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Abstract
be paralleled with a physical interpretation We rst understand what is there in coordinate geometry for us dene slope of two points and extend that denition to understand the slope of a line see how slope keeps changing as the line orientation keeps changing dene function and then dene what is domain & range of a function plotting of function graphs Lecture 2 : Physical interpretation of derivative in terms of whatever we learnt till now Physical interpretation of limits with 4 examples dene limits limits formulae examples Lecture 3 : Derivatives denition of derivative derivative of some examples from using denition formulae & its usage lots of interesting
Lecture 1 : We learn the foundation of calculus using denition approach Any concept will be dened and then later if required will
problems Lecture 4 : Integration Physical interpreation of integration integration vs derivative (mathematically speaking) problems (circle area,
circumference, volume of cylinder, sphere ) numerical problems formulae & Use
CONTENTS
Contents
I Lecture I
1 Cartesian coordinate system
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Plotting points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dene slope for two points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slope of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Slopes of line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
4
4 5 5 7
2 Functions
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Examples of a functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finding values of function in Functions and their graphs
8
8 8 8 9
y = f (x)
form
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II Lecture 2
3 Examples of what is a Limit?
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Polygon becomes circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bucket is full or overowing?[5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rotating a marble tied to a cord Denition of Limit Formulae of limits A numerical example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
11
11 12 13 13 15 15 15 18
III Lecture 3
4 Derivatives
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Derivatives of other functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding the Derivative denition geometrically[1] . . . . . Rate of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function & its examples in Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous rate of change[3] Composition of functions Chain Rule and friends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Derivative of a composite function
19
19
23 23 25 25 26 27 27 28
IV Lecture 4
5 Integration
5.1 5.2 5.3 Dierentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indenite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Way to evaluate Denite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
30
30 30 31 31
CONTENTS
5.4 Methods of Solving Integrals 5.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35 35
Method of substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part I
Lecture I
We start are understanding dening the coordinate space. And further will use this to understand functions and physical implications of function, derivative and integration.
Denition.
A sign convention is laid on the axes. Part of x-axis right of y-axis is positive x axis and left is negative x-axis. Similarly above x-axis, y axis is positive and below is negative. This convention is laid to uniquely locate a point in space.
Denition.
&
from y axis & y-coordinate is the distance of the point from x axis. See in the above gure.
(1, 2)
P (x1 , y1 )
Q (x2 , y2 )
m=
y2 y1 x2 x1
Example.
(1, 2)
&
(2, 3)
&
(3, 1)
&
Solution
Slope of
(1, 2)
&
(2, 3)
is
32 =1 21 1 2 3 = 3 (1) 4
Slope of
(1, 2)
&
(3, 1)
is
Slope of
(4, 0)
&
10, 0)
is
00 =0 4 10 10 3 = U ndef ined 22
Slope of
(2, 3)
&
(2, 10)
is
(x1 , y1 ) y y2 y1 = x x2 x1
(x2 , y2 )
y2 y1 = tan x2 x1
Example.
1. 2. 3. 4.
2x + 3y = 6 x=2 y=4 xy =3
Solution
1. In
2x + 3y = 6, (3, 0)
(0, 2) satisfy 20 = = 2 3 03
&
2. In
x = 2, (2, 0)
&
3. In y=4, hence
4. In
x y = 3, (3, 0)
0<
Once we have dened the angle of inclination then we will see what is the relation between increase in angle of inclination and slope.
[1] Can you see that as the inclination of the line increases from 0 to going close to right angle there is increase in slope.
0 0 0 0 {/ = 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 . . .} then corre1 sponding slopes = {m/m = 0, , 1, 3, . . .} since slope= tan 3 And the same thing happens corespondingly in the second quandrant ( , ) as increases correspondingly sllope too increases. 2
For example, angle of inclination =
Fact.
1. Slope of a line parellel to x axis is Zero 2. The slope of line increases as is moves away form positive x axis in anticlockwise sense towards y axis to reach a huge innite value. 3. At angle
/2
4. Again it increases from positive y axis in counterclockwise direction towards negative x axis.
2 FUNCTIONS
Functions
Functions are expressions that exhibit the functioning of a particular thing. Like a mixer grinder, weighing machine. etc.
Denition.
A function
y = f (x) y.
f :XY
as a mapping that
goes from set X to Y moreover the mapping can be one to one or many to one.
y = 2x + 3, 2x + 3y = 4,
lines in dierent forms. They are called linear as they are of degree one in x & y.
y x + =1 2 3
are equations of
are all
3. Exponential function :
y = ax , y = 2x , y = ex are exponential functions. variable Note they are constant kind of functions. Students often confuse 2 constant them with x kind of functions which are variable form.
1. If
x+1 1 1 then what is f (2), f ( ), f ( ) 2 x x1 2+1 f (2) = =3 21 3 1 +1 = 21 = 3 f(1) = 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 +1 1+x 1 f(x) = x = = f (x) 1 1x x 1 f (x) =
(x, y)
Example 1.
Points
y = 2x + 3
(1, 5)
(0, 3)
Example 2.
Points
y = x2 + 1
(0, 1), (1, 2), (1, 2), (2, 5), (2, 5).
y = f (x)
Denition.
i.e.
Range (Rf ):
x Df
i.e.
y Rf
Example 3.
1.
2.
is positive root of x)
10
2 FUNCTIONS
1 f (x) = x Df : (0, ) (since can take only positive values) Rf : (0, ) (since the fraction cannot become zero!
root of x) 4.
3.
and
is positive
Rf
5.
Df : R Rf : (0, 1]
6.
f (x) = sin x Df : R since sine is welldened for any angle. Rf : [1, 1] (since any angle given, sin x lies between 1
& 1)
11
Part II 3
Lecture 2
Examples of what is a Limit?
Go through them without worrying if you are not Instruction for this section : In the examples below, you might not understand how few limits are used. examples. Let us consider an example to understand what Limits is exactly. following something. Going further you will understand what we did in these
Now we can approximate the area of circle to be equal to area of a polygon where number of sides is a very large number. Suppose we have a polygon inscribed that has Area of the polygon is
sides.
1 2 A = n r2 sin 2 n
The end to this process of continuously increasing the number of sides of the inscribed polygon is same as trying to nd the limit (english word meaning) of this process. The process limit or end would be that the polygon has become a circle. So as
n ,
Area of polygon
Area of Circle = =
lim
lim
1 2 2 r n sin 2 n r2 sin 2 n
2 n
= r2 lim = r2 1
1 You
sin 2 n
2 n
[using lim
sin = 1]
12
= 0.
We see that
QRP Area of sector QRPArea of QRK sin 1 r2 1 r2 tan 2 2 sin tan Assuming we are seeing for > 0 without loss of generality, and idea will follow for < 0 1 sin cos cos sin 1 sin As 0 lim cos lim 1
Area of
1 2 2r
similar steps
lim
sin 0
=1
half lled ( ) , next hour we have half bucket left and hence we ll (
1 2
1 2 1 4
+ +
1 4 ). 1 8 ).
1/2 1 1 1 2 + 4 + 8 + = 11/2 = 1). So this is another example of limit concept. Here the end state of this process
And
is that the bucket is always lled by half the amount left and that would never allow the bucket to get full, but if the process is continued till innity the end state would be lling the bucket.
13
A marble tied to a cord if rotated about the center. So during this rotation if the marble rotates about the arc specied in the adjoining diagram. Now if the cord reaches the point
what do u think what would be the path of the marble. Think about this! The marble would move along the tangent to its path at the point. So that means it will move along the tangent to the path. To nd that path we need to
nd the tangent at that very point. So tangent at point the right of the point
and point
A.
i.e.
B1
towards
B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 ,
to reach
A.
as Bi A
f (x) =
x R
x = 1. f (x)
takes as
x1
i.e. x goes
14
can get closer and closer to 1 from two directions, one from left of 1
x 1+
As x approches to 1 from right of 1. what value does
x f (x) x 1
1.1 2.1
1.01 2.01
1.001 2.001
1.0001 2.0001
As x approaches to 1 from left of 1. What values does x 0.9 1.9 0.99 1.99 0.999 1.999 0.9999 1.9999 0.99999 1.99999
f (x)
So you can see that here to the limit for Hence we conclude mathematically that
f (x)
is 2.
x2 1 =2 x2 x 1 lim
15
y = f (x) l
is given and as
x a , f (x) l
f (x)
Note : here the equality in the mathematical way of writing the limit is not the usual equality.
xa
lim f (x) = l
f (x)
Now let us put some thought on the denition of limit Since
is getting closer to
as
goes closer to a.
x a, f (x) l, now x tending to a means x comes closer to a. x will come closer to a from left of a and right of a. For example, x 2 means x will take values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, . . . from left of 2 and 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001, . . .. from right of 2.
we say as
xa
actually means
LHL RHL
= = &
xa xa+
LHL = RHL = l
x0
lim
&
x0
lim
tan x =1 x
2.
x0
3.
x2 x2
16
2.
x = 0.
So
the limit is same as the function value at that point. But why doesnt that
x0
lim
x2 4 04 = x2 02 = 2
3.
x0 As x
1 lim sin x
here
sin
And hence it doesnt reach any point. Check the gure hence the limits remains
undened.
4.
x0 As x
1 lim x sin x
here though
1 sin x
oscillates
zero. decreasing the osciallation and leading the total product to zero . Hence the limit is Zero.
(a)
f (x) = |x|
at
|x| at x = 0.
be equal for the limit to exist. Remember the story of two villages that were separated by a forest and a river passing through the center of the village dividing the villages.
17
RHL = = =
x0+ x0+
LHL
= = =
x0 x0
Hence we see that both the RHL and LHL are equal hence we say that the limit exists for this function at zero. (b)
2
f (x) =
1 x0 1 x < 0 LHL = = =
at
x=1
x1+
x1+
RHL = = =
x1
x1
Since LHL=RHL hence the limits exist and is equal to 1. But did you observe here we needed to nd the limit at the To the left and right of is
x = 1.
x=1
f (x) = 1.
Hence instead of nding LHL and RHL we could have just wrote
limit = =
x1
x1
2 Now you might have a question as why we didn't try to solve the previous limit problem as LHL and RHL but just worked out limit? This was purely done since in previous problem the function denition was not changing on either side of the point of nding limit. But in the present problem the function is dierent to the left and right of the point x = 0. In the previous problem nding the LHL and RHL is same as nding the limits in general. But actually limits is dened as
xa
lim f (x) =
xa+
lim f (x) =
xa
lim f (x)
18
(c)
f (x) =
1 x0 1 x < 0
at
x=0
Now will we just nd limit here without trying to see what is the RHL and LHL?? Here we have to nd the LHL and RHL separately and check if both are equal. If both are equal then the function has limits at else it doesnt have a limit.
x=0
or
RHL = = = LHL = =
x0+ x0+
x0 x0
= 1
And we see that
LHL = RHL
x0
lim+
sin x |x|
(Solution : 1)
2.
lim
tan
(Solution : 1)
3. Find the anwers to the following functions, given sented in the adjoining gure (a)
Df : [0, 3]
and is repre-
f (1)
19
x1+
x1 x1
x2+
x2
f (2)
Solutions- a:2,b:1,c:1,d:1,e:0,f:-1,g:0
Part III 4
Lecture 3
Derivatives
Derivative of a function
Denition.
y = f (x)
at a point
x=a
is dened as
dy dx
=
x=a
lim
Above we found derivative of the function at some particular point What if we want to nd the derivative at any point Simple right?
x?
We just replace
x = a. a by x!
y = f (x) = lim
at any point
is given as
dy dx
at any x
f (x + h) f (x) h0 h
Example.
If
x+1 x1
then we have
20
4 DERIVATIVES
f (t) = sin t, g(t) = t+1 t1 t1+1 t = t11 t2
1.
2.
3.
ex + 1 ex 1 ax2 + bx + c + 1 ax2 + bx + c 1
4.
5.
6.
Denition.
f (g(x))
Composite function
Given functions
Example.
f (x) = sin x & g(x) = ex then f g(x) = f (g(x)) = sin(g(x)) = sin(ex ) & g f (x) = g(f (x)) = ef (x) = esin x
Given Find the derivative of the function
nd
f g(x)
&
g f (x)
Problem.
y = f (x) = x
dy dx
= = = = =
1 f (x) = x
is
d (x) = 1 dx x.
Now derivative
f (x) = x
at any point is
Problem.
y = f (x) = x2 . x.
Let us
Here in the problem they have not asked at which point of x we want to nd the derivative means they want us to nd the derivative at any point use the above denition.
21
dy dx
= = = = =
lim
Problem.
f (x) = xn
where
nN
dy dx
lim
d 2 (x ) = 2x dx d 3 (x ) = 3x2 dx d 4 (x ) = 4x3 dx
d n (x ) = nxn1 . dx
variableconstant
Problem.
f (x) = 2
dy dx
f (x + h) f (x) h 22 = lim h0 h = 0 =
h0
lim
Can you see that derivative of a constant function is coming out to be zero. That means derivative of any function
f (x) = c
is
Zero.
Problem.
What we mean here is a constant can come out of the derivative operator. By denition,
is a constant.
22
4 DERIVATIVES
d (k f (x)) dx
= = = =
lim
Theorem.
df (x) dg(x) 3 d (f (x) g(x)) = + dx dx dx d df (x) dg(x) (f (x) g(x)) = f (x) + g(x) dx dx dx f g g = dg df f dx dx g2
d dx
3 To nd the derivative of f (x) with respect to x is also called as dierentiating f (x) with respect to x
23
d n (x ) = nxn1 dx
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2.
d 1 (loge x) = dx x
(a)
d d loga e d (loga x) = (loge x loga e) = loga e (loge x) = dx dx dx x d d (k f (x)) = k (f (x)) ) we used here : dx dx
( note
3.
d x (a ) = ax loge a dx
(a)
4. Trigonometric functions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f )
d (sin x) = cos x dx d (cos x) = sin x dx d (tan x) = sec2 x dx d (cot x) = cosec2 x dx d (sec x) = sec x cosec x dx d (cosec x) = cosec x cot x dx
y = f (x).
24
4 DERIVATIVES
tan =
A & B,
y f (x + h) f (x) = is the slope of the x h where is the angle made by the secant with
And the by the denition of the derivative as to come closer and closer to point A i.e.
B A.
secant joining A & B will become tangent at A. Thats Beautiful! isn't it! Yes this the geometrical interpretations we are interested in nding the tangent to the curve
4
y = f (x)
Example.
L = 5m
inclined on a wall.
Now if the
ladder has no friction with the wall and ground and if it starts sliding under gravity then
1. What is the displacement of base with oor when the the base with the wall at
4m
0.1m? 4m
from the ground?
2. What is the velocity of the base with wall when the velocity of the base with wall is
3m/sec
and at a distance of
Solution :
need to get
t0
lim
x t
&
t0
lim
y t
4 Note one thing, in the geometrical interpretation of derivative above point B A that is B goes closer and closer to A. But can never reach the point A since if the point B reaches point A the secant will dissapear instead of determining the tangent. Hence we utilize limit since the secant if continuously goes near and near to tangent that means the nal limit of the nearing process is the nal tangent at point A. Interesting hmmm..
25
t has elapsed and we are still making t 0. That means even the displacement x & y 2 2 are going closer to zero too. So (x) & (y) are becoming more smaller and can be neglected at t 0.
it closer to zero by doing Hence we have,
xx yy = 0
1. We need to nd
x when we know y = 4, x = 3 & y = 0.1 yy = 0.133m towards right ( positive signies along x = x x y x y =0 t t y = vy t
&
positive x
axis)
vx = 4m/sec
Now we see the solution of this problem using derivatives From geometry we get
x2 + y 2 = L2 t
we get
y = f (x) then x.
Similarly,
rate of change in
y x x
when there
t.
x = f (t) =
x x2 x1 f (t2 ) f (t1 ) = = t t2 t1 t2 t1 f (t2 ) f (t1 ) dx lim Average V elocity = lim = = v t2 t1 t2 t1 dt velocity at time t1
Average velocity
= Instantaneous
26
4 DERIVATIVES
seconds will travel travel
2t
to
distance is given by
x = or x(t) =
2t 2t
t=1 2.
and
t = 2.
x2 x1 42 x = = = t t2 t1 21 t = 1.
For that we
2.
which is a tangent. And we know that the
t=1
t=1
is
dx d = (2t) = 2 dt dt
2. A particle starts moving from a starting point A such that velocity at every point is given by
v = 2t3
where
v = 2t3
The rate of change of velocity is termed in physics as acceleration i.e.
a=
dv . dt
Dierentiating we get,
a=
y = f (x) is represented
y x
x0
lim
y x
5 Since x can be expressed in terms of variable t. Second notation describes that. We have see if a function f is expresses in terms of x then we write it as y = f (x).
27
is a function of
and
is a function of
then
dy dt dy = dx dt dx
From chain rule we can nd the derivative of composite functions In
y = f (g(x))
let
t = g(x)
&
y = f (t)
Dierentiating,
dy dx
y = (t)
and
x = (t)
t.
dy dx dx dt dy dx
= =
f (x)
&
g(x)
are functions of
then composition of
&
are
(f g)(x) = f (g(x))
This can be generalised as
28
4 DERIVATIVES
A general non-mathematical example of composite function.
Example.
Rotation of fan (r) depends on the current passing into the fan (c), mathematically can be written ically can be written
r = f (c)
And the ux of air (a) made to move by the fan on rotation (r), mathematThis composite function
This same example can be converted to parametric form Rotation of fan (r) depends on current(c) i.e. Also air ux(a) coming from the fan depends on the current(c) i.e.
Example.
Given
f (x) = sin x
&
g(x) = x2
then
(f g)(x)
&
(g f )(x)
Solution :
(f g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 ) = sin(x2 ) (g f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(sin x) = (sin x)2 = sin2 x
Example.
Given
f (x)
&
g(x)
(f g f g)(x)
(f g f g)(x)
Problem.
1. If 2. If
Practice problems
f (x) = x2 & g(x) = x then nd f g & g f f (x) = 1 + x2 & g(x) = x2 1 then nd f g
&
gf
y = (f g)(x)
is a composite of functions of
f (x)
&
g(x)
then
(f g) (x) = f (g(x)) g (x) d(f g) df (g(x) dg = dx dx dx y = f (x), x = g(t) y = f (g(t)) same as composite. right! This is same as chain rule, If
y = f (x)
&
x = g(t)
then
dy dy dx = dt dx dt
Example.
2t2 + 1
If the displacement
x(t)
as
x(t) =
Instanteneous Velocity is
v(t) =
Instanteneous Acceleration is
29
4/4t =
1 t
dv dv dx = / = dx dt dt
30
5 INTEGRATION
Part IV 5
Lecture 4
Integration
5.1 Dierentials
Let us rst understand what do we mean by dierentials Dierential of
(Remember dierential
of
d(x) = dx)
See the following worked examples of dierentials
Example.
is
dy
is is
f (x) sin x
d(f (x))
this can be
f (x)
Notation:
f (x)dx
: read as integral of
f (x)
f (x) cos x
is
sin x dx = cos x
: means derivative of
sin x
1.
2.
3.
= loge x
4.
d x (e ) = ex ex dx = ex dx
5. Trigonometric functions
31
y = f (x)
to
Notation :
f (x)
: read as integral of
f (x)
from
x=a
to
x = b.
x=a
y = f (x) and want to nd the x = a (point A) and x = b (point B) along x-axis. And along y-axis its bounded by y = f (x) and x-axis. This is represented by denite b integral f (x) dx
We see here if we have a function area bounded between
Example.
a
We can nd this area under the curve (as its called) using approximation. We cover the area with rectangles and keep on increasing the number of such rectangles (just as we worked out to approximate the area of circle with area of n-gon). And then we nd limit of this process which turns out to be denite integral stated above. In the gure below, we have shown some stages of increasing the number of rectangles between nally.
x=a
&
x = b.
Here
32
5 INTEGRATION
d F (x) = f (x) then f (x) dx = F (x) dx x=b b Hence f (x) dx = F (x)|a = F (b) F (a)
x=a
Example.
Evaluate
2 1
x2 dx x3 +c 3 2 x2 dx
1
We know
x2 dx =
x3 3
2 1
= =
23 13 3 3 7/3
Example. Find the area of the circle with radius R using integration Method I
Area of the circle is integration of all small circles concentric with the given circle (as shown in the gure) We take a random such small thickness circle at a variable distance the center.
from
dx
thickness at a distance of
(random)
= 2r dr zero(0)
to
lim x so dx is an every decreasing and shrinking quantity. Hence the limit of x0 the approximation gets us the integration to give the right answer.
6 dx =
33
r=R
A =
r=0
2rdr 2 rdr|0 2 2 R2 r2 2
R 0 R
= = = =
R2 0 2 2
Method II
Now we make the small element in a dierent sense. See the gure
To nd the area of the circle we are collecting all small sectors of angle For that we collect all small sectors lying at an angle where
d.
= 0 to 2.
=2
=
=0
1 2 R d 2
=2
1 2 R 2
d
=0 2 0
1 2 2 R 2 2
1 2 4 2 0 = R ( ) 2 2 2 = R2
Method III
Here in this third type of solution, the strip is parellel to y-axis with thickness and at a distance of
dx
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5 INTEGRATION
Area of the thin strip
= 2 R2 x2 dx
x = R
to
x=R
x=R
Area of circle
=
x=R
2 x 2
R2 x2 dx R2 x sin1 ( ) 2 R
x=R x=R
R 2 x2 +
Example.
u + 2as
2
v = u + at, s = ut + 1 at2 , v 2 = 2
Integrating,
v u
adt
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Finally,
u2 v2 = as v 2 u2 = 2as 2 2
Example.
Let us take a small shell at a random distance The thickness of this shell is
dr.
4rdr. r3 3
R
R=
R 0
4r2 dr = 4
R 0
r2 dr = 4
=
0
4 3 R 3
Example.
log x x dx
We Observe that some part of the integrand, transform the problem to a much simpler problem.
log x x
can be substituted to
Index
Cartesian coordinate system, 4 Domain of a function, 9 Examples of limits, 11 function, 8 Inclination of a line, 7 Polygon becomes circle, 11 range of a function, 9 Slope of a line, 5
36
REFERENCES
37
References
[1] Thomas & Finney - Calculus & Analytical Geometry 6ed. [2] I A Maron - Problems in One Variable Calculus [3] Piskunov - Dierential & Integral Calculus [4] Richard Goldberg - Methods of Real Analysis [5] Bartle & Sherbert - Introduction to Real Analysis