8 ‘The Cell 9 Fine Structure of Cells 10 Organelles 1, 12 Cell Division (Mitosis) 3 Differentiation of Animal Cells 4 Organization of Tissues 15 Epithelia 16 Connective Tissues (CT) 17-19 Muscular Tissues 20 Nervous Tissues 21-23 Junctions between Cells 24 Cell Division (Mei Development of the ‘The Body SystemsNTRODUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYS SS ELEMENTS, ATOMS AND ISOTOPES ‘The chemical ELEMENT cannot be broken into simpler materials by chemical means. If two or more elements are combined they form a COMPOUND, The letter abbreviations by which elements are labelled are called CHEMICAL SYMBOLS and are derived from the first or first and second letters of the English or Latin names of the element. The commonest elements found in the body are C (carbon), H (hydrogen), N (nitrogen) and O (oxygen). See page 5. Each element is made up of ATOMS which are composed of even smaller particles. cor SLECTRON LEvELs __ ELECTRON SHELLS e = _— PROTON (p") nucteus NEUTRON (n®) ~~ ELECTRON (69 Positively charged PROTONS and uncharged NEUTRONS are located in the NUCLEUS. Negatively charged ELECTRONS are in constant motion round the nucleus in energy levels or electron shells (page 3), ‘The numbers of +ve protons and -ve electrons are equal, hence atoms are electrically neutral. ® ‘The unit of mass for atoms and their particles is the DALTON. A neutron has a mass of 1,008 daltons; a proton 1.007 daltons; an electron 0.0005 daltons, hence practically all the mass of an atom is in the nucleus. ‘The difference between one element and another is due to the difference in the number of PROTONS in their atoms. However, some atoms of the SAME element have different ‘numbers of NEUTRONS. Those different atoms are called ISOTOPES of the element. All isotopes have the same chemical properties because the chemical properties of an element are determined by their ELECTRONS and all atoms of an element have the same number of electrons. Certain isotopes, called RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES, are unstable and emit various kinds of radiation viz. ALPHA (2) particles composed of two protons and two neutrons; BETA (B) particles composed of particles like electrons but can be either positively or negatively 2 charged; GAMMA (y) radiation, electromagnetic waves similar to very strong X-rays.nt DUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS ELECTRONS; ATOMIC NUMBERS AND WEIGHTS; MASS NUMBERS ELECTRONS possess different amounts of energy and are located in numbered ENERGY LEVELS. The lowest energy level (n = 1) can contain a maximum of 2 electrons. The second energy level (n = 2) can con- tain 8 electrons, the third (n =3) up to 18 electrons, and so on up to n = 7. Electron levels are sometimes called SHELLS and are labelled K,L,M,N, ete. To achieve stability, atoms either empty their ‘outermost energy levels or fill it up to the maximum. In so doing they may give up, accept or share electrons with other atoms, whichever is easiest. The VALENCE (com- bining capacity) is the number of extra or deficient electrons inthe valence electron energy level (outermost). ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF COMMON ELEMENTS Atomic number = number of protons. Mass number = number of protons + neutrons (mass numbers of only the commonest isotopes are given). Atomic weight = total mass of protons + neutrons + electrons, S (Hi Hydrogen (©) carbon (No Nivogen ‘Nome nor 1 ‘Nome number 6 ‘Nomis umber 7 Mase number tase number 12 Mase number 1 ‘me weight 1008 Romiewaigh 2011 Atomic weight 14007 alone samy \\\ evel We Coerge ner (Nad Sodium (C0 Chlorine Azomie number8 ‘Atomic number 11. Atomic number 17____(KiPotassium Sa eETa Mass number 23 Mass number 35 Atomic number 19 Atomic weight 15.999. promic weight 29.99 Atomic weight 35.453 Mass number 39 Atomic weight 39.098 ‘The valence electron energy levels of both sodium (n=3) and potassium (n= 4) have only one electron. It is easier to get rid of one electron than to fill these outermost levels, with clectrons, The valence level of chlorine (n=3) is one short of stability, hence Na and K tend to combine with Cl in chemical reactions. When atoms combine in this way they form MOLECULES. 3NTRODI JON: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS EEE EE EEEEEpeeeneeeeneee BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS The outer electrons of one atom may interact with the outer electrons of other atoms, producing attractive forces or CHEMICAL BONDS: IONIC, COVALENT of HYDROGEN. In IONIC BONDS, clectrons are actually transferred from one atom to another. Such ‘atoms or aggregates of atoms are then called IONS. The atom gaining an electron or clectrons becomes negatively charged, called an ANION (more -ve electrons than +ve protons). The atom which loses electrons becomes positively charged, called a CATION (more +ve protons than -ve electrons). Since oppositely charged particles attract one another, oppositely charged ions can be held together by this attraction to form electrically neutral ionic compounds, Such attractions are called ionic attractions or IONIC BONDS. Sodium ion (Na“) Chiorine fon (CI) Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Ch Sodium chloride molecule (NaCl) In COVALENT BONDS, stoms SHARE electrons in their outer energy level, This i very commen, : Than Hy molecule the two atoms share. /~ one pir of clecwonsvihichare most ( (gr)walo-(oe often in the region between the two nuclei. \ 2 N ‘The attraction between the PLECTRONS | \-7\ in the middle and the PROTONS in the '¥0 Hydrogen etome Hydrogen molecule nuclei holds the molecule strongly together. 1¢ "42 Dakin one pair of electrons are shared (eg. H;) a SINGLE covalent bond is formed. Two pairs Shared (e.g. 03) form a DOUBLE bond. Three pair (eg. Ns) a TRIPLE bond: Shared electrons, atracted equally to both atoms, as with Ho, form 2. NON-FOLAR COVALENT BOND. However, if one stom attracts the shared clectrons more strongly than the other, the bond is @ POLAR COVALENT BOND and produces POLAR MOLECULES with positive and negative areas, Water is apolar molecule, Oxygen attracts the GS Cre) shared electrons more strongly and becomes somewhat negative. The hydrogen portions become somewhat positive. Polar bonds allow HYDROGEN BONDS Oppositely charged regions of polar molecules can attract one another. Such a bond H,0 4 shape to e.g proteins and nucleic acids.INTRODUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS BASIC CONSTITUENTS OF PROTOPLASM Protoplasm is made up of certain ELEMENTS — present mainly in — CHEMICAL COMBINATION Chemical Percentage Symbot of Total | Body Mass + H —HYDROGEN 95) Alarge amount) C,H & O.combine ] C,H, O and N) These © —oxyceN 850 | oftheHandO | chemically to form | combine to | make © —caRBON 185 {is presont as | CARBOHYDRATES | form up N—wirocen 32] WATER’ [and LIPIDS (chief f PROTEINS | most (H:0) | sources of ENERGY | (main | ofthe iniving protoplasm) | BUILDING { Body constituents | Weight of al protoplasm) Ca CALCIUM 15 | Important constituents of blood and of hard tissues — e.g. bones P PHOSPHORUS 1.0 J and tooth, *Cl —CHLORINE 02) Important constituents of body fluids. Na —sooluM 02 Those eight make up K POTASSIUM 0.4 Important constituent of al cells much of the remaining S —SULPHUR 03 Body Weight Mg —MAGNESIUM 0.1 Important for activity of Brain, Nerves and Muscles. Fe —IRON 0.1. Important component of haemoglobin in red blood cells 1 —1001INE on ‘Trace elements make up the last few grams or so. ‘These include: Manganese, copper, zinc, cobalt, molybdenum, aluminium, chromium, silicon, fluorine, selenium, boron, strontium and vanadium. NOTE: Many of these inorganic substances in the protoplasm are in chemical combination. Apart from water, the chief constituents are present as compounds of carbon, icc. they are organic substances. *NB: Cl element is chlorine; Salt, ¢.g. NaCl is chloride; Ton is chloride ion (CI),INTRODUCTION: ATOMS, ELEMENTS, CELLS, TISSUES AND SYSTEMS Seed THE AMOEBA All living things are made of protoplasm. Protoplasm exists in microscopic units called cells. The amoeba (which lives in pond water) consists of just one cell but demonstrates the basic structure of all animal cells and shows the phenomena which distinguish living from non-living things, DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT ECTOPLASM _. (clear, homogenk jelly PSEUDOPODIA ENDOPLASM cyToPLasm (viscous fluid with| granules in constant movement) | CELL MEMBRANE (somi-permeable: z allows selected substances in solution g 2 NUCLEOPLASM-~ (specialized protoplasm NucuEUs of nucleus) (controlling NUCLEAR ~ cme MEMBRANE “< ro0p cell dies) CONTRACTILE VACUOLE + }} waren excess water collects here) | DROPLETS ios if UNDIGESTED RETRACTING |,” ~~ PARTICLES PSEUDOPODIA LEFT BEHIND The amocba is juss visible to the naked eve ‘The constituents of all protoplasm are water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and, clectrolytesTHE PHENOMENA WHICH CHARACTERIZE ALL LIVING THINGS ARE SHOWN BY THE AMOEBA 1 ORGANIZATION PSEUDOPODIA FORMATION a | OB - Be- Small elevation Cytoplasm —_ forsing es on surface streams long 2 IRRITABILITY 3 CONTRACTILITY Ability t 4 NUTRITION Ability to ingest digest ab 5 METABOLISM AND GROWTH Ability 1 ON of nple units by living cell ps down) complex foods. Ability to take in oxygen RESPIRATION and EXCRETION Products , ease) FPA tin sout 7} insolition) —CEAG ! Dioxic -« expelled at = REPRODUCTION Asexual in the amoeba by simple fission. Bah OCS CORE ‘8 REPRODUCTIONTHE PARAMECIUM The paramecium (anothé one-celled fresh water creature) shows: Modification and localization of structure for specialization and lo certain functions ol tion of CONSTANT SHAPE (oval, fiat slightly twisted) MOVEMENT Body as.a whole $s propelled through water in a spiral t course due to the CONTRACTILE VACUOLE ~ Groove > lashing action of the i - — cilia cua . (hair-like CYTOPLASM . NUTRITION , GULLET ~ Water currents (one definite —__| * created place for ~ + Food particles intake of food carried into gullet FooD enclosed in vacuo in which itis digested > Always follow the same pathway within the cytoplasm. ‘CONTRACTILE VACUOLE > Always discarded REMAINS. at the same outlet con coll surface, r sin is juse visible Many other one-celled animals show the naked e aborate organization and specializationTHE CELL he cell is the structural and functional unit of the many-celled animal. Higher animals, including man, are made up of millions of living cells which vary widely in structure and function but have certain features in common. The che plasma (cell) membrane, a nucleus (a spherical or oval organelle often near the centre) and cytoplasm, the region outside the are cell organelles (little organs) suspended in a fluid, the cytosol, and ll contains an outer membrane, nucleus, in wh clusion bodies containing secretion and storage substances. SECRETORY GRANULES CYTOPLASM, NUCLEUS, PLASMA MEMBRANE ) NUCLEAR MEMBRANE “ NUCLEOPLASM © “7 (specialized Pe fi protoplasm x “(of nucleus) CHROMATIN masses (ich in deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA)) ORGANELLE: (a) GOLGI APPARATUS (Golgi complex) (&) CENTROSOME (with two centrioles) — _ (c) MITOCHONDRION (d} ROUGH (granular) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (with attached RIBOSOMES) (¢) SMOOTH (agi DOPLASMIC division, to a constant number of CHROMOSOMES — on these are the GENES, the carriers of inheritable RETICULUM characteristies (f RIBOSOMES (tree . in eytosol) ~ NUCLEOLUS (g) LYSOSOMES and -~ PEROXISOMES ~ ' ( | _{ UpiD globules | PROTEIN masses Fu materials GLYCOGEN granules, J _—Being stored INCLUSION SECRETION products) BODIES WASTE materials Awaiting expulsion of f 3 y-prod! from cell JFINE STRUCTURE OF CELLS PLASMA MEMBRANE Il is the plasma membrane which controls the rate and type and assing into and out of the cell. It consists of two layers of phospholipid molecules interspersed with protein molecu Nets the clothes pin shape oft Integr UR AY Peripheral phospholipid molecules. The head is the protein FLUID / prot phosphate portion — relatively soluble in water (polar, hydrophilic), The tails ar he lipid — relatively insoluble (non-pola nydrophobic) and they ¢ membrane. Integral prot embedded in the membrane: per proteins are loosely bound to the inner ot ek Perpntal __Prieononesd outer surface Channel ae protein molecule The proteins can function as: CELL CYTOPLASM. 1ors for the cytoskeleton (internal network of protein rods su walls), (b) carriers to tr ions. Change in the shape sport substances across the membrane. (c) channels for the protein can result in opening or closing of channel which can initiate chang alysing chemical reactions at the membrane surf d) receptors, binding, fe transmitters and hormor NUCLEUS ated by a space, surrounds the nuc A nuclear envelope (or membrane), which is really two mem At numerous points these membranes are joined, forming the rims of circular openings, the water filled nuclear pores, through which large ecules e.g. ribonucleic acid (RNA) can pass in and out of the nucleus. The nucleus is packed with fibres of Nuclear envelop: Chromatin chfomatin which, when the cell divides, ele aa coils and shortens into 46 rod-shaped Owe chromosomes. Chromatin fibres appeat like ‘beads on a string’, Each ‘bead’ has a central core of eight proteins called histones, around which are two coils of a Nucter double strand of deoxyribonucleic acid DNA). The DNA also links the together. Small segments of the DNA molecule are called genes. Bach provides information required to ja inatioeiics ONS with space betweer Jetermine a protein's amino acid sequence DNA molecules are too large to pass out of the nucleus. Hence part of the DNA molecule assembles (by a process called transcription) a nucleic acid which is smaller 1 DNA, called messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) which can pass into the cytoplasm mRNA carries the code for polypeptide smbly to the ribosomes. An acids are arried to the ribosomes ai her, smaller RNA molecules, called transfer RNA (tRNA). Polypeptides and proteins can then be assembled on the ribosomes 10 from the amino acids according to the mRNA code (a process called translation’ORGANELLES NUCLEOLUS Side whiskers of FRNA. DNA stalk RIBOSOMES GOLGI APPARATUS 0,5 2 protein EN Yt Gio os containing OG” Labelled proteins leaving Golgi apparatus LYSOSOMES. SS G Mer PEROXISOMES The nucleolus is a spherical body within the nucleus. It has no membrane and is packed with ‘fern-like’ structures, each consisting of a stalk of DNA and side whiskers of ribosomal ribonucleic acid (7RNA). The RNA molecules are combined of ribosomes which pass into t Jasm where the subunits combine to form ribosomes. Each ribosome consists of over 70 protein molecules and rRNA es, and is divided into two subunits called 40S and 60S on the basis of their sedimentation rates in a centrifuge Some ribosomes are bound to a structure called endoplasmic -eticulum ( re free in the cytosol. Ribosomes synthesize eins from amino acids carr to the ribosomes by transfer RNA (RNA) and assembled using instructions carried by mRNA molecules from genes in the nucleus. Proteins synthesized apparatus where th Proteins manufactured ribosomes perform their The Golgi apparatus c mbrane- 4-6 stacked sauic enclosed s. Proteins from the asmic reticulum have the kind of label which determines wh protein will be (a) passed into lysosomes (see below), (b) stored or (€ e plasma membrane. Lysosomes are large membrane-bound organelles of various hich act as intracellular scavengers. They contain digestive enzymes which digest e.g. bacteria, which have been engulfed by the cell, and cellular debris such as damaged organel Peroxisomes are similar in structure to the lysosomes, They ratain (a) enzymes which combine oxygen and hydrogen to form hydrogen peroxide (H,O,) and (b) and enzyme whic! converts H;O2 to water