LOGO

TON RI RC
L Vn Luyn
email: lvluyen@yahoo.com
www.math.hcmus.edu.vn/~lvluyen/trr
Ni dung: gm 5 phn
- C s logic
- Php m
- Quan h
- Hm Bool
- th
C s Logic
Chng I: C s logic
- Mnh
- Dng mnh
- Qui tc suy din
- V t, lng t
- Tp hp
- nh x
- Qui np ton hc
C s Logic
I. Mnh
1. nh ngha: Mnh l mt khng nh c gi tr chn l
xc nh, ng hoc sai.
Cu hi, cu cm thn, mnh lnh khng l mnh .
V d:
- mt tri quay quanh tri t
- 1+1 =2
- Hm nay tri p qu ! (ko l mnh )
- Hc bi i ! (ko l mnh )
- 3 l s chn phi khng? (ko l mnh )
4
I. Mnh
K hiu: ngi ta dng cc k hiu P, Q, R ch mnh .
Chn tr ca mnh :
Mt mnh ch c th ng hoc sai, khng th
ng thi va ng va sai. Khi mnh P ng ta
ni P c chn tr ng, ngc li ta ni P c chn tr
sai.
Chn tr ng v chn tr sai s c k hiu ln
lt l 1(hay ,T) v 0(hay S,F)
5
I. Mnh
Kim tra cc khng nh sau c phi l mnh khng?
- Paris l thnh ph ca M.
- n l s t nhin.
- con nh ai m xinh th!
- 3 l s nguyn t.
- Ton ri rc l mn bt buc ca ngnh Tin hc.
- Bn c khe khng?
- lun dng.
2
1 x +
6
I. Mnh
2. Phn loi: gm 2 loi
a. Mnh phc hp: l mnh c xy dng t cc
mnh khc nh lin kt bng cc lin t (v, hay, khi
v ch khi,) hoc trng t khng.
b. Mnh s cp (nguyn thy): L mnh khng th
xy dng t cc mnh khc thng qua lin t hoc
trng t khng.
V d:
- 2 khng l s nguyn t
- 2 l s nguyn t (s cp)
- Nu 3>4 th tri ma
- An ang xem phim hay An ang hc bi
- Hm nay tri p v 1 +1 =3
7
I. Mnh
3. Cc php ton: c 5 php ton
a. Php ph nh: ph nh ca mnh P c k
hiu l P hay (c l khng P hay ph nh
ca P).
Bng chn tr :
P
P
1 0
0 1

V d :
- 2 l s nguyn t
Ph nh: 2 khng l s nguyn t
- 1 >2
Ph nh : 1 2
P
8
I. Mnh
b. Php ni lin (hi, giao): ca hai mnh P, Q c k
hiu bi P . Q (c l P v Q), l mnh c nh
bi : P . Q ng khi v ch khi P v Q ng thi ng.
Bng chn tr
P Q
P.Q

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1


V d:
- 3>4 v Trn Hng o l v tng (S)
- 2 l s nguyn t v l s chn ()
- An ang ht v ung nc (S)
9
I. Mnh
c. Php ni ri (tuyn, hp): ca hai mnh P, Q c
k hiu bi P v Q (c l P hay Q), l mnh c
nh bi : P v Q sai khi v ch khi P v Q ng thi sai.
Bng chn tr
P Q
P v Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1


V d:
- t >4 hay t >5 (S)
- 2 l s nguyn t hay l s chn ()
10
I. Mnh
V d
- Hm nay, An gip m lau nh v ra chn
- Hm nay, c y p v thng minh
- Ba ang c bo hay xem phim
11
I. Mnh
d. Php ko theo: Mnh P ko theo Q ca hai mnh
P v Q, k hiu bi P Q (c l P ko theo Q hay
Nu P th Q hay P l iu kin ca Q hay Q l
iu kin cn ca P) l mnh c nh bi:
P Q sai khi v ch khi P ng m Q sai.
Bng chn tr
P Q
PQ
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

12
I. Mnh
V d:
- Nu 1 = 2 th Lenin l ngi Vit Nam ()
- Nu tri t quay quanh mt tri th 1 +3 =5 (S)
- t >4 ko theo 5>6 ()
- t < 4 th tri ma
- Nu 2+1=0 th ti l ch tch nc ()
13
I. Mnh
e. Php ko theo hai chiu: Mnh P ko theo Q v
ngc li ca hai mnh P v Q, k hiu bi P Q
(c l P nu v ch nu Q hay P khi v ch khi Q hay
P l iu kin cn v ca Q), l mnh xc nh
bi:
P Q ng khi v ch khi P v Q c cng chn tr
Bng chn tr
P Q PQ
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

14
I. Mnh
V d:
- 2=4 khi v ch khi 2+1=0 ()
- 6 chia ht cho 3 khi v chi khi 6 chia ht cho 2 ()
- London l thnh ph nc Anh nu v ch nu thnh ph
HCM l th ca VN (S)
- t >4 l iu kin cn v ca 5 >6 ()
15
II. Dng mnh
1. nh ngha: l mt biu thc c cu to t:
- Cc mnh (cc hng mnh )
- Cc bin mnh p, q, r, , tc l cc bin ly gi tr l
cc mnh no
- Cc php ton , ., v, , v du ng m ngoc ().
V d:
E(p,q) = (p .q)
F(p,q,r) = (p q) . (q .r)
16
II. Dng mnh
Bng chn tr ca dng mnh E(p,q,r): l bng ghi tt c
cc trng hp chn tr c th xy ra i vi dng mnh
E theo chn tr ca cc bin mnh p, q, r. Nu c n bin,
bng ny s c 2
n
dng, cha k dng tiu .
V d:
E(p,q,r) =(p vq) r . Ta c bng chn tr sau
17
II. Dng mnh
p q r pvq (p vq) r
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
Mnh E(p,q,r) =(p vq) r theo 3 bin p,q,r c bng chn
tr sau
18
II. Dng mnh
Bi tp: Lp bng chn tr ca nhng dng mnh sau
E(p,q,r) = p .(q vr) q
F(p,q) = (p .q) .p
19
II. Dng mnh
2. Tng ng logic: Hai dng mnh E v F c gi l
tng ng logic nu chng c cng bng chn tr.
K hiu E F (hay E F).
V d (p . q) p v q
Dng mnh c gi l hng ng nu n lun ly gi tr 1
Dng mnh gi l hng sai (hay mu thun nu n lun ly
gi tr 0.
nh l: Hai dng mnh E v F tng ng vi nhau khi
v ch khi EF l hng ng.
20
II. Dng mnh
Trong php tnh mnh ngi ta khng phn bit nhng
mnh tng ng logic vi nhau. Do i vi nhng
dng mnh c cng thc phc tp, ta thng bin i
n tng ng vi nhng mnh n gin hn.
thc hin cc php bin i ta s dng cc qui tc
thay th v quy lut logic.
21
H qu logic: F c gi l h qu logic ca E nu EF l
hng ng.
K hiu E F
V d: (p v q) p
II. Dng mnh
Cc qui tc thay th
Qui tc thay th 1. Trong dng mnh E, nu ta thay th
biu thc con F bi mt dng mnh tng ng logic th
dng mnh thu c vn cn tng ng logic vi E.
Qui tc thay th 2 Gi s dng mnh E(p,q,r) l mt
hng ng. Nu ta thay th nhng ni p xut hin trong E bi
mt F(p,q,r) th dng mnh nhn c theo cc bin
q,r,p,q,r, vn cn l mt hng ng.
V d. (p . q) v r(p v q) v r
22
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
2. Tng ng logic: Hai dng mnh E v F c gi l
tng ng logic nu chng c cng bng chn tr.
K hiu E F.
V d (p . q) p v q
Dng mnh c gi l hng ng nu n lun ly gi tr 1
Dng mnh gi l hng sai (hay mu thun nu n lun ly
gi tr 0.
nh l: Hai dng mnh E v F tng ng vi nhau khi
v ch khi EF l hng ng.
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
2. Lut De Morgan
(p . q) p v q
(p v q) p . q
3. Lut giao hon p v q q v p
p . q q . p
4. Lut kt hp (p v q) v r p v (q v r)
(p . q) . r <=> p . (q . r)
Cc lut logic
1. Ph nh ca ph nh
p p
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
5. Lut phn phi
p v (q . r) (p v q) . (p v r)
p . (q v r) (p . q) v (p . r)
6. Lut ly ng p v p p
p . p p
7. Lut trung ha p v 0 p
p . 1 p
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
8. Lut v phn t b
p . p 0
p v p 1
9. Lut thng tr p . 0 0
p v 1 1
10. Lut hp th p v (p . q) p
p . (p v q) p
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
11. Lut v php ko theo:
p q p v q
q p
V d: Nu tri ma th ng trn nu ng
khng trn th tri khng ma
Bi tp:
Cho p, q, r l cc bin mnh . Chng minh rng:
(p r) . (qr) (p q) r
II. Dng mnh
C s Logic
(p r) . (q r)
( p v r ) . ( q v r)
( p. q ) v r
( p v q ) v r
( p q ) v r
( p q ) r
III. qui tc suy din
C s Logic
Trong cc chng minh ton hc, xut pht t mt s khng
nh ng p, q, r(tin ), ta p dng cc qui tc suy din
suy ra chn l ca mt mnh h m ta gi l kt lun.
Ni cch khc, dng cc qui tc suy din chng minh:
(p.q.r. ) c h qu logic l h
Ta thng m hnh ha php suy lun di dng:
p
q
r

h
III. Qui tc suy din
( )
p q p q . (

p q
p
q

Cc qui tc suy din

1. Qui tc khng nh (Modus Ponens)
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
30
III. Qui tc suy din
Nu An hc chm th An hc tt.
M An hc chm
Suy ra An hc tt.
Tri ma th ng t.
M chiu nay tri ma.
Suy ra Chiu nay ng t.
31
III. Qui tc suy din
( )
p q q p . (

p q
q
p

2. Quy tc ph nh
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
32
III. Qui tc suy din
Nu An i hc y th An u ton ri rc.
An khng u ton ri rc.
Suy ra: An khng i hc y
33
III. Qui tc suy din
( ) ( ) ( )
p q q r p r . (

p q
q r
p r

3. Qui tc tam on lun
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
34
III. Qui tc suy din
Nu tri ma th ng t.
Nu ng t th ng trn
Suy ra nu tri ma th ng trn.
Mt con nga r l mt con nga him
Ci g him th t
Suy ra mt con nga r th t ()
35
III. Qui tc suy din
( )
p q q p v . (

4. Qui tc tam on lun ri
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
p q
q
p
v

ngha ca qui tc: nu trong hai trng hp c th xy ra,

chng ta bit c mt trng hp sai th chc chn trng
hp cn li s ng.
36
III. Qui tc suy din
Ch nht, An thng ln th vin hoc v qu
Ch nht ny, An khng v qu
Suy ra: An ln th vin
37
5. Quy tc ni lin
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
III. Qui tc suy din
( ) ( ) p q p q . .
p
q
p q .
38
III. Qui tc suy din
Hm nay An hc bi.
Hm nay An ph m nu n.
Suy ra: Hm nay An hc bi v ph m nu n.
39
6. Quy tc n gin
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:
Hoc di dng s
III. Qui tc suy din
( ) p q p .
p q
p
.

40
III. Qui tc suy din
Hm nay An i hc Ton ri rc v hc Anh vn.
Suy ra: Hm nay An hc Ton ri rc.
41
III. Qui tc suy din
7. Qui tc mu thun (chng minh bng phn chng)
Ta c tng ng logic
chng minh v tri l mt hng ng ta chng minh nu
thm ph nh ca q vo cc tin th c mt mu thun.
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
... ... 0
n n
p p p q p p p q . . . . . . . ( (

Cho a, b, c l 3 ng thng phn bit v a//c v b//c
chng minh a//b.
42
III. Qui tc suy din
Hy chng minh:
Cm bng phn chng.
p r
p q
q s
r s

0
p r
p q
q s
r
s

43
III. Qui tc suy din
( ) ( ) ( )
p r q r p q r . v ( (

C s Logic
8. Qui tc chng minh theo trng hp
Da trn hng ng:
ngha: nu p suy ra r v q suy ra r th p hay q cng c
th suy ra r.
Chng minh rng:
( )
3
4 3 n n
III. Qui tc suy din
1 2
...
n
p p p q . . .
C s Logic
9. Phn v d
chng minh mt php suy lun l sai hay
khng l mt hng ng. Ta ch cn ch ra
mt phn v d.
Suy lun sau c ng ko?
Company Logo
ng Minh ni rng nu khng
c tng lng th ng ta
s ngh vic. Mt khc, nu
ng y ngh vic v v ng
y b mt vic th phi bn
xe.Bit rng nu v ng
Minh hay i lm tr th
trc sau g cng s b mt
vic v cui cng ng Minh
c tng lng.
Suy ra nu ng Minh khng
bn xe th v ng ta
khng i lm tr
p: ng Minh c tng
lng.
q: ng Minh ngh vic.
r: v ng Minh mt vic.
s: gia nh phi bn xe.
t: v ng hay i lm tr.
p q
q r s
t r
p
s t

.

s=0
t=1
p=1
q=0
r=1
III. Qui tc suy din
( ) p q r
p s
t q
s
r t

v

Chng minh suy lun sau:
47
III. Qui tc suy din
C s Logic
III. Qui tc suy din
49
III. Qui Tc Suy Din
50
III. Qui Tc Suy Din
51
III. Qui Tc Suy Din
52

53
Tp hp: L mt b su tp gm cc vt. Mi vt c gi
l mt phn t ca tp hp
K hiu: A, B , X,
Nu x l phn t ca tp hp A, ta k hiu x e A
V d:
- N ={0,1,2,} l tp hp cc s t nhin.
- Z = {0,1,-1,2,-2,} tp hp cc s nguyn.
- Q = {m/n | m,n e Z, n0 } tp hp cc s hu t.
- R: tp hp cc s thc.
- C: Tp hp cc s phc.
IV. Logic v t
54
IV. Logic v t
1. nh ngha V t l mt khng nh p(x,y,..), trong x,y...l
cc bin thuc tp hp A, B,.. Cho trc sao cho:
- Bn thn p(x,y,..) khng phi l mnh .
- Nu thay x,y,.. Thnh gi tr c th th p(x,y,..) l mnh .
V d.
- p(n) = n +1 l s nguyn t.
- q(x,y) = x
2
+ y = 1 .
- r(x,y,z) = x
2
+ y
2
>z.
55
IV. Logic v t
2. Cc php ton trn v t Cho trc cc v t p(x), q(x)
theo mt bin x e A. Khi y, ta cng c cc php ton tng
ng nh trn mnh
- Ph nh p(x)
- Php ni lin p(x).q(x)
- Php ni ri p(x)vq(x)
- Php ko theo p(x)q(x)
- Php ko theo hai chiu p(x) q(x)
56
IV. Logic v t
Khi xt mt mnh p(x) vi x e A. Ta c cc trng hp
sau
- TH1. Khi thay x bi 1 phn t a ty e A, ta c p(a) ng.
- TH2. Vi mt s gi tr a e A, ta c p(a) ng.
- TH3. Khi thay x bi 1 phn t a ty e A, ta c p(a) sai.
V d. Cho v t p(x) vi xeR
- p(x) = x
2
+1 >0
- p(x) = x
2
-2x+1=0
- p(x) = x
2
-2x+3=0
57
IV. Logic v t
nh ngha. Cho p(x) l mt v t theo mt bin xc nh trn
A. Ta nh ngha cc mnh lng t ha ca p(x) nh
sau:
- Mnh Vi mi x thuc A, p(x) , k hiu bi
x e A, p(x),
l mnh ng khi v ch khi p(a) lun ng vi mi gi tr
a e A.
- Mnh Tn ti (t nht )hay c (t nht) mt x thuc A,
p(x)) k hiu bi :
-x e A, p(x) ,
l mnh ng khi v ch khi c t nht mt gi tr x = a
0
no sao cho mnh p(a
0
) ng.
58
IV. Logic v t
V d. Cc mnh sau ng hay sai
- x e R, x
2
+ 3x + 1 s 0 (S)
- -x e R, x
2
+ 3x + 1 s 0 ()
- x e R, x
2
+ 1 > 2x ()
- -x e R, x
2
+ 1 < 0 (S)
: c gi l lng t ph dng
- : c gi l lng t tn ti
59
IV. Logic v t
nh ngha. Cho p(x, y) l mt v t theo hai bin x, y xc nh
trn AB. Ta nh ngha cc mnh lng t ha ca p(x, y)
nh sau:
x e A,y e B, p(x, y) = x e A, (y e B, p(x, y))
x e A, -y e B, p(x, y) = x e A, (-y e B, p(x, y))
-x e A, y e B, p(x, y) = -x e A, (y e B, p(x, y))
-x e A, -y e B, p(x, y) = -x e A, (-y e B, p(x, y))
60
IV. Logic v t
V d.
- Mnh x e R, y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh sai v tn ti x
0
= 0, y
0
= 1 e R m x
0
+ 2y
0
> 1.
- Mnh x e R, -y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh ng v vi mi x = a e R, tn ti y
a
e R nh
y
a
= a/2, sao cho a + 2y
a
< 1.
61
IV. Logic v t
V d.
- Mnh x e R, y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh sai v tn ti x
0
= 0, y
0
= 1 e R m x
0
+ 2y
0
> 1.
- Mnh x e R, -y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh ng v vi mi x = a e R, tn ti y
a
e R nh
y
a
= a/2, sao cho a + 2y
a
< 1.
62
IV. Logic v t
V d.
- Mnh -x e R, y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai
Mnh sai v khng th c x = a e R bt ng thc
a + 2y < 1 c tha vi mi y e R (chng hn, y = a/2 + 2
khng th tha bt ng thc ny).
- Mnh -x e R, -y e R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh ng v tn ti x
0
= 0, y
0
= 0 e R chng hn tha
x
0
+ 2y
0
< 1.
63
IV. Logic v t
nh l. Cho p(x, y) l mt v t theo hai bin x, y xc nh
trn AB. Khi :
1) x e A, y e B, p(x, y) y e B, x e A, p(x, y)
2) -x e A, -y e B, p(x, y) -y e B, -x e A, p(x, y)
3) -x e A, y e B, p(x, y) y e B, -x e A, p(x, y)
Chiu o ca 3) ni chung khng ng.
64
IV. Logic v t
Ph nh ca mnh lng t ha v t p(x,y,..) c c
bng cc thay thnh -, thay - thnh v v t p(x,y,..)
thnh p(x,y,..).
Vi v t theo 1 bin ta c :
( ) ( )
, , x A p x x A p x e - e
( ) ( )
, , x A p x x A p x - e e
65
IV. Logic v t
Vi v t theo 2 bin.
( ) ( )
, , , , , , x A y B p x y x A y B p x y e e - e - e
( ) ( )
, , , , , , x A y B p x y x A y B p x y e - e - e e
( ) ( )
, , , , , , x A y B p x y x A y B p x y - e e e - e
( ) ( )
, , , , , , x A y B p x y x A y B p x y - e - e e e
66
IV. Logic v t
V d ph nh cc mnh sau
- x e A, 2x + 1 s 0
- c > 0, -o > 0, x e R, , x a, < o ,f(x) f(a), < c.
Tr li
-x e A, 2x + 1 > 0
-c > 0, o > 0, -x e R, , x a, < o . (,f(x) f(a), > c).
67
IV. Logic v t
Qui tc c bit ha ph dng:
Nu mt mnh ng c dng lng t ha trong
mt bin x e A b buc bi lng t ph dng , khi y nu
thay th x bi a e A ta s c mt mnh ng
V d:
Mi ngi u cht
Socrate l ngi
Vy Socrate cng cht
, ( )
( )
x A p x
a A
p a
e
e

68
V. Tp hp
1. Khi nim
Tp hp l mt khi nim
c bn ca Ton hc.
V d:
1) Tp hp sinh vin ca
mt trng i hc.
2) Tp hp cc s nguyn
3) Tp hp cc tri to
trn mt cy c th.
S Ven:
C s Logic
Lc lng ca tp hp
S phn t ca tp hp A c gi l lc lng ca tp
hp, k hiu |A|.
Nu A c hu hn phn t, ta ni A hu hn.
Ngc li, ta ni A v hn.
V d.
N, Z, R, l cc tp v hn
X={1,3,4,5} l tp hu hn |X|=4
V. Tp hp
a. Cch xc nh tp hp
Lit k tt c cc phn t ca tp hp
A={1,2,3,4,a,b}
a ra tnh cht c trng
B={ n eN | n chia ht cho 3}
b. Quan h gia cc tp hp
Tp hp con
Hai tp hp bng nhau
B
A
A
B
B
A
V. Tp hp
C s Logic
2. Cc php ton tp hp
a. Php hp
Hp ca 1 tp hp A
v B l tp hp to bi
tt c cc phn t
thuc A hoc thuc B.
K hiu:
V d:
A
B
{ , , , }
{ , , , , , }
{ , , , }
A a b c d
A B a b c d e f
B c d e f
=

=
`
=
)
A B
( ) ( ) x A B x A x B e e v e
V. Tp hp
Tnh cht:
1. Tnh ly ng
2. Tnh giao hon
3. Tnh kt hp
4. Hp vi tp rng
b. Php giao
Giao ca 2 tp hp A v B l tp hp to bi cc
phn t va thuc A va thuc B.
K hiu:
A B B A =
A A A =
( ) ( ) A B C A B C =
A A A C = C=
A B
A B
A B
( ) ( ) x A B x A x B e e . e
V. Tp hp
Tnh cht:
1) Tnh ly ng
2) Tnh giao hon
3) Tnh kt hp
4) Giao vi tp rng
Tnh phn phi ca php giao v hp
A B B A =
A A A =
( ) ( ) A B C A B C =
A A C = C= C
1) ( ) ( ) ( )
2) ( ) ( ) ( )
A B C A B A C
A B C A B A C
=
=
V. Tp hp
Tp b: Khi th B\A gi l b ca A trong B.
K hiu hay
c. Hiu ca 2 tp hp
Hiu ca hai tp hp l tp to
bi tt c cc phn t thuc tp
A m khng thuc tp B
K hiu A\B
( \ ) ( ) x A B x A x B e e . e
A B
A B c
B
C A
A
1)
2)
A B A B
A B A B
=
=
Lut De Morgan:
V. Tp hp
V. Tp hp
3. Tp cc tp con ca mt tp hp
Cho X l mt tp hp. Khi tp tt c cc tp con
ca X c k hiu l P(X)
V d
{ , } X a b =
( ) { ,{ },{ },{ , }} P X a b a b = C
{1, 2, 3}, ( ) ? Y P Y = =
| | | ( ) | ? X n P X = =
4. Tch Cc:
Tch cc ca tp hp A vi tp hp B l tp hp
bao gm tt c cc cp th t (x,y) vi
K hiu A.B hoc
Ch : Tch ca 2 tp hp khng c tnh cht giao
hon.
, x A y B e e
A B
( , ) ( ) x y A B x A y B e e . e
V. Tp hp
| | ? A B =
V. Tp hp
Cc php ton giao, hp, tch c th m rng cho nhiu tp
hp
i i
i I
A {x i I, x A }
e
= e e

i i
i I
A {x i I, x A }
e
= - e e

{ }
i i i I i i
i I
A (x ) i I , x A
e
e
= e e
[
VI. nh x
1. nh ngha. Cho hai tp hp X, Y = C. nh x gia hai
tp X v Y l mt qui tc sao cho mi x thuc X tn ti
duy nht mt y thuc y y = f(x)
Ta vit:
:
( )
f X Y
x f x

Ngha l , ! : ( ) x X y Y y f x e - e =
VI. nh x
Khng l nh x
VI. nh x
Hai nh x bng nhau. Hai nh x f v g t X vo Y c
gi l bng nhau nu x e X, f(x) = g(x).
V d: Xt nh x f(x)=(x-1)(x+1) v g(x) =x
2
-1 t R->R
nh v nh ngc.
Cho nh x f t X vo Y v A c X, B c Y. Ta nh ngha:
f(A) = {f(x) , x e A} = {y e Y , -x e A, y = f(x)} c gi l
nh ca A
VI. nh x
f
1
(B) = {x e X , f(x) e B} c gi l nh ngc ca B
f(A) = {f(x) , x e A} = {y e Y , -x e A, y = f(x)}
Nh vy y e f(A) -x e A, y = f(x);
y e f(A) x e A, y = f(x).
f
1
(B)
Nh vy x e f
1
(B) f(x) e B
VI. nh x
V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x
2
+1
Ta c
f([1,3])=[2,10]
f([-2,-1])=[2,5]
f([-1,3])=[1,10]
f((1,5)) = (2,26)
f
1
(1)={0}
f
1
(2)={-1,1}
f
1
(-5)= C
f
1
([2,5])= [-2,-1] [1,2]
VI. nh x
2. Phn loi nh x
a. n nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt n nh nu hai phn t
khc nhau bt k ca X u c nh khc nhau, ngha l:
V d. Cho f: N R c xc nh f(x)=x
2
+1 (l n nh)
g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x
2
+1 (khng n nh)
VI. nh x
x, x' e X, x = x' f(x) = f(x' )
Nh vy f : X Y l mt n nh
(x, x' e X, f(x) = f(x') x = x').
(y e Y, f
1
(y) c nhiu nht mt phn t).
(y e Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham s)
c nhiu nht mt nghim x e X.
f : X Y khng l mt n nh
(-x, x' e X, x = x' v f(x) = f(x')).
(-y e Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c t nht hai nghim x e X
VI. nh x
b. Ton nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt ton nh f(X)=Y, ngha l:
V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x
3
+1 (l ton nh)
g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x
2
+1 (khng l ton
nh)
Ton nh f(X)=Y. Nh vy
f : X Y l mt ton nh
(y e Y, -x e X, y = f(x))
(y e Y, f
1
(y) = C);
y e Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c nghim x e X.
f : X Y khng l mt ton nh
(-y e Y, x e X, y = f(x));
(-y e Y, f
1
(y) = C);
VI. nh x
VI. nh x
c. Song nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt song nh nu f
va l n nh va l ton nh.
V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x
3
+1 (l song nh)
g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x
2
+1 (khng l song
nh)
VI. nh x
Tnh cht.
f : X Y l mt song nh
(y e Y, -!x e X, y = f(x));
(y e Y, f
1
(y) c ng mt phn t);
y e Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c duy nht mt nghim x e X.
f
1
: Y X
y f
1
(y) = x vi f(x) = y.
VI. nh x
nh x ngc.
Xt f : X Y l mt song nh. Khi , theo tnh cht trn, vi
mi y e Y, tn ti duy nht mt phn t x e X tha f(x) = y. Do
tng ng y x l mt nh x t Y vo X. Ta gi y l
nh x ngc ca f v k hiu f
1
. Nh vy:

V d. Cho f l nh x t R vo R f(x) =2x+1.

Khi f
1
(x)=(y-1)/2
VI. nh x
3. Tch nh x. Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y' Z
trong Y c Y'. nh x tch h ca f v g l nh x t X vo Z
xc nh bi: h : X Z
x h(x) = g(f(x))
Ta vit: h = gof : X Y Z

VI. nh x
2
( ) 1, ( ) 1 f x x g x x = + = +
V d. Tm gof, fog
2
0
( ) ( ) 2 1
1 0
x if x
f x g x x
x if x
>
= = +

+ s

V. Quy np
1. Phng php
Vi nhng bi ton chng minh tnh ng n ca mt biu
thc mnh c cha tham s n, nh P(n). Quy np ton
hc l mt k thut chng minh P(n) ng vi mi s t
nhin n N
0
.
- Qu trnh chng minh quy np bao gm 2 bc:
Bc c s: Ch ra P(N
0
) ng.
Bc quy np: Chng minh nu P(k) ng th P(k+1)
ng. Trong P(k) c gi l gi thit quy np.
Chng minh 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + + (2n-1)= n
2
vi n 1
V. Quy np
Gi P(n) = 1+3+(2n-1)=n
2

+ Bc c s:
Hin nhin P(1) ng v 1= 1
2
.
V d. Chng minh 1+3++(2n-1)=n
2
vi mi s nguyn
dng n.
T gi thit quy np ta c:
- Suy ra, P(k+1) ng.
Vy theo nguyn l quy np P(n) ng vi mi s
nguyn dng n
V. Quy np
+ Bc quy np:
- Gi s P(k) ng, tc l
- Ta phi ch ra rng P(k+1) ng, tc l
2
1 3 5 ... (2 1) ( 1) k k + + + + + = +
2
1 3 5 ... (2 1) (2 1) (2 1) k k k k + + + + + + = + +
2
( 1) k = +
2
1 3 5 ... (2 1) k k + + + + =
V. Quy np
( 1)
1 2 3 ... ( 1) 1
2
n n
CM n n n
+
+ + + + + = >