Womens Employment

The Indian Scenario

Poverty has a womans face

The International Labour Organisation says Women represent 50% of the population 30% of the labour force Perform 60% of all working hours Receive 10% of the worlds income Own less than 1% of the worlds property

Per Capita Income and Distribution of Labour Force

Percentage of Labour Per Force in Capita Income Agri- Indus in US$ culture -try Services 3 62 25 11 72 27

Country

Year

USA India

199022,340 92
199092 330

Source: Human Development Report 1994

Composition of GDP and Labour Force

Coun Year -try Agric Indus Servi Agric Indus Servi
ulture -try -ces ulture -try -ces

% of GDP

% Distribution of Labour Force

USA 1995 India 1995

2 29

26 29

72 41

3 64

28 16

69 20

Source: World Development Report 1997

Womens Employment
Women undertaking productive work where there is economic participation of women in the labour market. Adult females in a given population that work for pay, and the conditions under which they work

Economic participation?
Production of goods and services accounted in the national income statistics Female work participation rate low (26% for women vs. 52% for men) Women have always been at work, only the definitions of work and work plan have not been realistic to include their contribution to the economy and society.

Some Definitions
Work Force Participation Rate is the proportion of working population to total population.

Labour force excludes children below the age of 15 and old people above the age of 60.
Worker is one gainfully employed or one working for a livelihood excluding unpaid family workers.

Why do women work?

Economic necessity Economic independence Qualified to work Sense of achievement Pastime Service to society Status symbol Power and prestige

Economic Need to work

Indian women by and large undertake productive work only under economic compulsion. This is the reason for high female participation rates for economically under privileged communities. Upper class women usually were limited to their homes.

Rural vs. Urban

Work participation rate is higher among rural women (27%) than the urban women (10%) Female Workers 90:10 in favour of rural areas (male - 80:20)

Main vs. Marginal Workers

Women go in for temporary and stand-by jobs because of hesitancy to employ women in regular jobs and providing them with good working conditions. The main workers are those who work for major part of the year. Female main workers constitute 14.65% of the population (males - 50.54%). Female marginal workers constitute 6.26% of the population (males - 0.98%).

Organised vs. Unorganised Sector

Most of the women are also found to be employed in agricultural activities and in the unorganised sector i.e. The organised sector like banks, offices, educational institutions show low levels of female participation in the workforce. The employment of women is high in unorganised sector such as part time helpers in households, construction sector, tanneries (setting, parting & drying), match and beedi industries.

Informal Sector an important source of work for women

90% of the working women are involved in the informal sector and not included in the official statistics. (The World Bank, 1991 an estimate) Undocumented, disguised wage work unskilled, low paying and do not provide benefits to the worker

Some points to consider

Difficulties in making generalisations in the Indian society diversity in regions/religions/social and economic setup Hierarchical Society caste or caste-like group Patriarchal double-standards Sexual discrimination/harassment Womens unemployment rates similar to mens 2% in rural areas and 5% in urban areas (NSSO, 1994)

Age
Female workers relatively young As age increases, the ratio of female to male workers decreases

Agricultural Sector
Vast majority of Indians work in Agriculture 55% of the female agricultural workers (vs. 30% of the men) are labourers - not cultivators.

Service Sector
Occupations such as government, teaching, religious activities, entertainment, social work involve 8% of all female main workers.

Percent Distribution of Main Workers by Category: 1991

Males Agricultural Labourer Cultivator Household Industry Services Non-household Industry Other Categories

Females
Agricultural Labourer Cultivator Household Industry Services Non-household Industry Other Categories

Technology
Negative Impact on womens employment opportunities especially in rural areas: Harvesting Wheat grinding Small scale industries match industry Weaving

Employment & Economic Independence

Even if a woman is employed, she may not have control over the money she earns.

Women are expected to devote all their time, energy and earnings to the family.
Many Indian women seek their husbands permission when they wish to purchase something for themselves.

Education and Work

Only 40% of the women (men 64%) are literate, majority having only a primary education or less. Higher levels of education for women do not directly translate into higher proportions of main workers.

Distinct Work Experiences in Different Areas of the Country

Larger rural populations have larger female employment rates Exceptions Punjab and Haryana (richer/cultural practices)

Conclusion
The place of women in the workforce varies according to societal Structure Needs Customs Attitudes