BI GING QUANG HC BENJAMIN CROWELL

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 1

CHNG 1 M HNH TIA SNG

Mu qung co cho mt dng my tnh Macintosh khoe khoang rng n c th lm mt php tnh s hc trong thi gian ngn hn thi gian cn thit nh sng i t mn hnh n mt ca bn. Chng ta thy qung co ny n tng v s tng phn gia tc ca nh sng v tc chng ta tng tc vi nhng i tng vt cht trong mi trng xung quanh. C l chng c g bt ng i vi chng ta khi m Newton thnh cng m mn trong vic gii thch s chuyn ng ca cc vt, nhng ng khng thnh cng cho lm vi s nghin cu nh sng. Tp sch ny thuc lot sch c tn gi chung l Vt cht v nh sng, nhng phi n lc ny, tp th nm trong su tp, chng ta mi sn sng tp trung tm hiu v nh sng. Nu bn c cc tp sch theo th t, th t hn bn bit rng nh im ca s nghin cu ca chng ta v in hc v t hc l s khm ph ra

rng nh sng l sng in t. Tuy nhin, bit c nh vy th khng ging nh

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vic bit mi th v mt v knh thin vn. Tht ra, s m t trn vn ca nh sng di dng sng c th kh cng knh. Thay v th, trong tp sch ny, chng ta s khai thc mt m hnh n gin hn ca nh sng, m hnh s dng tin li trong a s nhng trng hp thc t. Khng nhng th, chng ta cng s li li mt cht v bt u tho lun nhng tng c bn v nh sng v tm nhn thy trc s khm ph ra sng in t. 1.1 Bn cht ca nh sng Mi lin h nhn qu trong s nhn Mc d c tiu nh vy, nhng chng ny cn cch rt xa s hiu bit s ng ca bn v nh sng. S hiu bit c v nh l li th, nhng a s mi ngi cha bao gi suy ngh thn trng v nh sng v s nhn. Ngay c ngi thng minh suy ngh k v s nhn cng i ti nhng quan nim khng ng. Ngi Hi Lp, Arab v Trung Hoa c i c nhng l thuyt v nh sng v s nhn, ton b nhng l thuyt a phn l sai lm, v ton b nhng l thuyt c chp nhn trong hng nghn nm tri. C mt iu m nhng ngi c i nhn thc ng l c mt s khc bit gia nhng vt pht ra nh sng v nhng vt khng pht ra nh sng. Khi bn nhn thy mt chic l trong rng cy, l v ba vt khc nhau ang thc thi cng vic ca chng: chic l, i mt, v mt tri. Nhng nhng vt ta sng nh mt tri, ngn la hay dy tc bng n in c th nhn thy bng mt m khng cn s c mt ca mt vt th ba. S pht x nh sng thng, ch khng phi lun lun, i km vi nhit. Trong thi i ngy nay, chng ta quen thuc vi rt nhiu vt ta sng m khng b nung nng, th d nh bng n hunh quang v chi pht quang trong m. Lm th no chng ta nhn thy nhng vt ta sng? Cc trit gia Hi Lp Pythagoras (khong 560 tCN) v Empedocles x Acragas (khong 492 tCN), tht khng may l li rt c sc thuyt phc, khng nh rng khi bn nhn vo mt ngn la nn, th ngn la v mt bn cng pht ra mt loi vt cht b n, v khi

vt cht ca mt bn va chm vi vt cht ca ngn nn, th ngn nn s tr nn

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hin hin trc tm nhn ca bn.

L thuyt vt cht va chm kiu Hi Lp nh th trng tht k qui, nhng n c hai im tt. N l gii v sao c ngn nn ln mt bn u phi c mt trong s nhn ca bn. L thuyt trn cng c th d dng m rng gii thch lm th no chng ta nhn thy nhng vt khng pht sng. Chng hn, nu mt chic l c mt ti ch va chm gia vt cht ca mt bn v vt cht ca ngn nn, th chic l s b kch thch hin hin bn cht mu lc ca n, cho php bn cm nhn n c mu lc. Ngi thi hin i c th cm thy khng hi lng vi l thuyt ny, v n cho rng tnh lc ch tn ti cho chng ta tin nhn, hm rng con ngi c quyn u tin cao hn hin tng t nhin. Ngy nay, ngi ta mun thy mi lin h nhn qu trong s nhn nm ch khc, vi chic l ang lm ci g vi mt chng ta thay v mt chng ta ang lm g vi chic l. Nhng bn c th ni nh th no ch? Cch ph bin nht phn bit nguyn nhn vi h qu l xc nh ci g xy ra trc, nhng qu trnh nhn dng nh xy ra qu nhanh m xc nh trt t mi th din ra. Chc chn khng c s tr thi gian r rng no gia thi khc khi bn c ng u ca mnh v thi khc khi nh phn x ca bn trong gng di chuyn. Ngy nay, k thut nhip nh mang li bng chng thc nghim n gin nht rng khng c ci g pht ra t mt bn v i ti chic l lm cho n c mu lc. Mt camera c th chp nh ca chic l trong khi chng c con mt no gn c. V chic l hin hin mu lc cho d n ang c cm nhn bi camera, mt ca bn, hay mt cn trng, cho nn iu c ngha hn l nn ni tnh lc ca chic l l nguyn nhn, v ci g xy ra trong camera hay trong mt l h qu. nh sng l mt thc th, v n truyn t im ny sang im khc Mt vn na m mt s ngi xem xt l ngn la nn nh hng n mt ca bn mt cch trc tip, hay n pht ra nh sng i vo trong mt ca bn.

Mt ln na, tnh nhanh chng ca hiu ng khin ngi ta kh ni r ci g ang

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xy ra. Nu mt ai nm mt hn vo ngi bn, bn c th nhn thy hn trn ng i ca n n c th bn, v bn c th ni rng ngi tn cng bn bng cch gi vt cht n ng i ca bn, thay v trc tip x bn bng tay chn, ci c gi l tc dng xa. Tht chng d dng g thc hin mt quan st tng t xt xem c vt cht no truyn t ngn nn n mt bn hay khng, hay l trng hp tc dng t xa.

a/ nh sng pht ra t ngn nn tt nhin b chm trng bi ming thy tinh. Vic a ming thy tinh vo chn gia lm cho v tr biu kin ca ngn nn b di ch. Hiu ng tng t c th thy c khi bn tho knh eo mt xung v hy nhn vo ci bn trng thy gn ra ca thu knh, nhng mt ming thy tinh phng s hot ng ging ht nh thu knh trong mc ch ny. Vt l hc Newton bao hm c tc dng xa (th d lc hp dn ca tri t tc dng ln mt vt ang ri) v lc tip xc nh lc php tuyn, ch cho php nhng vt xa tc dng lc ln nhau bng cch bn ra mt cht no bng qua khng gian gia chng (th d lc vi ti vn phun nc tc dng ln bi cy). Mt bng chng rng ngn nn pht ra vt cht truyn n mt bn l nh trn hnh a/, mt cht trong sut chn vo gia ng i lm cho ngn nn trng nh v tr khng ng, cho thy nh sng l ci g tt nhin c th b chm trng. Tuy nhin, nhiu ngi s bc b loi quan st ny l o gic. (Mt s hiu

ng quang hc l nhng hiu ng thn kinh hoc tm l thun ty, mc d mt s

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hiu ng khc, nh hiu ng ny, ha ra c nguyn nhn l do hnh trng ca nh sng). Mt cch thuyt phc hn xc nh nh sng thuc loi g l tm hiu xem n mt thi gian bao lu i t ngn nn n mt ca bn; trong vt l hc Newton, tc dng xa c cho l tc thi. Thc t hng ngy chng ta hay ni tc nh sng hm rng ti mt thi im no trong lch s, mt ai thnh cng trong vic chng t rng nh sng khng truyn i nhanh v hn.galileo th, v tht bi, nhm pht hin tc hu hn i vi nh sng, bng cch b tr mt ngi ng ti mt ta thp xa dng n lng pht i tn hiu ti lui. galileo m n ca ng ra, v khi ngi kia nhn thy nh sng, anh ta m n ca mnh. Galileo khng th o thy bt k s tr thi gian ng k no so vi nhng gii hn phn x ca con ngi. Ngi u tin chng minh rng tc nh sng l hu hn, v xc nh n bng s, l Ole Roemer, trong mt lot php o tin hnh trong nm 1675. Roemer quan st Io, mt trong nhng v tinh ca Mc tinh, trong khong thi gian vi nm. V Io c gi nh l mt mt lng thi gian nh nhau quay trn mt vng quanh Mc tinh, nn n c th c xem l mt chic ng h rt xa, rt chnh xc. Mt ng h qu lc thc t v chnh xc mi c pht minh ra trc khng lu, nn Roemer c th kim tra t s chu k ca hai chic ng h, khong 42,5 gi trn 1 vng qu o, vn gi khng i hoc thay i cht t. Nu qu trnh ngm v tinh xa xi trn l tc thi, th s khng c s l gii no cho hai kt qu lch nhau. Cho d tc nh sng l hu hn, th bn c th trng i kt qu cng s khp vi nhau. Tuy nhin, tri t chng ta khng mt khong cch c nh i vi Mc tinh v v tinh ca n. V khong cch thay i dn dn do chuyn ng qu o ca hai hnh tinh, cho nn mt tc hu hn ca nh sng s lm cho ng h Io dng nh chy nhanh hn khi cc hnh tinh chuyn ng n gn nhau, v chy chm hn khi khong cch gia chng tng ln. Roemer tht s tm thy mt s bin thin tc biu kin ca qu o ca Io, ci lm cho s che khut Io bi Mc tinh (thi khc khi Io i qua pha trc hoc pha sau Mc

tinh) xy ra sm khong 7 pht khi Tri t gn Mc tinh nht, v mun 7 pht

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khi n xa nht. Da trn nhng php o ny, Roemer c tnh tc nh sng xp x 2 x 108 m/s, gi tr kh gn vi s o hin i 3 x 108 m/s. (Ti khng r sai s thc nghim kh ln nh th ch yu l do kin thc khng chnh xc v bn knh qu o ca Tri t hay l do nhng hn ch v tin cy ca ng h qu lc).

b/ nh chp Mc tinh v v tinh ca n (tri) do phi thuyn Cassini cung cp.

c/ Tri t ang chuyn ng v pha Mc tinh v Io. V khong cch ang rt ngn, nn tn t thi gian hn cho nh sng i t Io n chng ta, v Io dng nh quay xung quanh Mc tinh nhanh hn bnh thng. Su thng sau , Tri t s nm pha bn kia ca Mt tri v li ra xa Mc tinh v Io, cho nn Io dng s quay xung quanh Mc tinh chm hn. nh sng c th truyn trong chn khng

Nhiu ngi cm thy lng tng trc mi lin h gia m thanh v nh

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sng. Mc d chng ta s dng nhng c quan khc nhau cm nhn chng, nhng c mt s tng ng. Chng hn, c nh sng ln m thanh u thng lan ta ra mi hng t ngun pht ca chng. Cc nhc s thm ch cn s dng nhng php n d th gic nh tng mu, hay m sc ti vui m t m thanh. Mt cch nhn nhn chng r rng l nhng hin tng khc nhau l lu n vn tc rt khc nhau ca chng. Chc chn, c hai gi tr vn tc u nhanh so vi mt mi tn ang bay hay mt con nga ang phi nc i, nhng nh chng ta thy, tc nh sng ln n mc gn nh l tc thi trong a s tnh hung. Tuy nhin, tc ca m thanh th c th d dng quan st c bng cch di theo mt m tr xa vi trm mt khi chng v tay ht ng ca. C mt s tr thi gian r rng gia lc bn nhn thy bn tay ca chng v vi nhau v lc bn nghe thy ting v tay. S khc bit c bn gia m thanh v nh sng l ch m thanh l mt dao ng p sut khng kh, cho nn n cn khng kh (hay mt mi trng khc nh nc) truyn i. Ngy nay, chng ta bit rng khng gian v tr bn ngoi l chn khng, cho nn thc t chng ta thu c nh sng t mt tri, mt trng v cc v sao r rng cho thy khng kh l khng cn thit i vi s truyn nh sng. Cu hi tho lun A. Nu bn quan st sm st, bn c th ni cn ging bo xa bao nhiu. Bn c cn bit tc ca m thanh, ca nh sng, hay ca c hai hay khng? B. Khi nhng hin tng nh tia X v tia v tr ln u c khm ph ra,

hy xut mt cch m ngi ta c th kim tra bit xem chng l nhng dng nh sng hay khng. C. Ti sao Roemer ch cn bit bn knh ca qu o Tri t, ch khng

cn bn knh ca qu o Mc tinh, tm ra tc nh sng?

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 2

1.2 Tng tc ca nh sng vi vt cht S hp th nh sng L do mt tri gy cm gic m p trn da bn l v nh sng mt tri ang b hp th, v nng lng nh sng ang bin i thnh nng lng nhit. iu tng t xy ra vi nh sng nhn to, cho nn kt qu chung ca vic bt n sng l lm nng cn phng. Cho d ngun sng c nng, nh mt tri, ngn la, hay bng n nng sng, hoc lnh, nh bng n hunh quang. (Nu nh ca bn c l si in, th tuyt i ng bao gi tt ht n trong ma ng; bng n gip si m cn phng vi chi ph ngang bng l si in y). Qu trnh nng ln bi s hp th nh th ny hon ton khc vi s nng ln do dn nhit, nh khi bp in lm nng mn st spaghetti trong cho. Nhit ch c th dn qua vt cht, nhng c khong chn khng gia chng ta v mt tri, hoc gia chng ta v dy tc ca mt bng n nng sng. ng thi, s dn nhit ch c th truyn nng lng t vt nng hn sang vt lnh hn, nhng mt bng

n hunh quang ngui hon ton c kh nng lm nng bt c ci g vn bt u

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nng hn bn thn bng n.

Lm th no chng ta nhn thy nhng vt khng pht sng Khng phi ton b nh sng i ti mt vt u b bin i thnh nhit. Mt phn nh sng b phn x, v iu ny a chng ta n cu hi lm th no chng ta nhn thy nhng vt khng pht sng? Nu bn hi mt ngi bnh thng lm th no chng ta nhn thy mt ci bng n, cu tr li c kh nng nht l Bng n pht ra nh sng, v nh sng i ti mt chng ta. Nhng nu bn hi lm th no chng ta nhn thy mt quyn sch, h c kh nng s ni Bng n thp sng cn phng, v nh sng cho php chng ta nhn thy quyn sch. Ton b vn nh sng i vo mt chng ta bin mt mt cch b n. a s mi ngi s khng tn thnh nu bn bo h rng nh sng b phn x t quyn sch i ti mt, v h ngh s phn x l ci g xy ra vi ci gng, ch khng phi vi mt th nh quyn sch. H hnh dung s phn x i cng vi s to thnh nh phn x, m nh khng c v s xut hin trn mt t giy. Hy tng tng bn ang nhn vo nh phn x ca bn trn mt l nhm phng, bng, khng c gp np no. Bn nhn thy gng mt, ch khng phi mt ming kim loi. C l bn cng nhn thy nh phn x sng r ca mt bng n trn vai pha sau bn. Gi th hy tng tng l nhm hi km nhn i mt cht. Nhng phn khc nhau ca nh gi bt u hi lch hng vi nhau. No ca bn c th vn nhn ra gng mt v ci bng n, nhng n hi b nhe, ging nh tranh Picasso vy. Gi gi s bn dng mt l nhm tng cun gp v dt phng ra tr li. Nhng phn ca nh nhe n mc bn khng th nhn ra nh na. Thay vo , no ca bn mch bo rng bn ang nhn vo mt b mt g gh c nh bc.

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d/ Hai bc chn dung t chp ca tc gi, mt chp trong gng v mt chp vi mt l nhm. S phn x kiu gng mt gc nht nh c gi l phn x phn chiu, cn s phn x ngu nhin theo nhiu hng khc nhau c gi l phn x khuch tn. Phn x khuch tn l cch chng ta nhn thy nhng vt khng pht sng. Phn x phn chiu ch cho php chng ta nhn thy nh ca nhng vt khc ngoi vt ang phn x. Trong phn trn ca hnh d, hy tng tng cc tia sng ang pht ra t mt tri. Nu bn nhn xung mt b mt phn chiu, th khng c cch no cho h mt-no ca bn bo rng cc tia sng tht s khng pht ra t mt tri nm bn di ch bn.

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e/ Phn x phn chiu v phn x khuch tn Hnh f th hin mt th d khc ca cch chng ta khng th trnh c kt lun rng nh sng phn x khi nhng vt khc ngoi cc loi gng ra. n ng l ci ti c trong nh mnh. N c mt bng sng, t trong mt tm chn kim loi hnh lng cho hon ton m c. Con ng duy nht nh sng c th i ra khi n ng l i qua phn trn ca lng cho. Thc t ti c th c mt quyn sch t th nh trong hnh c ngha l nh sng phi phn x khi trn nh, sau phn x khi quyn sch, ri cui cng i vo mt ca ti.

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f/ nh sng phn x khi trn nh, sau phn x khi quyn sch y l ch nhng thiu st ca l thuyt Hi Lp v s nhn tr nn r rng hin nhin. Theo l thuyt Hi Lp, nh sng pht ra t bng n v cc tia mt b n ca ti u c cho l i ti quyn sch, ti chng va chm nhau, cho php ti nhn thy quyn sch. Nhng lc ny chng ta c tng cng bn vt: bng n, mt, quyn sch v trn nh. Vy th trn nh nm ch no? N c gi ra nhng tia trn nh b n ca ring n, gp phn vo mt va chm tay ba ti quyn sch hay khng? iu ng l qu k qui m tin! S khc bit gia mu trng, mu en, v nhng bng xm khc nm ch bao nhiu phn trm nh sng m chng hp th v bao nhiu phn trm nh sng m chng phn x. l l do v sao vi vc mu sng thng d nhn hn vo ma h, v mn thm mu sng trong xe hi trng mt m hn mn thm mu en. S o cng sng Chng ta va thy rng cm gic sinh l ca ting n c lin quan n cng m thanh (cng sut trn n v din tch), nhng khng t l thun vi n. Nu

m A c cng 1 nW/m2, m B c cng 10 nW/m2, v m C l 100 nW/m 2,

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th s tng mc cng t B ln C c cm nhn ngang bng vi s tng t A ln B, ch khng phi ln hn 10 ln. Ngha l cm gic mc cng m l hm logarithm. iu tng t ng vi cng sng. sng lin h vi cng sut trn n v din tch, nhng mi lin h sinh l l hm logarithm thay cho hm t l thun. Trn phng din vt l, chng ta quan tm n cng sut trn n v din tch. n v lin quan l W/m2. Mt cch xc nh cng sng l o tng nhit ca mt vt en t trc nh sng . Nng lng nh sng b bin i thnh nng lng nhit, v phn nng lng nhit b hp th trong mt thi gian cho trc c th lin h vi cng sut hp th, s dng nhit dung bit ca vt. Nhng dng c o cng nh sng thc t hn, th d nh nhng my o nh sng ch to trong mt s camera, hot ng da trn s bin i nh sng thnh nng lng in, nhng nhng my o ny phi c ch to khc phc nhng s o nhit. Cu hi tho lun A. Mn ca trong mt cn phng n ko xung, nhng c mt khe nh

cho php nh sng i qua, chiu mt m sng ln trn sn nh. Ngi ta c th hoc cng khng c th nhn thy chm nh sng mt tri i xuyn qua phng, ty thuc vo iu kin nhn. Ci g din ra tip sau ? B. Cc chm laser l nh sng. Trong phim khoa hc vin tng, cc

chm laser thng c th hin l nhng ng sng bn t sng laser ln trn phi thuyn v tr. Ti sao s m t nh th l khng ng v mt khoa hc? C. Mt nh lm phim t liu n l tt nghip nm 1987 ca trng

Harvard v phng vn sinh vin tt nghip, trc camera, yu cu gii thch cc ma trong nm. Ch c 2 trong s 23 ngi c th cho li gii thch ng, nhng gi th bn c mi thng tin cn thit t mnh tr li, gi s bn cha bit g ht. Hnh bn di th hin tri t v tr ma ng v ma h so vi mt tri.

Gi : Xt nhng n v dng o cng nh sng, v nh rng mt tri trong

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ma ng th hi thp, nn cc tia sng ca n chiu xin mt gc nng hn.

g/ Cu hi tho lun C

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc Phn 3

1.3 M hnh tia sng Cc m hnh nh sng Hy lu cch thc ti miu t khng chnh thc s chuyn ng ca nh sng vi hnh nh th hin nh sng c dng ng thng trn trang giy. Chnh thc hn th y c gi l m hnh tia sng. M hnh tia ca nh sng c v t nhin mt khi chng ta t thuyt phc bn thn mnh rng nh sng truyn i trong khng gian, v quan st nhng hin tng nh nhng chm tia sng mt tri chiu xuyn qua khe trng trn nhng m my. tng nu ra khi nim nh sng l mt sng in t, bn bit rng nh sng khng phi l s tht ti hu v nh sng, nhng m hnh tia sng th n gin hn, v trong mi trng hp, khoa hc lun x l nhng m hnh ca thc ti, ch khng x l bn cht ti hu ca thc ti. Bng di y tm tt ba m hnh nh sng.

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h/ Ba m hnh nh sng M hnh tia sng l mt m hnh thng dng. Bng cch s dng n, chng ta c th ni v ng i ca nh sng m khng bn tm ti bt k s m t c bit no ca ci g ang chuyn ng dc theo ng i . Chng ta s s dng m hnh tia n gin, xinh p y trong a phn tp sch ny, v vi n chng ta c th phn tch rt nhiu dng c v hin tng. Cho n chng cui th chng ta mi bn v quang hc sng, mc d trong nhng chng gia, thnh thong ti s phn tch cng mt hin tng vi m hnh tia ln m hnh sng. Lu rng nhng pht biu v kh nng p dng ca nhng m hnh khc nhau ch l nhng ch dn th. Chng hn, nhng hiu ng giao thoa sng thng l c th pht hin ra, nu nh, khi nh sng i qua mt vt chn hi ln hn bc sng mt cht. ng thi, iu kin khi chng ta cn m hnh ht tht ra c nhiu ci phi lm vi thang nng lng hn l thang khong cch, mc d c hai u c lin quan.

c gi thn trng c th thy m hnh sng l cn thit nhng thang

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o nh hn bc sng ca nh sng (vo c 1 micromet i vi nh sng nhn thy), v m hnh ht l cn thit thang nguyn t hoc nh hn (mt nguyn t tiu biu c kch c chng 1 nanomet hoc tng ng). iu ny gi rng nhng thang bc nh nht, chng ta cn c m hnh sng v m hnh ht. Chng c v khng tng thch vi nhau, vy lm th no chng ta c th s dng chng ng thi? Cu tr li l chng khng hn l khng tng thch nh thot trng nh th. nh sng va l sng va l ht, nhng s hiu r trn vn ca pht biu r rng phi trc gic ny l mt ch cho tp tip theo trong b sch ny.

i/ Cc th d ca s tia sng S tia sng Cho d khng bit lm th no s dng m hnh tia sng tnh ton mi th bng s, nhng chng ta c th hc c rt nhiu th bng cch v ra s tia sng. Chng hn, nu bn mun hiu lm th no knh mt gip bn nhn r nt, th mt s tia sng l ni thch hp bt u. Nhiu hc sinh s s dng s tia sng trong quang hc v thay vo ch ham hc thuc lng hay thay s vo cng thc. Vn xy ra vi chuyn hc thuc lng v thay s l chng c th lm lu m ci tht s ang din ra, v d a ti sai lm. Thng th cch tt nht l v mt s tia sng trc, sau tnh ton bng s, v kim tra li kt qu s ca bn xem c ph hp vi ci bn thu c t s tia sng hay khng.

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j/ 1. ng. 2. Sai: hm rng s phn x khuch tn ch cho mt tia t mi im phn x. 3. ng: nhng phc tp n mc khng cn thit. Hnh j trnh by mt s ch dn s dng s tia sng sao cho hiu qu. Cc tia sng b cong khi chng i ra khi b mt ca nc (mt hin tng chng ta s tho lun chi tit hn phn sau). Cc tia sng c v nh xut pht t mt im pha trn v tr tht s ca con c vng, mt hiu ng quen thuc vi nhng ai tng i cu c.

Mt dng nh sng tht ra khng b hn ch vi mt s lng hu hn

nhng ng hp. Chng ta ch v n nh th thi. Trong hnh j/1, cn chn mt s hu hn tia sng v (5 tia), ch khng v s lng v hn tia nh l thuyt s i ra t im .

C mt xu hng khng ng l hnh dung cc tia sng nh nhng vt

th. Trong quynQuang hc ca ng, Newton nu ra cnh gic vi c gi v s nhm ln ny, ng ni rng mt s ngi xem... s khc x ca... cc tia sng l s b cong hay phn tch chng khi chng i t mi trng ny ra mi trng khc. Mt tia sng l mt s ghi li ng i m nh sng truyn qua, ch khng phi mt i tng vt cht c th b b cong hay phn tch.

Trn l thuyt, cc tia sng c th tip tc ko di v hn v qu kh hoc

tng lai, nhng chng ta nn v cc ng c chiu di hu hn. Trong hnh j/1, mt la chn ng n l ni bt u v kt thc cc tia sng. Khng c im no trong phn ko di ca nhng tia sng ngoi phn hnh v, v chng c ci g

mi m v hp dn xy ra vi chng ht. Cn c mt l do hp l na bt u
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chng sm hn, trc khi b phn x bi con c, v hng ca cc tia phn x khuch tn l ngu nhin v khng c lin quan ti hng ca nhng tia ti ban u.

Khi biu din s phn x khuch tn trong s tia sng, nhiu hc tr

c suy ngh trnh v qu nhiu tia ta ra t cng mt im. Thng thng, nh trong th d j/2, ci b hiu lm l nh sng ch c th phn x t hng ny sang hng khc. Mt kh khn na i cng vi s phn x khuch tn, th d j/3, l xu hng ngh rng ngoi vic v nhiu tia ta ra t mt im, chng ta cng nn v nhiu tia n t nhiu im. Trong hnh j/1, vic v nhiu tia ta ra t mt im mang li thng tin hu ch, cho chng ta bit rng, chng hn, con c c nhn t bt k gc no. Vic v nhiu tp hp tia, nh trong hnh j/3, khng cung cp thm cho chng ta thng tin hu ch g na, v ch lm cho bc tranh trong th d ny ri rm thm m thi. L do duy nht v tp hp nhiu tia sng ta ra t nhiu hn mt im l nu c nhng ci khc nhau ang xy ra vi nhng tp hp tia khc nhau . Cu hi tho lun A. Gi s mt con c s dng mt cng c thng minh ... sn ngi. Hy v s tia sng th hin con c phi hiu chnh mc tiu ca n nh th no. Lu rng mc d cc tia sng lc ny i t khng kh vo nc, nhng quy tc p dng vn nh c: tia sng gn php tuyn vi b mt hn khi chng trong nc, v nhng tia sng i ti ranh gii khng kh-nc vi gc thp l b b cong nhiu nht.

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 4

1.4 C s hnh hc ca s phn x phn chiu lm thay i chuyn ng ca mt vt, chng ta s dng lc. C cch no tc dng lc ln mt chm nh sng hay khng? Cc th nghim cho thy in trng v t trng khng lm lch hng chm nh sng, cho nn r rng nh sng khng c in tch. nh sng cng khng c khi lng, v th cho n th k 20 ngi ta tin rng n cng min dch vi trng hp dn. Einstein d on rng nhng chm nh sng s b lch cht t bi trng hp dn mnh, v ngi ta chng minh ng ng vi nhng quan st nh sng sao i qua gn mt tri, nhng r rng chng phi l ci lm cho gng v thu knh hot ng! Nu chng ta nghin cu nh sng b lch nh th no bi mt ci gng, chng ta s nhn thy qu trnh phc tp khng khip, nhng kt qu cui cng th n gin n bt ng. Ci tht s xy ra l nh sng cu thnh t in trng v t trng, v nhng trng ny lm gia tc cc electron trong gng. Nng lng ca chm nh sng ngay tc thi bin i thnh ng nng ca cc electron, nhng v cc electron ang tng tc nn chng ti pht x nh sng, bin i ng nng ca chng tr li thnh nng lng nh sng. Chng ta trng i iu ny mang li mt tnh hung rt ln xn, nhng bt ng, cc electron chuyn ng vi nhau to ra mt chm nh sng mi, phn x, tun theo hai quy lut n gin:

Gc ca tia phn x bng vi gc ca tia ti.

Tia phn x nm trong mt phng cha tia ti v php tuyn (vung gc).

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Mt phng ny c gi l mt phng ti.

k/ C s hnh hc ca s phn x phn chiu Gc phn x v gc ti c th xc nh so vi php tuyn, nh gc B v C trn hnh, hoc so vi mt phn x, nh gc A v gc D. C mt quy c tn ti hng trm nm rng ngi ta o gc so vi php tuyn, nhng quy tc hai gc bng nhau trn c pht biu l B = C hoc A = D u hp l. Hin tng phn x ch xy ra ti ranh gii gia hai mi trng, ging nh s thay i tc nh sng khi i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc. Nh chng ta thy trong tp 3 ca b sch ny, y l cch m mi loi sng hnh x. a s mi ngi thy bt ng trc thc t rng nh sng c th b phn x ngc t mt mi trng km c hn. Chng hn, nu bn ln xung v nhn ngc ln mt nc, bn s nhn thy nh phn x ca chnh bn. T kim tra

Tng s di y biu din hai tia khc nhau ang b phn x t cng
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mt im trn mt gng. S no ng, v s no khng ng?

Tnh thun nghch ca chiu truyn tia sng Thc t s phn x phn chiu biu hin nhng gc ti v gc phn x bn nhau c ngha l c mt s i xng: nu trong hnh trn, tia sng i t phi sang thay v t tri sang, th cc gc s trng y ht nh vy. y khng hn l mt chi tit v ngha v s phn x phn chiu. N l mt biu hin ca mt thc t rt su sc v quan trng v t nhin, l cc nh lut vt l khng phn bit gia qu kh v tng lai. n i bc v cc hnh tinh c qu o thun nghch t nhin nh nhau, v cc tia sng cng th. Loi i xng ny c gi l i xng nghch o thi gian. Thng thng, i xng nghch o thi gian l mt c trng ca bt k qu trnh no khng lin quan n nhit. Th d, cc hnh tinh khng chu ma st khi chng chuyn ng trong khng gian trng rng, nn khng c s nng ln do ma st. V th, chng ta trng i nhng phin bn nghch o thi gian ca qu o ca chng tun theo cc nh lut vt l, v ng nh th. Tri li, mt quyn sch trt trn bn tht s pht sinh nhit do ma st v n chuyn ng chm dn, v do , khng c g bt ng khi loi chuyn ng ny khng c v tun theo i xng nghch o thi gian. Mt quyn sch nm yn trn mt ci bn bng phng khng bao gi t ng bt u trt, nhn vo nng lng nhit v bin i n thnh ng nng. Tng t, tnh hung duy nht chng ta quan st thy t trc n nay, trong nh sng khng tun theo i xng nghch o thi gian l s hp th, qu trnh lin quan n nhit. Da ca bn hp th nh sng nhn thy t mt tri n v nng ln, nhng chng ta cha bao gi quan st thy da ca ngi no pht

sng, bin i nng lng nhit thnh nh sng nhn thy. Da ngi tht s pht
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nh sng trong vng hng ngoi, nhng iu khng c ngha rng tnh hung l i xng. Cho d da ca bn hp th tia hng ngoi, nhng bn khng pht ra nh sng nhn thy, v da ca bn khng nng pht x trong vng ph nhn thy. Nhng s bt i xng hin nhin lin quan n nhit ny khng phi l nhng s bt i xng tht s trong cc nh lut vt l. c gi quan tm c th tham kho thm v vn ny trong chng t chn nhit ng lc hc tp 2 ca b sch ny. V d 1. Ln theo tia sng trn my vi tnh Ngi ta c th s dng mt s k thut to ra nhng khung nhn nhn to trong ha my tnh. Hnh l th hin mt khung cnh nh vy, to bng k thut xy dng nhng s tia sng rt chi tit trn my vi tnh. K thut ny yu cu rt nhiu php tnh ton, v do qu chm dng cho video game v phim ng trn my tnh. Mt th thut tng tc tnh ton l khai thc tnh thun nghch ca chiu truyn tia sng. Nu ngi ta ln theo mi tia sng pht ra bi mi b mt phn x, th ch mt phn nh trong s tht s i vo camera o, v do gn nh ton b n lc tnh ton s b lng ph. Thay vo , ngi ta c th bt u mt tia t camera, ln theo n ngc thi gian, v nhn xem n i t u ti. Vi k thut ny, khng c s lng ph cng sc na.

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l/ bc nh c to ra hon ton bng my tnh, bng cch tnh ton mt s tia sng phc tp. Cu hi tho lun

m/ Cu hi tho lun B

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n/ Cu hi tho lun C A. Nu mt tia sng c vector vn tc vi cc thnh phn cx v cy, th iu g

s xy ra khi n b phn x t mt b mt nm dc theo trc y? Hy m bo cu tr li ca bn khng hm mt s thay i vn tc ca tia sng. B. Hy khi qut ha s l gii ca bn cu A, iu g s xy ra vi thnh

phn vn tc ca tia sng i ti mt gc hp, nh minh ha trn hnh, v chu hai s phn x? C. Ba tm kim loi xp vung gc nhau nh trn hnh to thnh ci gi l

mt gc radar. Gi s gc radar l ln so vi bc sng ca sng radar, cho m hnh tia sng c ngha. Nu gc radar nm chm trong cc tia radar, t nht th mt phn ca chng s chu ba s phn x. Hy khi qut ha s l gii ca bn thm mt ln na t hai cu hi tho lun trn, iu g s xy ra vi ba thnh phn vn tc ca mt tia nh vy? Gc radar c ch cho ng dng g?

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 5

1.5* Nguyn l thi gian ti thiu cho s phn x Chng ta phi chn gia mt s gii thch khng rng ri ca s phn x cp nguyn t v mt m t hnh hc n gin hn khng phi l c bn. C mt cch th ba m t s tng tc ca nh sng v vt cht rt su sc v p . c nhn mnh bi nh vt l th k 20 Richard Feynman, n c gi l nguyn l thi gian ti thiu, hay nguyn l Fermat. Hy bt u vi s chuyn ng ca nh sng khng tng tc vi vt cht no ht. Trong chn khng, nh sng truyn i theo ng thng. iu ny c din dch li nh sau: trong s mi ng i kh d nh sng c th i t P n Q, ng i duy nht c kh nng xy ra v mt vt l l ng i tn t thi gian nht.

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o/ Nhng ng lin nt l nhng ng i c th c v mt vt l cho tia sng i t A n B v t A n C. Chng tun theo nguyn l thi gian ti thiu. Nhng ng t nt khng tun theo nguyn l thi gian ti thiu, v khng c kh nng xy ra trn phng din vt l.

Cn s phn x th sao? Nu nh sng ang i t im ny n im kia, b phn x trn ng i, th ng i nhanh nht tht s l con ng c gc ti v gc phn x bng nhau. Nu im bt u v im kt thc cch u b mt phn x, o, th chng kh khn g bn c th t thuyt phc mnh rng iu ny l ng, da trn s i xng. Cn c mt cch chng minh kho lo v n gin, th hin trong hnh p, cho trng hp tng qut hn trong im bt u v im kt thc cch b mt phn x nhng khong cch khc nhau.

Nguyn l thi gian ti thiu khng ch p dng cho nh sng trong chn khng v nh sng ang phn x, m chng ta s thy trong mt chng phn sau, n cng p dng c cho s b cong nh sng khi nh sng i t mi trng ny sang mi trng khc.

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p/ ng i AQB v APB l hai ng i kh d m nh sng c th i t A n B vi mt ln phn x, nhng ch ng AQB l c kh nng trn phng din vt l. Chng ta mun chng minh ng i AQB, vi gc ti v gc phn x bng nhau, l ngn hn bt k ng i no khc, th d nh APB. Th thut l xy dng mt im th ba, C, nm bn di mt phn x, vi khong cch bng vi im B trn. Khi , ng i AQC l ng thng c chiu di bng AQB, v ng i APC c chiu di bng APB. V AQC l thng nn n phi ngn hn bt k ng no khc nh APC ni im A v im C, v do AQB phi ngn hn bt k ng i no khc nh APB chng hn. Mc d trng tht p khi m ton b m hnh tia sng c th gin lun thnh mt quy tc n gin, nguyn l thi gian ti thiu, nhng c l s c cht ma qui nu ni tia sng c tr thng minh v thn trng ln k hoch trc tm l trnh ngn nht hng ti ch ca n. Lm th no n bit trc n ang i v

u? Chuyn g xy ra nu chng ta di chuyn gng trong khi nh sng ang trn

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ng i ti, sao cho nhng iu kin theo ng i nh ca n khng ging vi ci n trng i na? Cu tr li l nguyn l thi gian ti thiu tht ra l mt li tt i tm nhng kt qu nht nh ca m hnh sng ca nh sng, l ch ca chng cui ca tp sch ny.

C hai im tinh t trong nguyn l thi gian ti thiu. Th nht, ng i khng phi l ng nhanh nht trong mi ng i c th c; n ch cn nhanh hn bt k ng i no khc cht xu vi n m thi. Trong hnh p, chng hn, nh sng c th i t A n B hoc qua ng i phn x AQB, hoc n gin l i thng t A n B. Mc d AQB khng phi l ng i ngn nht c th c, nhng n khng th ngn hn na bng cch thay i n mt lng rt nh, tc l bng cch di chuyn im Q sang tri hoc sang phi mt cht. Mt khc, ng i APB l khng th trn phng din vt l, v ngi ta c th thay i n bng cch di im B sang phi mt cht.

q/ nh sng pht ra t tm ca mt ci gng hnh elip. C bn ng i c kh nng xy ra trn phng din vt l trong tia sng c th b phn x v quay tr li tm.

Gi y l nguyn l thi gian ti thiu th cha thch hp cho lm. Th d,

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trong hnh q, bn ng i c kh nng trn phng din vt l theo nh sng c th quay tr li tm gm hai ng i thi gian ngn nht v hai ng i thi gian di nht. Ni ngn gn, chng ta nn dng t nguyn l thi gian ngn nht hoc thi gian di nht, nhng a s cc nh vt l a chung ci p nht, v gi s rng cc nh vt l khc u hiu ci ngn nht v ci di nht u l c th.

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 6

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Tm tt chng 1 T kha chn lc s hp th ci xy ra khi nh sng i ti vt cht v nhng i mt phn nng lng ca n s phn x ci xy ra khi nh sng i ti vt cht v bt tr ra, gi li t nht l mt phn nng lng ca n phn x phn chiu s phn x t mt b mt nhn, trong tia sng i ra vi gc bng vi gc n i vo phn x khuch tn s phn x t mt b mt g gh, trong mt tia sng ti b phn chia thnh nhiu tia phn x yu hn, loe ra theo mi hng php tuyn K hiu c Tm tt Chng ta c th hiu nhng hin tng lin quan n nh sng m khng phi s dng nhng m hnh phc tp nh m hnh sng hoc m hnh ht nh sng. Thay vo , chng ta m t nh sng theo ng i ca n, ci chng ta gi tc nh sng ng thng vung gc vi mt b mt ti mt im cho trc

l tia sng. M hnh tia sng c ch khi nh sng ang tng tc vi nhng i
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tng vt cht ln hn nhiu so vi bc sng nh sng. V mt bc sng ca nh sng nhn thy l qu nh so vi kch c nhng vt m ta hay gp, nn m hnh tia sng c ch trong nhiu trng hp thc t. Chng ta nhn thy vn vt v nh sng i t chng vo mt ca chng ta. Nhng vt pht sng c th gi nh sng trc tip n mt chng ta, nhng chng ta cn thy nhng vt khng t pht sng qua nh sng t mt ngun khc b vt phn x. Nhiu tng tc ca nh sng v vt cht c th hiu bng cch xem xt ci xy ra khi nh sng i ti ranh gii gia hai cht khc nhau. Trong tnh hung ny, mt phn nh sng b phn x (di tr li) v mt phn i vo mi trng mi. iu ny khng c g bt ng - n l hnh trng tiu biu i vi sng, v nh sng l sng. Nng lng nh sng cn c th b vt cht hp th, tc l bin i thnh nhit. Mt b mt nhn to ra s phn x phn chiu, trong tia phn x i ra vi gc hp vi php tuyn bng vi gc ca tia ti hp vi php tuyn. Mt b mt g gh mang li s phn x khuch tn, trong mt tia sng b chia thnh nhiu tia phn x yu hn ta ra theo nhiu hng. Bi tp 1. V mt s tia sng th hin ti sao mt ngun pht sng nh (th d mt ngn nn) to ra ci bng sc nt hn mt ngun pht sng ln hn (th d n ng di hunh quang). 2. My thu nh v ton cu (GPS) l mt dng c cho bn bit bn ang u bng cch thu tn hiu v tuyn nh gi t v tinh. N hot ng bng cch o thi gian truyn tn hiu, lin quan n khong cch gia bn v v tinh. Bng cch tm vng vi mt vi v tinh khc nhau theo kiu ny, n c th cho bn bit v tr ca bn trong khng gian ba chiu vi sai s ch vi mt. Php o tr thi gian phi chnh xc nh th no xc nh v tr ca bn theo kiu chnh xc nh vy?

3. Hy c tnh tn s ca mt sng v tuyn c bc sng bng vi kch c

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ca mt nguyn t (khong mt nm). Xem li phn bi hc in v t ca bn, mt sng nh vy s nm trong vng no ca ph in t (tia hng ngoi, tia gamma...)? 4. My bay nm bom Stealth c thit k vi nhng b mt nhn, phng. Ti sao b mt nh vy khin n kh b radar pht hin? 5. Hnh trang sau th hin mt ci gng cong (parabol) vi ba tia sng song song i v pha n. Mt tia i ti dc theo trc chnh ca gng. (a) Hy v chnh xc, v tip tc v cc tia sng cho n khi chng chu s phn x th hai. v tht chnh xc, bn nn photocopy trang in v v php tuyn ti mi im ni tia sng b phn x. Bn c thy g khng? (b) Hy nu mt th d ca mt ng dng thc t cho dng c ny. (c) Bn c th s dng ci gng ny nh th no vi mt bng n nh to ra mt chm tia sng song song truyn sang bn phi? 6. C dn ca hnh tinh Wumpus chi bi-a bng nhng tia sng trn mt ci bn 11 cnh vi nhng ci gng lm thnh phn x, nh th hin trn hnh trang sau. Hy v chnh xc ng c vi mt ci thc lm sng t thng tin tim n. v chnh xc, bn nn photocopy trang in v v php tuyn ti mi ni tia sng i ti thnh bn.

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Benjamin Crowell: Quang hc - Phn 7

CHNG 2 NH TO BI S PHN X

Tr con lun thch chi a vi nh ca mnh trong gng. Gi nu bn mun bit i iu v nh qua gng m a s mi ngi khng hiu, hy th lm nh sau. Trc tin, hy cm trang sch ny n cng gn mt bn cng tt, cho n khi bn khng cn kh nng tp trung vo n nu khng cng thng c ngi. Sau , hy i vo nh tm v nhn th xem bn c th a gng mt ca mnh n gn mt gng bao nhiu cho n khi bn khng cn d g tp trung nhn vo nh ca i mt ca mnh na. Bn s nhn thy rng khong cch mt-gng thch hp ngn nht nh hn nhiu so vi khong cch mt-t giy thch hp ngn nht. iu ny chng t rng nh ca gng mt bn trong gng tc dng nh th n c chiu su v tn ti trong khng gian pha sau gng. Nu nh nh ging nh mt hnh phng trn trang sch, th bn s khng th tp trung nhn vo n t mt khong cch ngn nh th.

Trong chng ny, chng ta s nghin cu nh to bi gng phng v

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gng cu trn c s nh tnh, khi nim. Mc d loi nh ny khng gp thng dng hng ngy nh nh to bi thu knh, nhng nh to bi s phn x th d hiu hn, v th chng ta trnh by v chng trc. Trong chng 3, chng ta s tr li vi cch x l mang tnh ton hc hn ca nh to bi s phn x. Tht bt ng, nhng phng trnh ging nh vy cng c th p dng cho thu knh, ch nghin cu ca chng 4. 2.1 nh o Chng ta c th tm hiu nh qua gng bng s tia sng. Hnh a th hin mt vi tia sng, 1, pht ra bi s phn x khuch tn ti ci mi ngi. Chng phn x khi gng, to ra nhng tia sng mi, 2. Vi nhng ngi c mt t v tr thch hp hng ly mt trong nhng tia sng ny, chng dng nh i ti t pha sau gng, 3, ni chng s pht ra t mt im. im ny l ni chp mi ca ngi-trong-gng hin ra. Mt phn tch tng t p dng cho mi im khc trn gng mt ngi, nn trng nh th c ton b mt gng mt pha sau gng. Cch thng thng m t tnh hung trn i hi mt s l gii: M t thng thng trong vt l hc: C mt nh ca gng mt pha sau gng. Dch ra: hnh nh cc tia sng t gng i ra ging ht nh n s i ra nu c mt gng nm pha sau gng. Tht ra chng c ci g nm sau gng ht. nh ny c gi l nh o, v cc tia sng khng tht s ct nhau ti im nm pha sau gng . Chng ch dng nh i ra t m thi. T kim tra Hy tng tng ngi trong hnh a di chuyn gng mt ca anh ta xung di mt cht chng vi cm g trong hnh v ny. Ci gng vn ch c. Hy v mt s tia sng mi. S vn c nh hay khng? Nu c, c th nhn thy n u?

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a/ Mt nh to bi gng phng C s hnh hc ca s phn x phn chiu cho chng ta bit rng cc tia sng 1 v 2 hp nhng gc bng nhau so vi php tuyn (ng thng tng tng vung gc vi gng ti im phn x). iu ny c ngha l ng ko di tng tng ca tia sng 2, 3, to vi gng mt gc bng nh tia sng 1. V mi tia thuc loi 3 to vi gng mt gc bng nh tia tng ng loi 1 ca n, nn chng ta thy khong cch t nh n gng bng vi khong cch t gng mt tht n gng, v n nm hai bn gng. V th, nh hin ra c kch c bng vi gng mt tht.

b/ V d 1 V d 1. Kim tra th lc

Hnh b th hin cch b tr tiu biu ca mt phng kim tra th lc. Tm

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nhn ca ngi i khm mt c kim tra khong cch 6 mt (20 foot M), nhng khong cch ny ln hn khng gian sn c ca cn phng. Do , ngi ta dng mt ci gng to ra nh ca bng kim tra th lc t trn bc tng pha sau lng. V d 2. My quay hnh ng Hnh c th hin mt dng c kiu c gi l ci praxinoscope, dng c hin th nh ng khi quay trn. Vng giy c th tho lp vi nhng hnh nh in trn n c bn knh gp i bn knh ca vng trn pha trong lm bng nhng gng phng, cho nn nh o ca tng hnh nm ngay chnh gia. Khi bnh xe quay, nh ca tng hnh b thay th bi nh tip theo, v c th.

c/ My quay hnh ng Cu hi tho lun A. Hnh bn di th hin mt vt nm bn ngoi mt pha ca mt ci gng. Hy v mt s ng i tia sng. C nh c to thnh khng? Nu c, th n nm u, v n s c nhn thy t hng no?

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Quang hc Benjamin Crowell