A contraction is the shortening of a word, syllable, or word group by omission of internal letters.

[1] In traditional grammar, contraction can denote the formation of a new word from one word or a group of words, for example, by elision. This often occurs in rendering a common sequence of words or, as in French, in maintaining a flowing sound. In strict analysis, contractions should not be confused with abbreviations or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.1

Contractions

List o' Contractions

A contraction is a shortened form of one or two words (one of which is usually a verb). In a contraction, an apostrophe takes the place of the missing letter or letters. Some contractions are: I'm (I am), can't (cannot), how's (how is), and Ma'am (Madam). For example, "don't" is a contraction that is short for "do not"; the apostrophe in "don't" takes the place of the missing "o". Another example is "o'clock," a contraction "of the clock." A less common example of a contraction is "jack-o'-lantern," short for "jack-of-lantern"; in it, the apostrophe takes the place of the missing "f" in "of." List o' Common Contractions:

I you he she it

BE I'm I am you're you are he's he is she's she is it's (or 'tis) it is

WILL WOULD HAVE HAD I'll I'd I've I'd I will I would I have I had you've you'll you'd you'd you you will you would you had have he'll he'd he's he'd he will he would he has he had she'll she'd she's she'd she will she would she has she had it'll it'd it's it'd it will it would it has it had

WORDS (negating a verb) is not are not was not were not have not has not had not will not

CONTRACTION isn't aren't wasn't weren't haven't hasn't hadn't won't

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction_%28grammar%29

we'll we'd we've we'd we will we would we have we had they'd they've they're they'll they'd they they they they are they will they had would have that's that'll that'd that's that'd that that is that will that would that has that had who'd who's who'll who's who'd who who who is who will who has who had would what's/what're what'll what'd what's what'd what what is/what what what what what had are will would has where'll where'd where's where'd where's where where where where where where is will would has had when'll when'd when's when'd when's when when when when when when is will would has had why'd why's why'll why's why'd why why why is why will why has why had would how'd how's how'll how's how'd how how how is how will how has how had would we

we're we are

would not do not does not did not cannot could not should not might not must not

wouldn't don't doesn't didn't can't couldn't shouldn't mightn't mustn't

WORDS (wouldashouldacoulda) would have should have could have might have must have

CONTRACTION would've should've could've might've must've

WORDS she would have it is not

DOUBLE CONTRACTION she'd've (colloquial) 'tisn't (archaic)

WORDS (odd CONTRACTION ones) of o' of the clock o'clock madam ma'am never-do-well ne'er-do-well cat-of-ninecat-o'-nine-tails tails jack-of-thejack-o'-lantern lantern will-of-thewill-o'-the-wisp wisp it was 'twas (archaic)

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/grammar/contractions/

Definition
In English, words, particularly adjectives and nouns, are combined into compound structures in a variety of ways. And once they are formed, they sometimes metamorphose over time. A common pattern is that two words fire fly, say will be joined by a hyphen for a time fire-fly and then be joined into one word firefly. In this respect, a language like German, in which words are happily and immediately linked one to the other, might seem to have an advantage. There is only one sure way to know how to spell compounds in English: use an authoritative dictionary. There are three forms of compound words: the closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook; the hyphenated form, such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced; and the open form, such as post office, real estate, middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general
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Regular and irregular verbs

This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.4

To make the past tense or past participle form of most verbs (regular verbs) we simply add ed at the end. Examples using the verb walk: Past Tense: I walked through the maze. Past Participle: I have walked through the maze.

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http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/compounds.htm http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-what_classification-main.htm

(The past participle form is used in the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses. The above example is written in the present perfect tense.) Irregular verbs are not that simple. We sometimes need a dictionary to help us write the different forms of irregular verbs. Examples using the verb see: Past Tense: We saw the secret maps. Past Participle: We have seen the secret maps. Look up the word see in the dictionary. Notice that the different forms of the word are given. Look up walk. Notice that the dictionary doesnt bother to give the different forms of regular verbs.5 What is an idiom?
An idiom is a combination of words that has a meaning that is different from the meanings of the individual words themselves. It can have a literal meaning in one situation and a different idiomatic meaning in another situation. It is a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar. To sit on the fence can literally mean that one is sitting on a fence. I sat on the fence and watched the game. However, the idiomatic meaning of to sit on the fence is that one is not making a clear choice regarding some issue. The politician sat on the fence and would not give his opinion about the tax issue. Many idioms are similar to expressions in other languages and can be easy for a learner to understand. Other idioms come from older phrases which have changed over time. To hold one's horses means to stop and wait patiently for someone or something. It comes from a time when people rode horses and would have to hold their horses while waiting for someone or something. "Hold your horses," I said when my friend started to leave the store.
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http://www.rhlschool.com/eng4n6.htm

Other idioms come from such things as sports that are common in the United Kingdom or the United States and may require some special cultural knowledge to easily understand them. To cover all of one's bases means to thoroughly prepare for or deal with a situation. It comes from the American game of baseball where you must cover or protect the bases. I tried to cover all of my bases when I went to the job interview.

Structure of Idioms

Most idioms are unique and fixed in their grammatical structure. The expression to sit on the fence cannot become to sit on a fence or to sit on the fences. However, there are many changes that can be made to an idiom. Some of these changes result in a change in the grammatical structure that would generally be considered to be wrong. To be broken literally means that something is broken. The lamp is broken so I cannot easily read my book. To be broke is grammatically incorrect but it has the idiomatic meaning of to have no money. I am broke and I cannot go to a movie tonight. There can also be changes in nouns, pronouns or in the verb tenses. I sat on the fence and did not give my opinion. Many people are sitting on the fence and do not want to give their opinion. Adjectives and adverbs can also be added to an idiomatic phrase. The politician has been sitting squarely in the middle of the fence since the election. It is for these reasons that it is sometimes difficult to isolate the actual idiomatic expression and then find it in a dictionary of idioms.6

Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.7 Narrative text is a kind of text to retell the story that past tense. The purpose of the text is to entertain or to amuse the readers or listeners about the story.
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http://www.idiomconnection.com/whatis.html#A2 http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-voice_passive.htm

The generic structure of Narrative text : 1. Orientation : It set the scene and introduce the participants (it answers the question : who, when, what, and where). 1. Complication : Tells the problems of the story and how the main characters solve them. 1. Resolution : The crisis is revolved, for better or worse. 1. Re-orientation : The ending of the story. 1. Evaluation : The stepping back to evaluate the story or the moral message of the story Linguistic features : 1. Use active verbs. 2. Use past tense. 3. Use conjunction. 4. The first person (I or We) or the third person (He, She, or They). 5. Use specific nouns. 6. Use adjective and adverbs Kind of Narrative text : 1. Legend : Sangkuriang, Malin Kundang, etc. 2. Fable : Mousedeer and crocodile. 3. Fairy tale : Cinderella, Snow white, Pinocchio, etc. 4. Science fiction

Example of Narrative text : Sleeping Beauty Long ago there lived a King and Queen who said every day, If only we had a child! But for a long time they had none. One day, as the Queen was bathing in a spring and dreaming of a child, a frog crept out of the water and said to her, Your wish shall be fulfilled. Before a year has passed you shall bring a daughter into the world. And since frogs are such magical creatures, it was no surprise that before a year had passed the Queen had a baby girl. The child was so beautiful and sweet that the King could not contain himself for joy. He prepared a great feast and invited all his friends, family and neighbours. He invited the fairies, too, in order that they might be kind and good to the child. There were thirteen of them in his kingdom, but as the King only had twelve golden plates for them to eat from, one of the fairies had to be left out. None of the guests was saddened by this as the thirteenth fairy was known to be cruel and spiteful. An amazing feast was held and when it came to an end, each of the fairies presented the child with a magic gift. One fairy gave her virtue, another beauty, a third riches and so on with everything in the world that anyone could wish for. After eleven of the fairies had presented their gifts, the thirteenth suddenly appeared. She was angry and wanted to show her spite for not having been invited to the feast. Without hesitation she called out in a loud voice, When she is fifteen years old, the Princess shall prick herself with a spindle and shall fall down dead! Then without another word, she turned and left the hall. The guests were horrified and the Queen fell to the floor sobbing, but the twelfth fairy, whose wish was still not spoken, quietly stepped forward. Her magic could not remove the curse, but she could soften it so she said, Nay, your daughter shall not die, but instead shall fall into a deep sleep that will last one hundred years. Over the years, the promises of the fairies came true one by one. The Princess grew to be beautiful, modest, kind and clever. Everyone who saw her could not help but love her. The King and Queen were determined to prevent the curse placed on the Princess by the spiteful fairy and sent out a command that all the spindles in the whole kingdom should be destroyed. No one in the kingdom was allowed to tell the Princess of the curse that had been placed upon her for they did not want her to worry or be sad.

On the morning of her fifteenth birthday, the Princess awoke early excited to be another year older. She was up so early in the morning, that she realized everyone else still slept. The Princess roamed through the halls trying to keep herself occupied until the rest of the castle awoke. She wandered about the whole place, looking at rooms and halls as she pleased and at last she came to an old tower. She climbed the narrow, winding staircase and reached a little door. A rusty key was sticking in the lock and when she turned it, the door flew open. In a little room sat an old woman with a spindle, busily spinning her flax. The old woman was so deaf that she had never heard the Kings command that all spindles should be destroyed. Good morning, Granny, said the Princess, what are you doing? I am spinning, said the old woman. What is the thing that whirls round so merrily? asked the Princess and she took the spindle and tried to spin too. But she had scarcely touched the spindle when it pricked her finger. At that moment she fell upon the bed which was standing near and lay still in a deep sleep. The King, Queen and servants had all started their morning routines and right in the midst of them fell asleep too. The horses fell asleep in the stable, the dogs in the yard, the doves on the roof and the flies on the wall. Even the fire in the hearth grew still and went to sleep. The kitchen maid, who sat with a chicken before her, ready to pluck its feathers, fell asleep. The cook was in the midst of scolding the kitchen boy for a mess hed made but they both fell fast asleep. The wind died down and on the trees in front of the castle not a leaf stirred. Round the castle a hedge of brier roses began to grow up. Every year it grew higher until at last nothing could be seen of the sleeping castle. There was a legend in the land about the lovely Sleeping Beauty, as the Kings daughter was called, and from time to time Princes came and tried to force their way through the hedge and into the castle. But they found it impossible for the thorns, as though they were alive, grabbed at them and would not let them through. After many years a Prince came again to the country and heard an old man tell the tale of the castle which stood behind the brier hedge and the beautiful Princess who had slept within for a hundred years. He heard also that many Princes had tried to make it through the brier hedge but none had succeeded and many had been caught in it and died. The the young Prince said, I am not afraid. I must go and see this Sleeping Beauty. The good old man did all in his power to persuade him not to go, but the Prince would not listen.

Now the hundred years were just ended. When the Prince approached the brier hedge it was covered with beautiful large roses. The shrubs made way for him of their own accord and let him pass unharmed. In the courtyard, the Prince saw the horses and dogs lying asleep. On the roof sat the sleeping doves with their heads tucked under their wings. When he went into the house, the flies were asleep on the walls and the servants asleep in the halls. Near the throne lay the King and Queen, sleeping peacefully beside each other. In the kitchen the cook, the kitchen boy and the kitchen maid all slept with their heads resting on the table. The Prince went on farther. All was so still that he could hear his own breathing. At last he reached the tower and opened the door into the little room where the Princess was asleep. There she lay, looking so beautiful that he could not take his eyes off her. He bent down and gave her a kiss. As he touched her, Sleeping Beauty opened her eyes and smiled up at him. Throughout the castle, everyone and everything woke up and looked at each other with astonished eyes. Within the month, the Prince and Sleeping Beauty were married and lived happily all their lives.
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Dictation The act of dictating; the act or practice of prescribing; also that which is dictated. The speaking to, or the giving orders to, in an overbearing manner; authoritative utterance; as, his habit, even with friends, was that of dictation.9
Definition of Dictation Dictation is technique used in both language teaching and language testing in which a passage is read aloud to student or test taker, with pauses during which they must try to write down what they have heard accurately as possible. Basically, this is a technique used to know how much student ability to recognize and identify the spoken language10

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http://4antum.wordpress.com/2009/12/03/narrative-text-itu/ http://www.brainyquote.com/words/di/dictation154091.html 10 http://sancesdict.blogspot.com/2010/01/definition-of-dictation.html

Homophone means "sounds the same," and a homophone is a word that sounds the same as another word, while having a different spelling and a different meaning. Many homophone examples turn up in lists of frequently confused words. They are the words that make up one of the largest classes of typo. Some examples of common homophones that people often substitute for each other when writing include the following:11

Homophones
Homophones are words that have exactly the same sound (pronunciation) but different meanings and (usually) spelling. For example, the following two words have the same sound, but different meanings and spelling: hour our In the next example, the two words have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: bear (the animal) bear (to carry) Usually homophones are in groups of two (our, hour), but very occasionally they can be in groups of three (to, too, two) or even four. If we take our "bear" example, we can add another word to the group" bare (naked) bear (the animal) bear (to tolerate) "Our bear cannot bear to be bare at any hour."
The word homophone is made from two combining forms:

homo- (from the Greek word "homos", meaning "same" -phone (from the Greek word "phone", meaning "voice" or "sound"

You will see many other English words using one or other of these combining forms.

The following list of 70 groups of homophones contains only the most common homophones, using relatively well-known words. These are headwords only. No inflections (such as third person singular "s" or noun plurals) are included.
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http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-homophone.htm

air aisle anteeye bare be brake buy cell cent cereal coarse compleme nt dam dear die fair fir

heir isle antiI bear bee break by sell scent serial course complime nt damn deer dye fare fur bear

flour for hair heal hear him hole hour idle in knight knot know made mail meat morning none

flower four hare heel here hymn whole our idol inn night not no maid male meet mourning nun

oar one pair peace plain poor pray principal profit real right root sail sea seam sight sew shore

or won pear piece plane pour prey principle prophet reel write route sale see seem site so sure sow

sole some son stair stationary steal suite tail their to toe waist wait way weak wear

soul sum sun stare stationery steel sweet tale there too tow waste weight weigh week where two

NB: In a few cases, a third homophone, although possible, has not been included for simplicity. Different varieties and accents of English may produce variations in some of these pronunciations. The homophones listed here are based on British English.12

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http://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/homophones.htm