SPCL 2011 - ABP - Post-Conference Handouts

SPCL
2011- Accra
Tok Pisin and English in Papua New Guinea the value of Census data
Adam Blaxter Paliwala University of Sydney
Adam Blaxter Paliwala University of Sydney adam.paliwala@yahoo.com
Sources of Census Data

1966-1971 : 1980 :
Laycock, D. (1985b). Tok Pisin and the census. The Handbook of Tok Pisin. S. A. Wurm and P. Muhlhausler: 223-231. Sanko, G. (1980). MulZlingualism in Papua New Guinea. Social Life of Language. G. Sanko: 95-132. Romaine, S. (1992). Language, educaZon, and development : urban and rural Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Jenkins, R. S. (2000). Language Contact and Composite Structures in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. PhD, University of South CarolinaRomaine NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce, C. (1994). Report on the 1990 NaZonal PopulaZon and Housing Census in Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce: 397 NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce, C. (1994). Report on the 1990 NaZonal PopulaZon and Housing Census in Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce: 397 NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce, C. (2002a). 2000 Census Basic Tables - NaZonal Level. Port Moresby, NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce. Sanko, D. (2008). How to predict the evoluZon of a bilingual community. Social lives in language. M. Meyerho and N. Nagy. Amsterdam, John Benjamins: 179-194.
1990 : 2000 :
adam.paliwala@yahoo.com
Papua New Guinea language situaZon

PNG PopulaZon 2000 : 5.14 million 10+ Years old : 3.7 million Extreme case of Indigenous LinguisZc Diversity 800+ Indigenous Languages Pidgin NaZonal Langauges: Tok Pisin (TP) Hiri Motu (HM) Ocal Language: English (Eng) 3
Urban Centres: Rural Areas EducaZon Tok Pisin Indigenous Tok Ples English Tok Pisin English
QuesZons of Interest
I. Spread of a pidgin/creole language
Number of users *
II. First-language usage

creole speakers *
III. MulZlingualism with Indigenous Vernaculars

substrate eects *
IV. MulZlingualism with Lexier

superstrate eects & decreolizaZon *
PNG Census History - Summary

Early: 1966-1971 :
Restricted to urban and 10% of rural populaZon Spread of naZonal languages
Tok Pisin spoken/wripen Hiri Motu spoken/wripen English spoken/wripen
Literacy in other languages
Post-Independence: 1980
long form quesZon for urban populaZon mainly Domains of language use Spread of English, Creole Tok Pisin
NaZonal Census : 1990-2000

NaZonal Census Literacy skills : United NaZons EducaZon Index
5
QuesZons:
Papua New Guinea Census Changing QuesZons

Home & Market language Ability to Read & Write
Spoken / Wripen Languages
1966, 1971
1980
1990, 2000, 2011
Sample:
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Australian AdministraZon
Independence = 1975 long form & short form NaZonal Census
Urban + 10% Rural
Competence
Domains / Use
Literacy
1990 Literacy focus

UN Index requires literacy rates No measure of verbal vs literate competence in the community. 1990: asked if literate in English, Tok Pisin, Motu, or any other language.
read and write simple messages or lepers in a language No specic language skills tested
"it was assumed that as in most cases the enumerator was appointed from the locality, he also knew who was able to read and write with understanding. (NaZonal StaZsZcal oce 1994)
7
Census 2000 NaZonal Literacy PopulaZon over 10 years 3.7 million

The 2000 census was conducted using a single one-page form, printed enZrely in English. The task of interpreZng the quesZons for non-English-literate informants was leu to English-speakers in individual households or the community at large, or to the census enumerators. Literacy QuesZon:
Language skills were only assessed for persons over 10 years of age, along with advanced educaZonal apainments and details of employment. The four opZons given were: English, Pidgin, Motu, Tokples. Yes/No answers were provided by check-box.
QuesZon 14 asked Which languages can the person read and write with understanding?.
Changing QuesZons = Changing Data

Data Dierences:
Dierent Sample sizes Dierent QuesZons Dierent tests applied Dierent PoliZcal Agendas
QuesZons:
CompaZble Data? Tok Pisin & English : change over Zme? What can literacy tell us?
Census 2000 NaZonal Literacy PopulaZon over 10 years 3.7 million

3% Total Literate in any language 42% 55% Total not literate Total literacy not reported
10
2000 Literate Hiri Motu 180,000 5%
Literate in Hiri Motu Literates without Hiri Motu
11
2000 Literacy - English 1.4 million 39%
Literate in English Literate without English
12
2000 Literacy Tok Pisin 1.6 million 44%
Literate in Tok Pisin Literate without Tok Pisin
13
Literacy as a measure of Competence? (45% illiterate populaZon must be speaking something)
Census Data 1966 Literacy (non-indigenous languages)

Tok Pisin Tok Pisin, English Police (Hiri) Motu English
15
Census Data 1966 Competence (non-indigenous languages)

16

17
Comparing Census Data

Papua New Guinea Census gures : Combined (literacy gures indicated)
Source English Tok Pisin Motu Other
Laycock 1985
Laycock 1985 Table 3 Laycock 1985 Romaine 1992 Romaine 1992 Report 1994
Report 2002
1966
(Literacy) 1966
1971
1980
(Literacy) (Literacy) (Literacy) 1980 1990 2000
13.27 36.5 8.14
11.41 12.23 3.38 15.93
20.37 44.49 9.48
22.34 45 9.4
20.17 20.2 4.5 14.23
29.1 30.7 6 38.5
39.2 43.9 4.9 40.5
18
Literacy % 1966-2000
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1966 1980 1990 2000
English Tok Pisin Motu Other
19

20

21
CalculaZng Literacy 1980-1990

Literacy Rates : 1966 : 22% 1990 : 45% 2000 : 55%
1994 Report : 1980 gures were esZmated on the assumpZon that ciZzens over 10 years who had completed grade 3+ were literate.
NaZonal StaZsZcal oce 1994 report calculaZon of 27.7%
Romaine obtained literacy gures around 32.3% for 1980 census = 5% higher
1980-1990 : Literacy growth rate per annum at 6.4% is much higher than populaZon growth rate of 2.3%
22
Census 2000 Literacy Gap

500,000 more ciZzens reported reading and wriZng ability (literacy) at quesZon 14 than who had completed grade 3 educaZon.
Grade 3+ 1.64 million Q14 Literate 2.15 million
This represents approximately 10% of the populaZon of Papua New Guinea

Even though Grade 3+ gures include 5-9 y/olds who were not included in Q14
23
Literacy Gap - QuesZons

Q1. How does this gap eect literacy growth rates? Q2. Why is there a gap?
i. D. Sankos account ii. AlternaZve explanaZon
24
1. Growth in Literacy over Zme

EsZmated Literacy Rates for 2000 are 10% lower than reported rates. PNG Na0onal Census Literacy Rates Reported and Calculated 1966-2000
60.00%
50.00%
10%
40.00%
30.00%
10%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00% 1966 1971 1980 (Grade 3+) 1990 2000 (Grade 3+ of C2) 2000
25
2.i. D. Sanko : conZnuing educaZon

Argued that the post-school age growth in literacy was due to acquisiZon of skills in the workplace/adulthood One explanaZon for dierence between Grade 3+ literacy and reported literacy (literacy gap) in 2000 census
26
2.i. D Sankos Late-literacy

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 14 19 24 29 39 49 59 69 70+
Rural % English Rural % Tok Pisin Urban % English Urban % Tok Pisin
REM: under 18s = Mhlhuslers (1985g: 238) earliest category of Tok Pisin speakers adam.paliwala@yahoo.com
27
2.ii. AlternaZve ExplanaZon

I looked at the high levels of Tokples Other language literacy reported in 2000 Census: 1.5 million people A remarkable success for the Tokples EducaZon Program? Siegel 1998 :
Nb. many Tokples with limited orthographies

1994 Government Secretariat Report : 2,309 vernacular preschool programs with 4,581 teachers and 79,445 students in over 200 languages Adult literacy programs : 330, with 449 teachers and 7,543 students These included Tok Pisin as an accepted Tokples
2.ii. 2000 Literacy Other 1.5 million 40%

Literate in 'Other' Literates without 'other'
29
Tokples EducaZon
A (very) rough (over-) esZmate : 80,000 Preschool students each 2 years 1980-2000 => 800,000+ Vernacular literates
SZll well short of the Reported Census gures of 1.5 million
Nb. EsZmate would include Tok Pisin literates also
=> An even larger literacy gap?

Where does all this Other language literacy come from?
30
2.ii. ExplanaZon: Answering the QuesZon

Was the Census 2000 Language QuesZon interpreted as a quesZon on language Ability, rather than Literacy?
50% of informants in Port Moresby Households could not recall if there was a language quesZon 2 years later 1:3 of them recalled it as a quesZon about reading/wriZng skills Suggests that reported literacy gures may represent overesZmaZons:
People misunderstood the quesZon Literate ciZzens included all the languages they knew High gures for vernacular literacy compared to formal educaZon/ orthographies etc.
care needs to be exercised in how the gures are to be interpreted. (Crowley 1994: 2)
31
Recap: QuesZons of Interest

I. Spread of a pidgin/creole language
Number of users *
II. First-language usage

creole speakers *
III. MulZlingualism with Indigenous Vernaculars

substrate eects *
IV. MulZlingualism with Lexier

superstrate eects & decreolizaZon *
32
Literacy gure may be higher or lower than reading and wriZng skills, but presumably lower than speaking skills
Tok Pisin Tok Pisin, English Police (Hiri) Motu English Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, English Hiri Motu, English
InterpretaZons : Literacy
Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, English Hiri Motu, English

33
InterpretaZons I
Number of Users of Tok Pisin
Census 2000 Literacy Tok Pisin 1.6 million 44%

Literate in Tok Pisin Literate without Tok Pisin
35
InterpretaZons II
Creole
Creole Literacy Tok Pisin Mono-literates : 136,000 4%

Tok Pisin MulZ-literate Tok Pisin Mono- literate
37
InterpretaZons III
Substrates
Assuming those reporZng literacy in a Tokples are able to speak it to some degree:
PotenZal for substrate or L1 eects
Substrate Eects? Hiri Motu with Other

Mono-literate Bi-literate with 'Other' MulZ-literate with 'Other' MulZ-literate without 'Other'
39
Substrate Eects? Tok Pisin with Other

40
Substrate Eects? English with Other

41
Substrate?
800+ Other languages = Substrate? English a signicant language in mulZlingualism Big overlap of Other with Hiri Motu Substrate Eect arguably present on English as well as Tok Pisin REM: Over-esZmaZon of Tokples literacy? REM: Literacy and Competance
42
InterpretaZons IV
Superstrate
Superstrate Eects? Tok Pisin Literates 1.6 million

Mono-literate Biliterate with English MulZliterate with English Multliterate without English
44
Tok Pisin and English

Conclusions for my work on Bilingual eects on Tok Pisin from English:
MulZ-literate Tok Pisin / English frequent As many people bi-literate in Tok Pisin and English as literate in Tok Pisin without English
Literacy gure may be higher or lower than reading and wriZng skills, but presumably lower than speaking skills
45
InterpretaZons : Summary Tok Pisin in 2000 Census

I. Tok Pisin Community > 44% II. Tok Pisin Creole community? : 4% III. Substrate Eects? : 37% IV. Superstrate eects? : 33%
Bi-literacy Tok Pisin / English : 7% of populaZon

47
Comments
Census data on literacy is only the Zp of the iceberg 1 million strong community of Tok Pisin / English mulZ-literates An underlying greater non-literate community? Census 2000 data establishes English and Tok Pisin as key growth languages in Papua New Guinean Community featuring Post-pidgin superstrate eects?
Goroka Market - Signage
49
References I.
Crowley, T. (1994). "LinguisZc demography: InterpreZng the 1989 census results in Vanuatu." Journal of MulZlingual and MulZcultural Development 15(1): 1-16.
Extra, G. (2010). Mapping linguisZc diversity in mulZcultural contexts: demolinguisZc Jenkins, R. S. (2000). Language Contact and Composite Structures in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. PhD, University of South Carolina. Laycock, D. (1985b). Tok Pisin and the census. The Handbook of Tok Pisin. S. A. Wurm
perspecZves. Handbook of Language and Ethnic IdenZty. J. A. Fishman and O. Garcia. Oxford, Oxford University Press: 102-122.
and P. Muhlhausler: 223-231. and P. Muhlhausler: 233-273.
Mhlhusler, P. (1985g). VariaZon in Tok Pisin. The Handbook of Tok Pisin. S. A. Wurm Na0onal Sta0s0cal Oce, C. (1994). Report on the 1990 NaZonal PopulaZon and
Housing Census in Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce: 397.
Na0onal Sta0s0cal Oce, C. (2002a). 2000 Census Basic Tables - NaZonal Level. Port
Moresby, NaZonal StaZsZcal Oce.
50
References II.
Noel, J. (1975). LegiZmacy of Pidgin in the Development of Papua New Guinea toward
naZonhood. Tok Pisin i Go We? K. A. McElhanon. Port Moresby, LinguisZc Society of Papua New Guinea: 76-84. in Papua New Guinea. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
Romaine, S. (1992). Language, educaZon, and development : urban and rural Tok Pisin Sanko, D. (2008). How to predict the evoluZon of a bilingual community. Social lives
in language. M. Meyerho and N. Nagy. Amsterdam, John Benjamins: 179-194.

Sanko, G. (1977). CreolizaZon and SyntacZc Change in New Guinea Tok Pisin.
Sociocultural dimensions of language change. B. G. Blount and M. Sanches. New York, Academic Press Inc: 119.
Sanko, G. (1980). MulZlingualism in Papua New Guinea. Social Life of Language. G.
Sanko: 95-132.
Siegel, J. (1998). "Literacy in Melanesian and Australian pidgins and creoles." English
World-Wide 19(1): 104-133.
Smith, G. P. (2002). Growing up with Tok Pisin - Contact, creolizaZon, and change in
Papua New Guinea's naZonal language. London, Baplebridge. adam.paliwala@yahoo.com
51

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SPCL

Sources of Census Data

Papua New Guinea language situaZon

II. First-language usage

III. MulZlingualism with Indigenous Vernaculars

IV. MulZlingualism with Lexier

PNG Census History - Summary

Literacy in other languages

NaZonal Census : 1990-2000

Papua New Guinea Census Changing QuesZons

Spoken / Wripen Languages

1990, 2000, 2011

Independence = 1975 long form & short form NaZonal Census

Urban + 10% Rural

1990 Literacy focus

Census 2000 NaZonal Literacy PopulaZon over 10 years 3.7 million

Changing QuesZons = Changing Data

Census 2000 NaZonal Literacy PopulaZon over 10 years 3.7 million

2000 Literate Hiri Motu 180,000 5%

Literate in Hiri Motu Literates without Hiri Motu

2000 Literacy - English 1.4 million 39%

Literate in English Literate without English

2000 Literacy Tok Pisin 1.6 million 44%

Literate in Tok Pisin Literate without Tok Pisin

Literacy as a measure of Competence? (45% illiterate populaZon must be speaking something)

Census Data 1966 Literacy (non-indigenous languages)

Census Data 1966 Competence (non-indigenous languages)

Census Data 1971 Competence (non-indigenous languages)

Comparing Census Data

Source English Tok Pisin Motu Other

(Literacy) (Literacy) (Literacy) 1980 1990 2000

13.27 36.5 8.14

11.41 12.23 3.38 15.93

20.37 44.49 9.48

20.17 20.2 4.5 14.23

29.1 30.7 6 38.5

39.2 43.9 4.9 40.5

English Tok Pisin Motu Other

Census Data 1966 Literacy (non-indigenous languages)

Census Data 2000 Literacy (non-indigenous languages)

CalculaZng Literacy 1980-1990

Census 2000 Literacy Gap

This represents approximately 10% of the populaZon of Papua New Guinea

Literacy Gap - QuesZons

1. Growth in Literacy over Zme

2.i. D. Sanko : conZnuing educaZon

2.i. D Sankos Late-literacy

2.ii. AlternaZve ExplanaZon

Nb. many Tokples with limited orthographies

2.ii. 2000 Literacy Other 1.5 million 40%

=> An even larger literacy gap?

2.ii. ExplanaZon: Answering the QuesZon

Recap: QuesZons of Interest

II. First-language usage

III. MulZlingualism with Indigenous Vernaculars

IV. MulZlingualism with Lexier

Census Data 1966 Competence (non-indigenous languages)

Tok Pisin Tok Pisin, English Police (Hiri) Motu English

Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, English Hiri Motu, English

Number of Users of Tok Pisin

Census 2000 Literacy Tok Pisin 1.6 million 44%

Creole Literacy Tok Pisin Mono-literates : 136,000 4%

Substrate Eects? Hiri Motu with Other

Substrate Eects? Tok Pisin with Other