THE RHODES-LIVINGSTONE PAPERS NUMBER TWENTY-SEVEN

THE KALELA DANCE

Aspects of Social Relationships among Urban Africans in Northern Rhodesia BY

J. CLYDE MITCHELL
Professor of African studies, University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Sometime Senior Sociologist and Director of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute

published on behalf of THE RHODES-LIVINGSTONE INSTITUTE by the

MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS 1956

Published on WWW as part of the Experience Rich Anthropology (ERA) project with the permission of the University of Zambia and Estate of Clyde Mitchell. Permission is granted for the educational non-commercial use of this work only. All other uses require prior permission.

CONTENTS The opinions expressed are those of the Author alone page PREFACE INTRODUCTION KALELA THE DANCING TEAMS THE SONG THE ORIGIN OF THE DANCE MBENI PRESTIGE & 'EUROPEAN WAY OF LIFE' TRIBALISM IN TOWNS TRIBAL DISTANCE TRIBALISM & CATEGORICAL RELATIONSHIPS TRIBALISM & URBAN ADMINISTRATION JOKING TRIBES IN TOWNS KALELA IN THE URBAN SITUATION APPENDIX I. OCCUPATIONAL PRESTIGE RANKING APPENDIX II. RANKING OF TRIBES FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS BIBLIOGRAPHY 50 31 35 42 45 18 22 28 vii 1 1 2 5 9 10 11

46

FRONTISPIECE A Kalela Dance in progress in the Luanshya Management Board Location, 17th June 1951

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PREFACE In this essay I have attempted an analysis of certain aspects of the system of social relationships among Africans in the towns of Northern Rhodesia. Urban studies have been part of the tradition of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute from the days of its inception, so that this paper is a contribution to a general development stemming from the late Godfrey Wilson and from Max Gluckman and at present being carried further by Arnold Epstein. In 1950 I was appointed Senior Sociologist on the staff of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute. With one other sociologist I was to make a study of the African population of the Copperbelt and decided to break the assignment into three parts according to the different types of field work needed. The first was to be a sociographic survey which would provide some of the quantitative data needed as a basis to the other sociological studies. The second was to be a study of family economics and nutrition. The third part was to be a study of the social structure of the African population. I decided that the study of family economics could best be made by a woman sociologist and subsequently Miss Elsey Richardson conducted this part of the study. I started the sociographic survey in 1951, intending to move over to the study of social structure when the sociographic surveys were completed. Before this stage could be reached, however, I was appointed Director of the Institute and had reluctantly to forgo the study of the social structure. Instead Dr. Epstein who had been appointed research lawyer was able to take up some of the points and they are developed in his forthcoming book Politics in an Urban African Community. Recently he has been able to return as Senior Sociologist to complete the scheme which I embarked upon in 1951. The basic material used in this essay was collected while the sociographic survey was in progress. The first version of this paper was prepared in July, 1951, and was read only by a few personal friends in Luanshya. Subsequently in January, 1953, I read a version to a conference of research officers of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute. Later in that year I read another version to a seminar at the University of Manchester where I was Simon Research Fellow. Since then I have been able to add the sections dealing with tribal social distance and tribal joking relationships. It is only now that I have relinquished the Directorship of the Institute that I have been able to return to the paper and prepare it for publication. I am indebted to my colleagues in the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute and the Department of Social Anthropology of the University of Manchester who have criticized various versions of this paper. I am particularly indebted to the African Research Assistants of the Rhodes- Livingstone Institute with whom I discussed many parts of this paper

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and who supplied me with much valuable information. I would like to thank Professor Max Gluckman and Dr. J. A. Barnes for their comments on an early version of this paper, and Mr. Max Marwick for permission to quote information on joking relationships from his unpublished thesis on the Chewa. I am grateful to Professor N. H MacKenzie who has read the manuscript and suggested some improvements; to Miss M. Leask and Miss J. Dent who between them have typed the manuscript several times; and lastly to my wife who has consistently worked with me on this essay. J.C.M Salisbury, June, 1956.

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THE KALELA DANCE INTRODUCTION Kalela is the name of a popular 'tribal' dance on the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia. Certain puzzling features attracted my attention to it when I was engaged in field work and I have used it as a vehicle for general enquiry into tribalism and some other features of social relationships among Africans in the towns of Northern Rhodesia. In presenting the material and its analysis I have tried to follow the method used by Gluckman in his Analysis of a Social Situation in Modern Zululand.1 Gluckman starts his paper with a description of the ceremony whereby a new bridge in Zululand was opened by the Chief Native Commissioner. He isolates the important elements in the ceremony and then traces each of these elements back into the larger society, to demonstrate their significance in the ceremony he has described. By following out the leads in the ceremony Gluckman is led to a historical and sociological analysis of the total structure of modern Zululand. In this essay I try to employ the same general techniques. I start with a description of the kalela dance and then relate the dominant features of the dance to the system of relationships among Africans on the Copperbelt. In order to do this I must take into account, to some extent, the general system of Black-White relationships in Northern Rhodesia. By working outwards from a specific social situation on the Copperbelt the whole social fabric of the Territory is therefore taken in. It is only when this process has been followed to a conclusion that we can return to the dance and fully appreciate its significance. KALELA Tribal dancing has become a feature of urban life throughout Southern Africa. On the Witwatersrand the massed military dancing of the Nguni peoples has become a spectacle for tourists to see during visits to Johannesburg. This type of dancing has also become an organized type of recreation in which teams of dancers compete weekly.2 On the Copperbelt, no less, 'tribal' dancing is a feature of African life. Unlike the magnificent plumed, rhythmic, military dancing of the Nguni peoples, however, tribal dancing on the Copperbelt is somewhat unobtrusive and, by comparison with dances in the south, almost prosaic. Nevertheless, each African township, location

1 Gluckman, M., 1940 2 Jokl, E., 1949, pp.412ff. A prize is given to the team that wins the tribal dancing competition in Salisbury each year. In 1954 it was won by a Shngaan team. Report of the Director of Native Administration of Salisbury for the Year ending June, 1955, para. 273. p. 54.

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or compound has its pitches where dancing teams from different tribes perform every Sunday afternoon and on public holidays. The Ngonde, the people from the Kasai, the Nsenga, the Cewa, the Ngoni, and many other tribes have their own distinctive dances. But the most popular dance of all is the Kalela,3 which is danced all over the Copperbelt by people from the Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia. During 1951 I was able to watch several kalela dances performed by a Bisa team in the Luanshya Management Board Location. I was also able to assembly a certain amount of information on the social background of the dancers.4 The description of the dancers, therefore, is based on this team. The team was made up of nineteen young men. The costume for the rank-and-file dancers was well-pressed grey slacks, neat singlets, and well-polished shoes. Some carried white handkerchiefs in their right hands. Their hair was carefully combed with a well defined parting. In short, they were young men dressed smartly in the European style. The team danced to the accompaniment of drumming on three large drums, which were made out of forty-four gallon oil drums covered with cow-hide. Two drummers beat the drums with banana shaped sticks about two feet long. The sound of the drumming could be heard for miles around - at the dancing arena it was deafening. The drums were hung on a pole in the centre of a fenced enclosure in the location and the dancers circulated round them in single file. The dance was made up of short shuffling steps accompanied by a slight inward swaying of the body. Periodically the leader of the band punctuated the drumming with sharp blasts on a football whistle, after which the dancers turned in unison towards the drums. During part of the dance the drums were silent while the dancers sang a song. THE DANCING TEAMS Each dancing team is organized in the same way. The composition of the one with which we are familiar is as follows. At the head is a 'king', elected by members of the dancing team to be the general

3 There are many dances very similar to kalela, but known by different names. The mbeni dance, which waswidespread in Central Africa before the 1939-45 War, and from which, my informants told me, kalela developed, was almost identical. A dance known as mganda in the Eastern Province of Northern Rhodesia is the same. A dance among the Lakeside Tonga called malipenga has many similar characteristics. Mr. C. M. N. White tells me that a similar dance among the Luvale, Luchazi and Chokwe is known as nyakasanga, though he points out that their neighbours the Western Lunda call their dance halela. In a recent tribal dancing competition held in Mufulira and reported in the Mufulira Star, vol. 4 No. 6 (June 1956), the Kalela Smart and the Karonga Boma teams placed second and third were kalela - type dancers. Brelsford, W. V., 1948, does not mention kalela. 2 I am indebted to Mr. Sykes Ndilila, then Research Assistant of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, who collected the personal information on the dancers and who recorded words of the song. 3 Officials with 'European' titles also feature in urban dancing groups in West Africa.See Banton, M. 1953a; 10953b.

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organizer and administrator of the team. He is also their treasurer : the team members pay their subscriptions to him when they go to another Copperbelt town to compete with other kalela dancers, or whenever they hold a feast. When I have watched the dance he has been dressed in marked contrast to the dancers : he wore a dark suit, collar and tie, hat, and a pair of white-rimmed sun glasses. He interrupted the dance after it had been going for some time to shake hands, with each of the dancers in much the same way that a celebrity meets the teams at a soccer match. The leader of the dance was Luke Mulumba who succeeded his brother to this position in 1948. The dance leader actually leads the dancing while the 'king' takes no active part in it. It is the dance leader who invents the steps and composes the words of the song, which is so important in the dance. A 'doctor' dressed in a white operating gown with a red cross in front was also present. His duties were to encourage the dancers. A 'nursing sister' the only woman in the group, was dressed in white, and went around with a mirror and a handkerchief to allow each dancer to inspect himself to see whether he was neat and tidy. She also wiped the sweat from the faces of the dancers as they went on dancing. She is the sister of Luke and is married to the 'king'. The rest of the team is made up of dancers and drummers. The following table sets out some of the social characteristics of the team :
Role King Leader Doctor Sister Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Dancer Tribe Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Bisa Ngoni Chief Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Matipa Chiwa Chiwa Chiwa Chiwa Chiwa Mshawa Born 1910 1928 1925 1933 1921 1925 1926 1926 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1929 1930 1932 1933 1924 1924 1925 1928 1927 1929 Religion W.T R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C Pagan R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C R.C Pagan Pagan Pagan R.C R.C Pagan Moslem Educ. Nil St.IVS NilS Nil St. IS NilG NilS St. IS St. IIS NilS NilD St. IS Lit.G NilS NilG St. IIID NilS St. IIS NilD NilS NilS St. IIS NilD Conj. M Occupation Tailor Office Boy Labourer House wife Labourer Labourer Tailor Labourer Labourer Labourer Labourer Bar Boy Labourer Lorry Boy Lorry Boy Garden Boy Labourer Labourer Labourer Unemployed Labourer Tailor Tailor

W.T. = Watchtower; Lit = Literate, i.e: no formal education but can read and write; D = Divorced; G = Married but wife still in rural area.

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This team is obviously composed of men largely from the Bisa Chief Matipa's chiefdom. Luke Mulumba, the leader, who in fact dominates the team, is Matipa's sister's son and it is clear that he has attracted around him a number of his mother's brother's subjects. His songs praise Chief Matipa and therefore, indirectly, himself. But there are also five men from a neighbouring Bisa chiefdom under Chief Chiewa.5 These five men are easily accepted into the team because, as we will soon see, in the situation on the Copperbelt, Luke Mulumba's team is representative of all Bisa. The Ng'umbo under Chief Mwewa and the Aushi from Chief Milambo's area also had kalela teams, and there was a composite Bisa kalela team drawn from all chiefdoms recognizing the paramountcy of Chief Kopa. Mulumba's team was formed with the object of praising Chief Matipa and broke away from the other Bisa team in order to do this. Yet, in public, they formally express the unity of all Bisa against other tribes as in the opening chant of their song when they chant: Leader : 'B.' Dancers : 'Bisa.' Leader : 'C.' Dancers : 'Cilubi. Square island surrounded by water. Leader : 'P.C.K.' Dancers : 'Provincial Commissioner Kopa.' In this way they evoke the symbol of paramount chief in order to express their unity against all other tribes, at the same time expressing Chief Kopa's prestige in peculiarly modern terms. It is quite possible, therefore, for the Bisa other than those of Chief Matipa to participate in this dance. They ignore their internal differences in the face of the multi-tribe situation in an urban area. Apart from the common tribal origin of the team, there are other significant regularities. No one in the dancing team is over the age of thirty. Most are under the age of twenty-five. It is true that men on the Copperbelt tend to be selected from the younger age-groups but Mulumba's team is younger than the normal population on the Copperbelt.6 The 'King' on the other hand is forty-one years old. Another striking regularity is that all the dancers live in the single quarters. Three of the dancers are married but their wives are in the rural areas. All the rest are either single or divorced. The 'King', however, is married and his wife, who is Luke Mulumba's sister, is the 'sister' in the team. The fact that all the Christian dancers are Roman Catholics is not in itself significant since the Catholic mission is the only one operating in Matipa's area. But it is interesting to note here that again the 'King', in contrast to the dancers, is a Watchtower adherent.

5. There is also a man who calls himself 'Ngoni' inthe team. He is the son of a Yao man born in Fort Jameson and is the 'best friend' of Luke - apparently he is in the team as by special favour. 6 There was one dancer of the nineteen who was thirty years of age but in the general population in Luanshya, 47.5 per cent. of adult males were aged thirty years and over. See Mitchell, J. C., Table I, p.4.

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More interesting is the fact that not one of the dancers is employed in a 'white collar' or lower professional post, a fact which will become significant in the light of the discussion later. THE SONG A casual stroll through the Management Board Location on, a Sunday afternoon is enough to demonstrate the overwhelming popularity of kalela over all other tribal dances with the African spectators. While there may be a handful of people watching other dances, the kalela arena is thronged with spectators who obviously are enjoying themselves. There are several reasons for this popularity. The drumming is spectacular and the dancers are well dressed, but I think by far the main attraction lies in the songs of the team. It is significant, perhaps, that these songs are sung in the form of Bemba which is widely spoken on the Copperbelt. Since the dancers use the lingua franca of the town, the spectators understand their songs more easily than those possibly sung by some other tribal groups in a language intelligible to only a few outsiders. A second reason for the popularity of the songs lies in their content. The verses are witty and topical. I have recorded fourteen of the stanzas of the song that Luke Mulumba sang in 1951. It is clear that new stanzas are continually being added and old ones dropped. But an analysis of the fourteen stanzas provides an incisive comment on the way of life of the Copperbelt Africans. It is difficult to convey the content of these verses exactly. They are sung in Memba but it is the Bemba of the Copperbelt: it abounds with anglicisms, words from 'kitchen kaffir' (Pidgin Zulu), and references to the urban situation in one way or another. All this gives songs a sophisticated flavour that is lost in translation. At least six of the stanzas of the song are self-praises of the kalela dancers. But these praise-songs are set in an urban environment. For example, one stanza runs : 'The Watchtower7 were trying cunningly to convert me on Saturday That I should go to their meeting place at two o'clock on Sunday. We also have gospels - the drums, We who dances kalela. God hates nobody; To heaven we shall climb, We shall go and live at Lucifer's place, In his stockade.8 We shall go with our drums. Even in Heaven you will hear them roaring.'
7 Adherents of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society represented 19.6 per cent. of adult men and women in the Luanshya Management Board Location in 1950. It was the largest single Christian sect. 8 He uses the Bemba word cipango which refers to the stockade around a chief's village.

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Another stanza runs: 'You women who are at the dancing pitch, You should go before it is too late. You should go and eat beforehand And you should tell those who have remained at home That they should also come after they have eaten. Those who want to launder let them launder,9 Those who want to iron let them iron,10 Those who want to bathe let them bathe, Those who want to dress up let them dress upBecause of the dance of this day. Copperbelt ! The drum. The whistle-boy is there,11 The line-boy is there,11 The spectators are coming from Lambaland and other remote places.12 Why are you beating the drum? At two o'clock it begins, The song is finished, mothers, go away. Today someone is going to be beaten with a stick But don't you blame us and say : "I die because of you kalela dancers."'13 Some of the verses refer to typically urban situations. In one, the smart modern miss, who uses powder and paint, is lampooned. In another the mercenary interest of parents in marriage payments is deprecated. The dancers sing : 'Mulumba should have a job at the abattoir, So that he may steal the heads of slaughtered cattle, So that the woman who loves the heads of slaughtered cattle May give him her daughter. It is nice to work in a butchery. You may be given a beautiful girl to marry Because of the love of meat. There are some who sell their daughtersWhat beautiful girls they marry to useless men14; They are in a difficult position.15 He will give them a cow's head. The daughter is just in orison.16

9 He uses the anglicism kuwasha = to wash (clothes). 10 He uses the verb kuchisa which is derived from Zulu through kitchen kaffir. This section in the stanza refers to the considerable attention of the dancers to their personal appearance. 11 These are references to soccer, a very popular game with Africans on the Copperbelt. 12 The Copperbelt is adjacent to the Lamba tribal areas 13. This reference is repeated in another stanza. He implies that because women like to watch kalela dancers they neglect their husbands and suffer the consequences. 14He uses the term kobe here, which I undrstand is an animal. I cannot identify it. 15 He uses the term ufwafwa = slavery. 16 He uses the term chankwakwa, the origin of which is not clear. It may be derived from military slang 'jankers'.

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The one that is suitable for Mulumba To take her to the city 17 of Matipa To be the Sister in the dance of the rattles.'18 But most of the stanzas of the song deal specifically with the ethnic diversity of the urban population. These stanzas refer either the good qualities of the Matipa Bisa. One of the stanzas runs: 'You mothers who speak Tonga, You who speak Soli, mothers, Teach me Lenje.19 How shall I go and sing ? This song I am going to dance in the Lenje country, I do not know how I am going to speak Lenje. Soli I do not know, Tonga I do not know, Lozi I do not know. Mbwela is difficult, Kaonde is difficult, All these places I have mentioned, mothers, Are where I am going to dance kalela; Then the dancer will return20 to Lamba country. At Chief Nkana'a place I shall dance, At Chief Ndubeni's place I shall dance, At Chief Mushili's place I shall dance, At Chief Katala's place I shall dance, At Chief Chiwala's place I shall dance.21 I will then go and say goodbye to Chief Katanga, Who is my father-in-law And the one whose daughter I married.22 When I finish that work, mothers, I shall never stay in Lambaland, But I shall hasten23 to my motherland of Chief Matipa.' Another stanza deals with the Lamba preoccupation with adultery cases : 'Mothers, I have been to many courts, To listen to the cases they settle: They settle divorce cases, They talk about witchcraft cases, They talk about thefts,

17 He uses the anglicism 'shite' = city. 18 Sister in the sense of a nursing sister. See notes on the organization of the dance. 19 These three languages belong to the same linguistic group. 20 He uses the anglicism lifeshi = reverse. 21 Nkana, Ndubeni, Mushili, Katala, are all local Lamba Chiefs. Chiwala, whose area is on the perimeter of Ndola, strictly speaking, is not Lamba but of Yao extraction. His subjects, however, are mainly Lamba and many Copperbelt Africans look upon Chiwala as a Lamba Chief. 22 I do not understand this reference. 23 He uses the anglicism sipili = speed.

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They talk about tax defaulting, And refusing to do tribute labour. But the things I saw at Mushili's court,24 These things I wondered at. From nine o'clock in the morning, To four o'clock in the afternoon, The cases were only adultery. Then I asked the court messenger : "Do you have any different matters to settle ?" The court messenger said : "No25 There are no other matters, It is just like this in LambalandThere are no assault cases, There are no theft cases: These are the cases in the courts of Lambaland."' A significant comment appears in another stanza where Mulumba is boasting of his linguistic abilities. He sings : 'I sing in Henga, I sing in Luba, I sing in Zulu and Sotho. I take Nyamwanga and Soli and put them together. I stopped the Lwena language for it is very common, The Nyakyusa and Kasai and Mbwel languages Are the remaining languages.' The tribes from the Angola border of Northern Rhodesia, including the Lwena, are those who, more than others, accept employment as night soil removers. For this reason they are greatly despised by other tribes on the Copperbelt. This mention of the Lwena language refers to this common stereotype of the Lwena and Luvale peoples.26 There are thus certain clear characteristics of the songs of the kalela dancers. First, there is the element of self praise. The dancers are all young single men who have given a good deal of attention to their appearance. Their songs are directed particularly towards the women and the dancers are not reticent in drawing the attention of the women to their own desirability. A second feature of the songs is the clear recognition of the ethnic diversity of urban populations. This takes two forms. The first is that the dancers emphasize the beauties of their own land or origin and extol their own virtues. The second form is the obverse of this, in that the distinctiveness of other languages and customs are emphasized and lampooned. There are thus several features of kalela which could well be the starting point of a sociological analysis ; but the most significant feature, from my point of view, is that kalela is essentially a tribal dance. Kalela and its songs emphasize the unity of Bisa against all
24 He uses an anglicism koti = courts. Mushili is a Lamba Chief near Luanshya 25 The reply of the court messenger is sung in the Lamba language, which is similar enough to Bemba to be understood by most Africans on the Copperbelt. 26 See below, p.27

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other tribes on the Copperbelt. We might well expect, in a tribal dance of this sort, that some tribal insignia might be worn. It is not difficult to see that in a phalanx of Zulu warriors magnificently adorned in traditional costume, and brandishing their assegais and shields, there is a manifest and indeed an aggressive, demonstration of tribal unity. But the kalela dancers are attired in thesmartest of European wear and there is no way of telling a Bemba or Aushi kalela team from a Bisa one. The smartness of the kalela dancers is a recurring theme and is given great emphasis.27 Nor do the songs recount the exploits of a Bisa culture hero. Apart from vague references to Matipa's beautiful land, there is no mention of planting crops and of reaping them, of building huts, of fishing and hunting and other rural activities we might associate with a tribal Arcadia. Instead, the songs concern familiar Copperbelt characters, and the scenes are set in sections of the locations. The language of the song is Copperbelt Bemba, and English and kitchen-kaffir words and phrases abound. The songs are composed in towns for the amusement of people in towns, and they deal with events and commonplaces with which these people are familiar. In other words, we are presented with an apparent paradox. The dance is clearly a tribal dance in which tribal differences are emphasized but the language and the idiom of the songs and the dress of the dancers are drawn from an urban existence which tends to submerge tribal differences. I believe that this apparent paradox can be resolved if we examine the dance and its origin in its social setting.

THE ORIGIN OF THE DANCE My informants said that the dance called kalela was formerly known as mbeni. They said the kalela was started by a man called Kalulu around the year 1930 on Chisi Island in Lake Bangwelu. The inhabitants of this island are of the Ng'umbo tribe. In 1939 Kalulu joined the Northern Rhodesian Regiment and had permission to carry his drums so that he could, when the occasion permitted, continue with his dances. He formed a group of dancers with himself as leader. A man called Million acted as the leader of the dances at Chisi when Kalulu was in the army. Kalulu was discharged from the army in 1946 and renamed the dance luwelela.28 We have no information on who introduced it to the Copperbelt29 but, since there was an increased movement of population to the Copperbelt after the 1939-45 War, it is

27 See for example the report of a kalela dance competition in The African Roan Antelope, II (Dec., 1953), p. 6, where the fine clothes of the dancers are specifically commented on 28 Presumably from the Bemba verb ukuwela = to hoot or scoff : Bemba English Dictionary. White Fathers (Chilubula,1947.)29 29 We know that mbeni existed on the Copperbelt in 1935 but we do not know whether it then disappeared, or whether it persisted and subsequently became absorbed by Kalela..

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almost certain to have been brought there by some members of the Ng'umbo tribe from Chishi Island. As far as I can gather, it came first to the Roan Antelope Copper Mine in 1945, whence it spread to the rest of the Copperbelt, and to the Luanshya Management Board Location in particular, in 1948. Here it was called kalela - dance of pride.

MBENI Since the kalela dance had its origin in the mbeni, we need to go back to the origins of mbeni to trace its roots. Unfortunately, there appear to be few records of the mbeni dance available. During my fieldwork in Nyasaland30 I was able to watch one mbeni dance at a boys' initiation ceremony. The performers were a group of somewhat dirty and unkempt youths who listlessly circulated round the dancing arena following a large home-made bass drum. One of my older informants told me that this performance bore little resemblance to the beni dances that were performed in Zomba in the early twenties. He told me that the word beni, as the dance is called in Nyasaland, is in fact a corruption of the English word 'band'. This seems a reasonable explanation of the origin of the word in the light of the description of the dance itself, for, as we shall see, an essential feature of the dance was a mock military band.31 My informant said : "This was a clean dance because everyone wore good clothes. People who came dirty were not allowed to dance. Whenever they were called they brought their drums with them and they wore garments like the King. When they reached the courtyard, where the dance was to take place, they appeared splendid. All the women were very clean. They danced slowly and gently, the women on one side and the men on the other ; at daybreak they looked as clean as if they had not been dancing at all." The central figure at these dances, apparently, was a person called 'The Governor'. He usually stood in the centre of the courtyard resplendently attired, decorated with borrowed medals.The rest of the dancers circled slowly round him led by a drummer who beat out a rhythm on an imitation brass drum. Behind him were ranged the rest of the dancers in mock military rank. First there was a majorgeneral, followed by a lieutenant-general 32, a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, a captain, lieutenants, non commissioned officers and, finally the privates. There was also an adjutant. The dancers wore appropriate

30 As Assistant Anthropologist of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute among the Yao in Liwonde and Fort Johnston Districts, 1946-9. 31 My informant pointed out that the drums were 'European drums', i.e. they were double-sided drums imitating the military bass drum. This, of course, is in contrast with the traditional drum made from a hallowed tree-trunk and covered at one end with skin. This explanation of the word beni and many of the details described by my informant are confirmed in a note on the dance prepared by the Chief Commissioner of Police, Zomba, Nyasaland, in 1921. See file N3/23/2 in the Central African Archives, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. 32 This is how the informant gave it to me. He seemed unaware of the inversion of rank here.

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badges of rank fashioned out of lead. Those who had fictitious commissioned rank wore helmets and had whistles on lanyards, and some wore Sam Browne belts33. Relationships within the dancing groups were regulated by the fictitious military rank. Difficulties were ironed out by the man who was the immediate superior in rank to the disputants and, if no settlement could be reached, referred up the line of authority until the 'Governor' himself dealt with the case. Goodall's evidence to the Russell Commission supports the view that the mbeni dance arose shortly after the 1914-18 War34. Goodall mentions the existence of the dance in Dar-esSalaam in 1919. It became the object of official interest during the 1935 riots, though it is difficult to determine what part the mbeni dancing group played in them, if indeed they played any part at all. It is clear that Government officials suspected that the mbeni dancers were implicated and it seems that, in the absence of any fixed organization through which African leaders could convey information to the people, the strike leaders may have asked the leaders of the mbeni  dancers to act as their mouthpieces.35 The significant point that arises from the evidence laid before the Commission, was that the dance in the form that we know it was active on the Copperbelt in 1935. To what extentmbeni fell under a cloud following the suspicion it had aroused during that year I cannot tell, but it seems to have disappeared on the Copperbelt 36 until it was revived in the form of kalela.

PRESTIGE AND THE 'EUROPEAN WAY OF LIFE' Whatever form modern mbeni dances may take37 it is abundantly clear that these early dances were a sort of pantomime of the social structure of the local European community. My Yao informant was describing mbeni in Zomba during the twenties, when Zomba was largely a garrison town. The Governor and the militia presented to

33 My informany wryly commented that some had been prosecuted for the theft of Sam Browne belts. 34 Evidence taken by the Commission appointed to Enquire into Disturbances in the Copperbelt, 1935 (Russell commission). Northern Rhodesia Government Printer (Lusaka, 1935), p. 77. In his note dated 27 July 1921 the Chief Commissioner of Police in Nyasaland recorded that these dances had flourished in German East Africa before the 1914-18 Wars and that the office bearers had carried German titles such as 'Kaiser, Kaiserin, Hauptmann', etc. File N3/23/2 in Central African Archives. Jone's description of the Mganda dance tallies exactly with the mbeni dance. He says it was frankly in burlesque of a military parade which originated in East Africa during the 1914-18 War and was introduced to Northern Rhodesia by the Lakeside Tonga. Jones, A. M., 1945, pp. 180-8. 35 The Russell Commission found that some of the leaders of the Mbeni Society were concerned in hte disturbances but that, as a body, the Society was not subservice, Russell Commission Report, p.49. 36 Brelsford,W.V., 1948, p.19. 37 Jones, for example, metions a somewhat colourless performance of a similar dance in the Fort Jameson rural area. Jones, A M., 1945

Page 12.

the Africans a formal social structure, the striking feature of which was a rigidlyfixed hierarchy and a set of distinctive uniforms which advertised the social position of each person. The pantomime of the social structure in the mbeni therefore represented the social structure as the Africans saw it. It should be appreciated that, in the twenties, Africans were not admitted by the local European population in Zomba as equals and had no opportunity of appreciating the social pattern in the local community except through military rank38, and through the clear evidence of uniforms and public ceremonies39. The appeal of the mbeni dance, therefore, seems to have been the vicarious participation of the Africans in social relationships from which they were normally excluded. Striking evidence to show that this was not just a local reaction comes from Goodall, who says that earlier mbeni dancers in Tanganyika actually whitened their faces.40 This attempt to cross insurmountable barriers, as it were, in fantasy, is a feature particularly of nativistic movements41 such as the cargo cult, but there is the distinct difference in that there is no evidence that mbeni dancers ever believed that by reproducing the external characteristics of the culture to which they aspired they would automatically achieve their wishes. Their participation in the 'European' social structure was vicarious: the aspiration was satisfied in fantasy only. It might be argued that the dance provided an excellent medium for the expression of hostility towards a ruling group through satire and that, in fact, this was the main satisfaction in it for the participants and spectators. I have no evidence that this was indeed so. My Yao informant did not suggest it, and certainly in the kalela dance today there is no sign of any satire of European behaviour42. All that is left of mbeni in the modern kalela dance is the wearing of European clothes and a few type personalities, the 'King', the 'doctor' and the 'nursing sister'. It could be argued, perhaps, that since all Africans in Northern Rhodesia wear European clothes nowadays, dancers could be expected to wear no other costume. But the salient

38 Africans were admitted into the army as privates and non-commissioned officers and, of course, understood the military ranking system. 39 An amusing variation of this, reported to me by Mr. E Tikili, Senior Research Assistant on the staff of the RhodesLivingtone Institute, is that the Lakeside Tonga, who have their own version of mbeni called malipenga. wear kilts when dancing in Bulawayo. The first Europeans to live in the country of the |Lakeside Tonga were the Scots at Livingstonia. Mr. J. van Velsen, Research Officer of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, who is currently doing field work among the Lakeside Tonga, has described a malipenga dance that took place at Chinteche. Here there were no kilts but Mr van Velsen describes the dance as resembling a 'gymkhana' in which the dominant feature is the smart European dress of the participants. 40 Russell Commission Evidence, p. 77. 41 See Barber, B., 1946, pp. 663-9 42 It should be noted that under the Townships (Control of Natives) Regulations (cap.120 of the laws of Northern Rhodesia), Section 7, no person may organize or take part in any dance which is 'calculated to hold up to ridicule or to bring into contempt any person, religion or duly constituted authority '. I do not think the Kalela dancers are aware of this regulation.

Page 13.

feature of both mbeni and kalela dances is the great emphasis that is placed on correct clothing. To my Yao informant this was the outstanding feature of the dance. Describing the Mganda dance Jones says : "...Then came the Officers dressed in European suitings, very smart, and brandishing canes in a cavalier manner." It is highly significant that the Regimental Mascot in the mganda dance was 'one of those bronzed heads used as an advertisement, I believe, of Van Heusen collars, surmounted by an ordinary trilby hat.'.43 In kalela too there is this strong emphasis on immaculate dress. The dancers refer to it in their song ; the 'nursing sister' takes a mirror round the dancers so that they may check their appearance ; an African correspondent, writing a report of a kalela dance for a local newspaper, makes a special point of mentioning the fine clothing44. This emphasis on fine clothing is a general feature of the urban African population45. Wilson expressed this thus : 'The Africans of Broken Hill are not a cattle people, nor a goat people, nor a fishing people, nor a tree cutting people, they are a dressed people.'46 Wilson saw the root of this preoccupation with clothing in the fact that clothes are the one readily available item of European Wealth which gives them an immediate appearance of civilized status47. He discussed other possible indicators of civilized status - housing, tools, furniture, food - but concludes that, for a variety of reasons, these were unimportant in comparison with clothing in Broken Hill in 1939-40.48 He saw quite clearly that Africans cannot but wish to gain the respect and to share the civilized status and the new wealth of the Europeans, whose general social superiority is always before them.'49 Wilson's comments, applicable to Broken Hill in 1939-40, are equally applicable to the modern Copperbelt. The Europeans are in a position of social superiority and Africans aspire to civilization which is the particular characteristic and perquisite of the socially

43 Jones, 1945, p.180 44 See footnote 1, p.9 45 A newspaper printed for the African staff of the Nkana Corporation reports a dressing competition, which was won by a shop assistant. The runner up was a medical orderly. Lunlandanya, II, 1 (May, 1954), 3. Dressing competitions were also held in towns in South Africa. Professor Gluckman tells me that he adjudicated at one of these competitions, held at a competitve European - style dancing evening. in Petoria in 1937. Most of those attending were domestic servants. When he selected the best-dressed man, another competitor protested that he had not examined underwear, and he was asked to do this. 46 Wilson, G., 1942, p.18. He found that 64.4 Per cent. of cash expenditure of Africans, on items other that food, in the Broken Hill Mine compound in 1939-40 was spent on clothing (from Table XVII). In a sample in Mufulira and Chingola in 1953 the percentange was 40.6 - see Nyirenda, A.A., 1956, Table I 47 Wilson, G., 1942, p.15. 48 Gussman, B., 1952, p. 57, in describing Bulawayo in 1950, makes a similar point. He points out that there are few other possibilities available to Africans to invest surplus funds. 49 Wilson, 1942, p. 15. Many years earlier Hunter made essentially the same point about Africans in East London in South Africa. She wrote : 'In towns it is smart to be as Europeanized as possible .... Status depends largely upon wealth and education and these entail Europeanization'. Hunter, M., 1936, p. 437.

Page 14.

superior group.50 The civilized way of life thus provides a scale along which the prestige of Africans in urban areas ( and to an increasing extent rural areas ) may be measured. At the top of the scale are the lower professional and white-collar workers and successful traders, who are meticulously dressed, have European furniture in their houses, speak English to one another, read the local newspapers printed for the European public, eat European type foods, prefer Western to traditional music, choose bottled beer in preference to traditionally brewed beer. At the bottom of the scale are the unskilled labourers of all types, whose standards of living differ but little from that of rural villagers, who have no furniture, eat traditional foods, know no English, and are uneducated. Between the two are ranged the lower white-collar workers, supervisors and skilled manual workers , all varying considerably in the degree to which they can achieve what they believe to be 'a civilized way of life'. A study of occupational ranking confirms this view of prestige in the urban African community.51 Respondents were asked to rank thirty-one occupations on a five point prestige scale. Subsequently, when these ratings were converted into a simple ranking, the professional workers were placed first, followed by the white-collar workers, then the skilled workers and supervisors and, finally, the unskilled workers.52 Response to an open ended question made it quite clear that occupations which were normally those of the Europeans, but which some Africans followed, were accorded high prestige and that, in general, those occupations which required the highest educational qualifications were ranked the highest. This held true even for a group of students who were training to be artisans. The African use of the European way-of-life as a standard against which they can measure prestige may thus be seen as a type of reference group behaviour.53 The mbeni dancers displayed a very direct type of reference group behaviour. They copied the most obvious and visible symbols of prestige. The connection between mbeni and kalela is preserved in the common use of clothing as one such symbol. The kalela dancers no longer use the military uniform, but the smart clothes of the European business or professional men : Africans have come generally to accept the standards of these men as those to which they aspire. The direct and obvious symbols have given way to the less tangible but non-the-less real idea of the civilized way of life. The mechanism is the same but the symbols today are different. It is significant that not one of the kalela dancers holds a professional or 'white-collar' post. Three are tailors : the rest are unskilled

50 Africans express their aspirations in just these terms. One of the main attractions of the town is that it provides an opportunity for Africans to 'aquire civilization' (ukukwala shifilaiseshoni). Little makes the same point about the Mende of Sierra Leone. See Little, K., 1948 ; 1955. 51 Conducted on 653 scholars, students and student teachers in Lusaka by A. L. Epstein and myself. It will be published in full in due course. 52 A table setting out these results is reproduced in Appendix I. 53 Merton, R., and Lazarsfeld, P. F., 1950 ; also Mitchell, J. Clyde, 1955.

Page 15.

labourers of various types. For a team of dancers who are in occupations at the lower end of the prestige scale, the wearing of smart European-style clothes is particularly important. Those who by virtue of their position in the community can command little prestige in everyday life, on Sundays don the symbols and outward marks of rank and display these in front of the admiring spectators at the dance arena. The European way-of-life has now become so much a part and parcel of life in the urban areas that the Europeans themselves have faded from the foreground. Kalela dancers do not seek vicarious participation in European society but vicarious participation in the upper levels of African society, from which, by their lack of qualification, they are excluded. The prestige system in urban areas thus uses 'civilization' or 'the European way-of-life' as a standard or scale of prestige. To command respect in such a system the African needs to be educated ; to occupy a post which accords high prestige ; and to draw a salary large enough to enable him to purchase the clothing and other symbols of prestige. The urban African population is stratified in terms of this scale. It is sometimes assumed that as the African population becomes stratified, the bonds within each stratum will cut across ethnic differences and eventually overcome them. For example, McCall writes : 'Class formation tolls the knell of tribalism in the urban environment. The marks of class are independent of the marks of tribal membership ; classes comprise people of various tribes.'54 This formulation as it stands is too general to be accepted without reservations. Our interest in 'class' lies in the way in which it affects social interaction and we need to be able to specify the situations in which it does this. It appears that 'class' may affect social interaction in two ways. Firstly, it may operate as a prestige category so that a person may behave differently to those whom he believes to be either above or below his 'class', that is his position in the prestige scale. Secondly it may form the basis upon which corporate groups are recruited. Several sociologists recently have shown that we need to distinguish between 'class' as a category of individuals who merely fall at the same general position on a prestige continuum, and a 'class' as a group of persons predominantly from the same position on a prestige continuum who act corporately in political situations55. In so far as 'class' as a social category is concerned, certainly some manual workers have expressed hostility towards non-manual workers, but I would hesitate to adduce from this that clerks and professional workers constitute a class opposed to manual workers. The clerks, mine policemen and other Africans in close contact with European officials are in a peculiar position : they represent the Africans to the

54 McCall, D. F., 1955, p.158. 55 The distinction was clearly made by Cox, O. C., 1945. See also Barnes, J. A., 1954b ; Lenski, G. E., 1952 ; Goldschmidt, W., 1953 ; Plautz, H. W., 1953. Little, K., 1955, has faced the same problem in his discussion of the situation in Sierra Leone.

Page 16.

Europeans and the Europeans to the Africans.56 Frequently those Africans who are not in contact with the Europeans tend to see the clerks, mine police and similar African officials as aligned with the Europeans against them. During the disturbances on the Copperbelt in 1935, we learn, the mine policemen, tribal elders and some of the clerks took refuge with the European officials in the compound offices. In his evidence to the Russell Commission one of the African witnesses said : "The people were angry with the mine police because they said they were not in sympathy with them and they did not do anything when they asked for more pay. Not only that but what the mine police should have done when they were fighting, they said, was not to side with the Europeans and the askari - they should have been with the people."57 Therefore when an underground drilling machine operator said in his evidence to the Russell Commission that 'The clerks have got much power, and the Compound Manager listens to anything they say ', I feel that he was expressing his hostility not to the class of clerks who occupy a position of relatively high prestige, but rather to the clerks who were one of his main points of contact with the mine management. In other words what on the surface may appear to be opposition between 'classes' in the prestige system may in fact be aspects of the general opposition between Whites and Blacks. The issue is complicated by the fact that the evidence from Northern Rhodesian towns suggests that frequently tribal and class categories coincide. For example, McCulloch writes : 'There were marked indications that the most skilled and better paid jobs were being done by members of specific tribes or groups of tribes. There was a tendency, in other words, for economic class to correspond with tribal group.'58 Unique circumstances no doubt have led to this correspondence. The marked predominance until recently of Africans from Barotseland and Nyasaland among the clerks in Northern Rhodesia must be related to the fact that missionaries started working in these areas earlier than in others. But whatever the causes are, when it comes to a sociological analysis the empirical fact is that there is a tendency towards a coincidence of prestige and tribal categories. Throughout the evidence taken by the Russell Commission for example, there are references to the hostility existing between the Mbema and the 'Nyasa' people. But because of the predominance of the 'Nyasa' in clerical and supervisory posts we cannot assert that this hostility is rooted in either 'class' or 'tribal' differences.

56 I have suggested the term 'intercalary' to describe those positions occupied by persons who link two opposed parts in an authoritarian system. See 'The Conflict of Roles in Intercalary Statuses', paper read to the English Rhodes- Livingstone Instiute Research Conference. Gluckman, M., 1949, drew attention to the conflict of roles of a person occupying an intercalary status in his comments on the position of the modern village headman. Epstein, A. L., 1956, has analysed the significance of intercalary positions in the system of political relationships in the towns. 57 Russell Commission Evidence, p.879. 58 McCulloch, M., 1956, p.67.

Page 17.

There have been several corporate groups which have recruited their members from Africans at particular levels in the prestige system. Some of these groups like the kalela team recruit both on a tribal and a class basis : its members are all Bisa in lower ranking positions. It is possible, although I have no evidence to assert it, that certain religious cults draw their members from all tribes in only the lower reaches of the prestige system. The fact that members of certain corporate groups such as the kalela team are recruited from particular levels of the prestige system is interesting and we try to understand why this is so. But the position in the prestige system is not the specific raison d'etre for these groups : they exist to serve other interests. As far as I am aware Africans in the lower reaches of the rank system have never organized themselves in opposition to those at the top. Occasionally however some groups have risen with the object of furthering their own interests vis-a-vis the Europeans. Examples are the early 'welfare' societies which drew their members from the 'intelligentsia'59 regardless of their tribal origin. These societies, although composed mainly of Africans at the upper levels of the prestige system, were formed to improve the conditions of all Africans living in towns regardless of either their tribal or 'class' affiliations. It was inevitable that they should take up a political point of view. In due course they amalgamated to form the African National Congress which draws its members from all levels and all tribes. The essential fact is that the Africans as a whole represent one major political class and the Europeans another. In this situation the 'white-collar' workers will become the African political leaders because they can speak English and can present their grievances and make their demands known in terms easily intelligible to Europeans. But the 'white-collar' class here represent the Africans as a whole and are not a political class opposed to the manual- workers.60 Miss McCulloch points out that in Livingstone 'there is a struggle for leadership in the town between the elite among the Lozi and a number of "foreigners" who are selected individuals in terms of wealth, education and occupation.'61 Proportionately there were more skilled workers among the 'foreigners'62 than among the Lozi, but there were also far fewer unskilled manual workers among both Lozi and 'foreigners' than among all other ethnic groups.63 In other words the struggle for political power was going on not between skilled and unskilled workers or manual and non manual workers, but rather between broad ethnic groups within the same general socio-economic stratum.

59 Coulter, G. C., 1933, p.86. 60 This point was also made in effect by Hunter about Africans in a South African town. She wrote : 'The cleavage between Bantu and European increases Bantu (and European) solidarity, and overshadows economic differences within the Bantu community itself.' Hunter, M., 1936, p. 465. 61 McCulloch, M., 1956, p. 50. 62 Mainly from the Northern and Eastern Provinces of Northern Rhodesia. 63 McCulloch, M., 1958, Table 23.

Page 18.

It appears, therefore, that the Africans on the Copperbelt as a political class are not yet divided by either tribal or socio-economic class affiliations. Everyday social relationships among Africans on the Copperbelt, however, are affected by both tribal and socio-economic class affiliations, and the evidence I have suggests that at present tribal affiliations are by far the more important.

TRIBALISM IN TOWNS The distinctive 'modern' dress of the kalela dancers may thus be ascribed to the importance of 'the European way-of-life' and the part it plays in the stratification of the African population on the Copperbelt. The dancers of Luke Mulumba's team, it will be recalled, were drawn from the relatively lower strata of the system and through a sort of fictitious upward mobility took particular pride in being able to adorn themselves in beautifully pressed slacks, spotlessly clean singlets and well polished shoes. But we have also seen that the team was selected not from lower strata at large but from the Bisa tribe only. The team in fact had been formed to sing the praises of the Bisa people in general, and it did this as well as drawing the distinction with other tribes on the Copperbelt. We can only appreciate this second element in the kalela dance fully when we have been able to examine the part that tribalism plays in the social interaction of Africans in urban areas. Even at a superficial lever of observation the significance of tribalism in everyday social relationships on the Copperbelt is apparent. Its clearest manifestation, of course, is in the tribal fights that occur from time to time. Spearpoint records, for example, how a man from the Kasai area in the Belgian Congo collided on his bicycle with two Bemba men and how the members of the two groups quickly aligned themselves with their fellow tribesmen and started fighting.64 Tribal fights are no longer common on the Copperbelt but the opposition of tribes to one another can be observed in many other situations. The Tumbuka, for example, threatened to withdraw from the Free Church organization on the Copperbelt in 1952 because the services were conducted in Bemba ; the Bisa in Luanshya have made several representations to the District Commissioner to have a Bisa assessor placed on the bench of the urban court.65 D. Chansa, a Research Assistant on the staff of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, reports in an unpublished study of beer-drinking habits that 88 per cent. of the 130men in his sample said that they chose drinking companions from among their fellow tribesmen. In Broken Hill in 1940 Wilson found 'eating groups to be markedly tribal in their constitution, but not exclusively so.'66

64 Spearpoint, F., 1937, pp. 16-18. See also Russell Commission Evidence. 65 The bench is composed of four or five assessors each drawn from the rural chiefdoms of the tribes which are numerically preponderant in town. They function as a minor court and hear most cases involving 'native customary law'. See Epstein, A. L., 1953. 66 Wilson, G., 1942, p. 75.

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In Southern Rhodesia the tribal unity of the African town-dwellers is expressed in tribal burial societies.67 Members of these societies make a monthly contribution of say 2s. 6d. and in return are entitled to financial and social assistance if they are bereaved and also to certain benefits if they should become destitute. It is very difficult to estimate to what extent these burial societies embrace all the tribes to be found in Southern Rhodesian towns. In his annual report for the year ending June, 1955, the Director of Native Administration of Salisbury states that fifteen burial societies had deposited their constitutions with them for his information68. How many others had not done so, we do not know. Certainly there are more than fifteen tribes represented in Salisbury. In Northern Rhodesia, by way of contrast, there appear to be very few active tribal societies except in Livingstone.69 It appears that only the Lozi have kept any tribal association going. One called 'The Sons of Barotseland' appeared to be operating successfully in 19512 on the Copperbelt. In 1954 the Rhokana Corporation newspaper for their African staff, Luntandanya, reported that the Barotse National Society had given a concert in Nkana. 70 D. Chansa in his study of beer-drinking habits found drinking clubs in Lusakaorganized on tribal lines. A Cobra Drinking Company had been organized by a group of educated Ngoni men. They spent their club contributions on beer every week-end. A Kaonde drinking club had the same object and was headed by a 'king' and other office bearers in much the same way as the kalela team is. Other tribal societies certainly have existed in the past and new ones are constantly being formed. In August, 1954, for example, the African Roan Antelope reported that the Nyakyusa people held a sundowner and that 'they are no united in one by understanding one another'. In September, 1954, the Nyakyusa in Kitwe formed a tribal society. But in Northern Rhodesia tribal societies are spasmodic in coming into being and suddenly disappearing again. In Southern Rhodesia they seem to have become an integral part of the urban social structure. It is hard to offer an explanation for this difference between North and South. One is tempted to seek it in the fact that Southern Rhodesian towns draw their populations from a much larger hinterland than the Copperbelt. And since the urban populations are, on the whole, more effectively isolated from their rural home on which they could rely in times of distress, the need for friendly societies is greater. The fact that the Lozi and the Nyakyusa, two relatively distant peoples, have tribal associations on the Copperbelt suggests that there might be something in this. But local Southern Rhodesian Africans are preponderant in Southern Rhodesian towns and the more active tribal

67 The parallel with the friendly societies that developed amongst the urban working classes in England during the Industrial Revolution is striking. Cf. Hammond, J. L. and Barbaa, The Bleak Age, Pelican Books, pp. 227-8. 68 Page 45, para.195. 69 Miss McCulloch reports that in Livingstone in 1953 there were about twenty-seven tribal associations. McCulloch, M., 1956, p. 8. 70 Luntandanya, II, 8 (Nov, 1954).

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associations like the Matabeleland Home Society in Bulawayo and the Mashonaland Home Society in Salisbury are representatives of the nearest tribes. It is possible also that the tribal dancing groups on the Copperbelt operate as friendly societies, though I did not come across it in the field and did not ask about it. Mr. C. M. N. White has pointed out to me that the dancers of the nyakasanga dance, who are from the Luvale, Luchazi and Chowke tribes, form a provident society. He writes : 'They contribute to assist members in distress, pay a fare back to a rural area and buy some goods to take back with him if a member is destitute, pay for a box as a coffin to ensure that a member dying in a town has a proper funeral.'71 How common this is among tribal dancing groups I cannot say. W. J. Scrivenor in his evidence to the Russell Commission stated that the mbeni society in the Congo 'appeared to be a sort of provident society providing money for people in distress and arranging burials and things of that sort.'72 The Bemba Chief Munkonge do not help one another.73' No member of the mbeni society who gave evidence to the Commission mentioned these friendly society duties as part of the duties of the society. It is possible that only the dancing teams from the more distant tribes find it necessary to perform these duties. Another point of difference between the two Rhodesias which may be significant, is that as far as I am aware there are no joking tribes in Southern Rhodesia. In Northern Rhodesia the joking tribes are able to perform many of the funeral duties that in the rural areas would have to be performed by particular kinsmen or men from a particular clan74. In the absence of this sort of reciprocal arrangement it is easy to see that some other formalized arrangement must exist to accept these responsibilities, and burial societies are the natural development to meetthem. The importance of the tribal associations in Southern Rhodesian towns as against those in Northern Rhodesia is undoubtedly related to the different lines of development which these have followed. Unfortunately I do not yet possess the information to be able to develop this point, but it seems to me that the existence of tribal elders in the mining towns of Northern Rhodesia from the earliest days of their inception must have profoundly influenced the development of tribal associations. The tribal elders75 have always served as a focus of tribal sentiment. They have been the officially recogized tribal gatherings to entertain the visits to the township of their chiefs and other tribal dignitaries, to organize the mourning for the death of the chiefs (as the Eastern Lunda representatives did in Luanshya when the Mwata

71 In a letter to me. 72 Russell Commission Evidence, p. 457. 73Russell Commission Evidence, p. 128. West African tribal dancing groups, however, do act as 'friendly societies'. See Banton, M., 1953a : 1954. 74 See pp. 35 ff. 75 See p.31

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Kazembe died, to arrange funeral duties when these have been needed, and above all to receive newcomers from the rural areas and to give them hospitality until they have found their feet in he unfamiliar urban environment.76 In Southern Rhodesia there was no such organization available and it seems that tribal friendly societies have developed naturally to fulfil these needs. These observations however can be little more than speculation until we have more detailed field work on these problems. The point that emerges is that tribal sentiments are thrown into relief by the specific social situations that have developed in the newly established towns. The hinterland from which the copper mines are able to draw their labour is extensive. In Northern Rhodesia alone there are listed some seventy-five different 'tribal' groups. If those from the nearer parts of Angola, the Congo, Tanganyika, Nyasaland. Mozambique, Southern Rhodesia and Bechuanaland were included, the number of tribal groups from which workers for the Copperbelt draws its labour predominantly from certain local areas.77 In the Luanshya Management Board Location in 1951, for example, the tribal distribution of the adult males in broad ethnic groups was : % 34.2 24.5 16.5 9.8 5.6 4.0 2.6 2.2 0.6 100.0

Bemba, Aushi, Bisa, Eastern Lunda, etc Lamba, Lala, Swaka, Lima, etc Nsenga, Chewa, Yao, Kunda, etc Kaonde, Western Lunda, Luchazi, etc Lenje, Mazabuka Tonga, Toka, etc Ngoni Mambwe, Nyamwanga, Tumbuka Lozi Others Total

No spatial pattern of distribution of these tribes exists in the location. There is a long waiting-list for houses, so that as a house falls vacant it is filled by the next man on the list. The tribes are thus scattered at random over the whole location.78 There is considerable movement of people in and out of any section of the location. This is partly because African labour is still largely migratory, and partly because most houses arerented from the Management Board by the employers, so that the African worker must change his residence every time he changes his employment. The result is that the composition of the sections in a location is constantly changing and there is little

76 Several tribal elders who gave evidence to the Russell Commission mentioned their duties and responsibilities to their newly-arrived fellow tribesmen. It is interesting to see that the duties of the tribal headman in Freetown were almost identical. See Banton, M., 1954. 77 Mitchell. J. C., 1954b. 78 There is a tendency for rooms in the single quarters to be occupied by from four to six men from the same ethnic group. Wilson, G., 1942, p. 75, in 1940 reported that in Broken Hill 'there is a tendency for fellow tribesmen to be grouped in adjacent huts.' I do not know if this is still true.

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opportunity for definite community structure to develop in any part of it. It is in a situation such as this, where neighbours are constantly changing and where people from many different tribes are thrown together, that the distinctiveness of other people becomes apparent. This difference is shown in many ways. The most important way, no doubt, is language. But dress, eating habits, music, dances, all provide indictors or badges of ethnic membership. This means of classification by tribe enables an African living in a location or compound where contracts must of necessity be superficial, to fix any other African in a category and so 'define the situation' and enable him to adopt a particular type of behaviour towards the other.

TRIBAL DISTANCE The ability to fix a person in any particular category of course presupposes some knowledge of that person - that his language, dress, eating habits and all his other cultural characteristics are recognized. People are likely to know something about their tribal neighbours, to be familiar with their language and the general characteristics of their culture. Therefore, in addition to the cultural similarity which may link peoples in an urban area, familiarity, in a situation where there are so many relatively unfamiliar peoples, may link people however hostile they were in the rural areas. Hence there are two principles which serve to fix the relationships of members of one tribe to another in an urban area. The first is cultural similarity and the other is familiarity. In Northern Rhodesia there are few clear-cut cultural boundaries ; cultures tend to merge imperceptibly into one another over the whole region. Hence the two principles overlap in their operation. I had become impressed by the significance of tribalism during field work, but felt it necessary to supplement my data with quantitative material. Consequently a colleague,79 Miss J. Longton, and I attempted to derive some additional information on tribalism as a social category through an adaptation of Bogardus's Social Distance Scale. Bogardus, after some extensive preliminary work, selected seven typical social situations which, by the criteria he adopted, represented seven stages of social distance or social nearness. These were : (1) Would marry. (2) Would have as a regular friend. (3) Would work beside in an office. (4) Would have several families in my neighbourhood. (5) Would have merely as speaking acquaintances. (6) Would have live outside my neighbourhood. (7) Would have live outside my country.

79 Miss J. Longton read a paper on 'Tribal Distance in a Secondary School' to the Ninth Conference of Research Officers at the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute in March, 1955. We hope to publish a full report of this investigation later.

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Bogardus then asked respondents to answer questions about these social situations in respect of a number of ethnic groups, occupational groups and so forth.80 We followed Bogardus's approach. After some discussion with the African Research Assistants of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute we decided that, taking into account the general social background in Central Africa, the following situations would represent stages in social distance roughly equivalent to those Bogardus used : (1) Would admit him to near kinship by marriage. (2) Would share a meal with him. (3) Would work together with him. (4) Would allow to live nearby in my village. (5) Would allow to settle in my tribal area. (6) Would allow as a visitor only in my tribal area. (7) Would exclude from my tribal area. We then selected twenty-one tribes, nineteen of them the more important tribes from Northern Rhodesia, one from Southern Rhodesia, and one from the Sudan. These tribes were so chosen that they included at least one representative of the major tribal groups in Northern Rhodesia. They were : Northern Matrilineal peoples: Bemba, Bisa, Aushi. Western Matrilineal peoples: Chowke, Kaonde, Lovale, Luchazi and Mwinilunga, Lunda. Central Matrilineal peoples: Ila, Lenje, Soli, Tonga of Mazabuka District. Eastern Matrilineal peoples: Chewa, Nsenga. Noerthern Patrilineal peoples: Mambwe, Nyamwanga, and Tmubuka. Southern Patrilineal peoples: Ndebele and Ngoni. Bilateral peoples: Lozi. Sudan: Zande. The group from the Sudan, properly the Azande, was included as a 'joker'. We considered that none of the respondents was likely to have had contact with the Azande and we would be able to judge the extent to which reactions were shown to unknown people. We then formulated each of the situations in question form in connection with each tribe, e.g. 'Would you willingly agree to close kinship by marriage with a Lozi?' 'Would you willingly agree to share a meal with a Bisa?' We arranged the set of 147 questions so derived in random order. The respondents were then asked to answer each question with either 'yes', or 'no'. or 'don't know'., and to indicate the intensity of their feeling on a three point scale. The set of respondents chosen for the experiment were 329 African

80 Bogardus, E. S., 1933.

Page 24. scholars at a local secondary school. We admit that the sample is highly selected but it was necessary to use a literal group because of the nature of the test. Our results showed such close agreement with those we had in the field situation that we feel confident that the results are probably valid. When the tabulations of the responses were made it became obvious that the order of situations we had used had in fact been unsatisfactory. Instead we found that the correct order was : (1) Would admit to close kinship by marriage. (2) Would allow to settle in tribal area. (3) Would allow to live nearby in my village. (4) Would share a meal with. (5) Would work with. (6) Would allow as a visitor. TABLE I : Percentage of Northern Matrilineal Respondents Agreeing to Degrees of Social Nearness of Tribes. A Bemba Bisa Mambwe Ushi Nsenga Ngoni Nyamwanga Lenje Tmbuka Ndebele Chewa Soli Kaonde Tonga Ila Lozi Lunda Luchazi Chokwe Zande Lovale 89 82 81 75 74 58 71 50 53 69 53 40 40 32 32 23 22 10 10 15 11 B 94 94 88 83 77 83 78 73 74 57 65 72 68 61 56 53 52 50 44 27 43 C 90 93 90 86 89 85 88 84 79 70 73 70 65 60 53 63 53 45 41 45 35 D 96 96 94 90 89 94 81 90 88 90 89 77 80 80 68 74 63 31 32 56 33 E 95 98 94 95 89 85 91 88 75 80 80 81 79 86 85 78 79 56 57 46 58 F 99 96 95 93 99 94 88 96 91 81 85 88 90 90 89 84 88 69 76 64 72 Weighted Mean* 93.7 93.0 90.2 86.8 85.9 82.9 82.7 79.7 76.3 74.2 73.8 70.8 69.8 67.4 63.1 61.9 58.7 42.9 42.6 41.7 41.3

Note: This table replaces an erroneous version which appeared in earlier printings. A. Would agree to near kinship with. B. Would allow to settle in tribal area. C. Would allow to live near in village. D. Would share a meal with. E. Would work with. F. Would allow as visitor only to tribal area.
* Weighted mean percentage. The weights are equal to the square of the rank order correlation coefficient with the final order.

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The last category 'Would exclude' unfortunately proved unreliable, probably because of the semantic difficulty involved in answering a negative question positively. This new order of situations itself presents an interesting problem which we must take up elsewhere. At this point all that is necessary is to correct that preliminary trials have shown that the six items form an acceptable Guttman scale.81 Only the preliminary results of this study are available. The 329 completed schedules were classified by ethnic groups of the respondents. Using the weighted mean percentage of respondents answering 'yes' to the question for the various tribes we were able to arrange the set of tribes in a rank order of social distance for each of the ethnic groups. Table I sets out the results from the point of view of the Northern Matrilineal people. We may rearrange this table so that the tribes are grouped by broad cultural similarity as in Table II. The general trend is clear.
TABLE II : Tribes arranged according to Social Distance from Northern Matrilineal People. North Mat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Bemba Bisa Mambwe Aushi Nsenga Nyamwanga Ngoni Lenje Tumbuka Ndebele Chewa Soli Kaonde Tonga Ila Lozi Lunda Luchazi Chokwe Lovale North Pat. East Mat. South Pat. Cent. Mat. Bilat. West Mat.

The Northern Matrilineal test group was made up as follows : Bemba, 36 ; Lamba 10 ; Lungo, 8 ; Lala, 6 ; Bisa, 5 ; Chisinga, 4 ; Eastern Lunda, 4 ; Senga, 4 ; Ng'umbo, 3 ; Tabwa, 3 ; Aushi, 2 ; Swaka, 1 ; Luano, 1. Total = 87. The neighbouring Northern Patrilineal people are accepted most readily, then the Eastern Matrilineal, followed by the Southern Patrilineal, then the Central Matrilineal, then the Lozi, and finally the

81 Indices of reproduction ranged from 0.91 to 0.95 for the different ethnic groups. For the significance of this see Stouffer, A. S., et al, 1950.

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least readily accepted are the Western Matrilineal peoples. One additional interesting feature emerges from the table. It is that within any one ethnic group the tribes are arranged according to the distance from the home area of the Northern Matrilineal people. Among the Northern Patrilineal people, for example, the Mambwe live in closest contact with the main representative tribe in the Northern Matrilineal peoples, the Bemba. Next in order in social distance and also in physical distance are the Nyamwanga and finally the Tumbuka. The Kaonde provide a particularly interesting example. Culturally they are intermediate between the Lunda and the Bemba. They are also situated geographically in an intermediate position. This is reflected very clearly in the rank order where the distance between the Kaonde and the Northern Matrilineal peoples is much less than any of the other Western Matrilineal groups. The social distance patterns of other ethnic groups do not emerge quite as clearly as for the Northern Matrilineal peoples, but in general the same general characteristics are shown.82 If we consider the pattern that emerges from the responses of the Northern Patrilineal people we find that the other patrilineal people are placed closest to them. Following this are the Northern Matrilineal people the order is : Bemba, Bisa, and then Aushi, which is both the order of geographical distance and of cultural dissimilarity from the Northern Patrilineal people. Next in the list are the Eastern Matrilineal peoples, followed by the Central Matrilineal, and finally the Lozi and the Western Matrilineal people. The correlation of social with geographical distance is slightly disturbed in the case of Central Matrilineal people where the Soli who live south-east of the town of Lusaka are placed somewhat below the slightly more distant Tonga and Ila. The pattern for the central Matrilineal people is broadly similar but there are some interesting anomalies. One is that the Ngoni and Ndebele are ranked so high in the list. Another is that the Kaonde are ranked so much higher that the Western Matrilineal peoples. A high proportion of the Central Matrilineal test groups were Tonga and Ila who were raided for cattle by the Ndebele at the end of the last century.83 It is probable that they, and the closely associated Ngoni, still bear some of the glory of their militant forbears. I have already mentioned that he Kaonde are a group culturally intermediate between the Lunda of Mwinilunga District to the west and the Lamba, one of the Bembalike peoples, to the east. On the south they tend to be similar to the Ila people of Namwala district, and it is likely that it is to the stereotype of this group that the respondents were reacting in the test. The Eastern Matrilineal people also provided one interesting anomaly. Firstly the Ngoni and the Ndebele are placed in the nearest category but the Ngoni are placed higher than either the Chewa or Nsenga. The Ngoni came to the Eastern District and established a

82 See Tables in Appendix II. 83 See Colson, E., 1951, pp. 100 ff.

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state into which subjugated tribes were incorporated in positions of inferior rank. I think that the conquering Ngoni still have considerable prestige amongst many of their erstwhile subjects and indeed many of the Eastern Matrilineal people are still incorporated in the Fort Jameson Ngoni social structure.84 After this group follows the northern Matrilineal and then only the geographically nearer Central Matrilineal people. The Eastern Matrilineal people are sufficiently close to Northern Nyasaland to know that the Tumbuka, like themselves, were incorporated into a Ngoni state. I think therefore that they look upon the Tumbuka as another type of Ngoni. The Mambwe and Nyamwanga, however, appear to be considered part of the general mass of Bemba-speaking people, I think the correct order from the point of view of the Eastern Matrilineal peoples is, after themselves, the Ngoni group, then the Bemba group, then the Central Matrilineal and finally the Western Matrilineal group. We must probably seek the explanation of this anomaly of the inversion of the Bemba group over the Central Matrilineal people in the system of joking relationships between some Northern Rhodesian tribes - a point to which I shall return later. There is a third factor involved in fixing the social distance between tribes. Thus far I have suggested two interrelated factors : geographical distance and cultural similarity. Within the Northern Matrilineal group, in all tribal rankings, the Bemba are placed highest and the Aushi lowest. The Kaonde and Lunda are placed consistently higher than the other Western Matrilineal peoples, the Soli are placed consistently lower among the Central Matrilineal people. The Western Matrilineal peoples are always at the bottom in all but the Bilateral and their own rankings. In other words some tribes have widely established reputations, some favourable, and some unfavourable, which effect their position in the social distance scale, apart from cultural similarity and familiarity due to the proximity of their rural homes. It is easy to explain some of these reputations. The military prowess of the Ngoni, Ndebele and Bemba, for example, has no doubt contributed to the general high ranking of these people throughout all scales.85 The fact that the Luchazi, Luvale and Chokwe accept occupations that bring them into contact with human excreta no doubt plays an important part in placing these tribes at the bottom of the scale. For the others I have insufficient information to explain why these reputations should exist and clearly additional fieldwork is required. Anomalies in particular rankings may be explained also by reference to their contact in the past. A very clear example of this is provided by the Lozi classification. Here the Ndebele are placed next to the Lozi themselves and widely separated from the Ngoni, with whom in other rankings they are closely associated. The explanation of this is

84See Barnes, J. A., ; 1954a. 85Note, however, that the Lozi who were also a military people apparently do not enjoy a similar reputation

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undoubtedly that the Ndebele warred against the Lozi before the arrival of the Europeans and established for themselves a reputation which has persisted. The Ngoni on the other hand were never in contact with the Lozi and they are ranked at the same level as the distant Mambwe. I think also that the relatively high position of the Ndebele and Ngoni from the point of view of the Central Matrilineal peoples can be explained on the same basis. The main point that emerges from the experiment is that the more distant a group of peoples is from another, both socially and geographically, the greater the tendency to regard them as an undifferentiated category and to place them under a general rubric such as 'Bemba', 'Ngoni', 'Lozi' etc.86 In this way, from the point of view of the African on the Copperbelt all tribes other than those from his particular home area tend to be reduced into three or four categories bearing the label of those tribes who, at the coming of the Europeans, were the more powerful and dominant in the region. TRIBALISM AND CATEGORICAL RELATIONSHIPS This tendency to reduce the wide diversity of tribes to a few categories is part of a general sociological process which it is essential to grasp if we are to understand social relationships among Africans in urban areas. This process is one by which superficial relationships between people are determined by certain major categories within which no distinctions are recognized. We may examine this process a little more closely in the light of evidence from the Copperbelt. On the Copperbelt the majority of the population is drawn from the matrilineal tribes in the Northern and Central Provinces, who have, among other things, a clan system in common. A priori we might deduce that in an urban situation, where so many strangers are thrown into close association, the clan system which is common to so many of them would provide a mechanism whereby links between neighbours could be forged. In fact, my data suggest that this is not so. Evidence of this appeared clearly during a field trip among the Kaonde of Kasempa District of Northern Rhodesia.87 The Kaonde, like many other Northern Rhodesian tribes, are organized into exogamous matrilineal clans. Among the Kaonde the rule of exogamy is still very strong : in Kasempa during a short field trip Dr. Watson and Mr. van Velsen found no marriages of people with the same clan name. When they did run across a case they enquired into the circumstances in which this had occurred. It appears that the marriage had been contracted on the Copperbelt, and the couple, when there, had not bothered to ask each

86 Cf. E. B. H. Goodall's evidence to the Russell Commission : 'I feel it might be a good thing to make the Commissioners aware that the term [Memba] is loosely used and it covers other tribes such as the Ushi [Aushi], Wisa and Luwunda [Eastern Lunda]', Russell Commission Evidence, p. 301. 87 I am grateful to Dr. W. Watson and Mr. J. van Velsen who reported this incident to me.

Page 29.

other their clan names. They discovered that they had committed clan incest only when they got back to their rural home where clanship is significant. Another incident in Luanshya in 1951 supports the view that clanship does not emerge as a significant category in social relationships on the Copperbelt. A Lenje woman, who was married to a Bisa man died suddenly. Her matrilineal clan-name was chowa (mushroom). Normally in tribal areas the funeral duties would have been performed by members of her joking clan, i.e., the chulu (anthill) clan. As I have said the same clan-names appear over a large proportion of the tribes preponderant on the Copperbelt and we might well have expected that members of the 'anthill' clan among the Lenje, Lamba, Lala, Swaka, Lima, Bemba, Kaonde or even the Bisa, would have performed the funeral duties. In point of fact it was the Yao who did so. The explanation of this is that the Yao tribe, as a whole, stand in a joking relationship to the Bisa as a whole, who are the tribe of the husband. The Lenje, as far as I know, have joking relationships with no other tribe. Hence, in this urban situation where tribe is the significant social category, it was the joking tribe of the husband who came forward to perform the funeral duties. The evidence seems to suggest that casual interaction among Africans on the Copperbelt, therefore, is essentially determined by membership of a tribe. The interaction is an aspect of the categorical relationships which arise in any situation where contracts must of necessity be fleeting and transitory. The process was described in general terms by Shaler many years ago. He said : '... at the beginning of any acquaintance, the fellow-being is inevitably dealt with in a categoric way. He is taken as a member of a group, which group is denoted to us by a few convenient signs ; as our acquaintance with a particular person advances this category tends to become qualified. Its bounds are pushed this way and that until they break down.'88 Hiller expresses the same idea. He says : 'The ... categorizing tendency gives economy of effort in social relations because it supplies a plan for reciprocities and even for refusing them. This is especially the case in dealing with strangers. Classifying persons gives the implication of knowing them and having a plan of relation prearranged.' 89 That the most significant category of day-to-day social interaction among Africans on the Copperbelt should be tribalism is not surprising. There is a constant flow of newcomers into towns from the various rural districts from which the Copperbelt draws its labour supplies. They are not immediately absorbed into the prestige system which could possibly supply an alternative principle of social interaction. Instead their own ethnic distinctiveness which they took for granted in the rural areas is immediately thrown into relief by the multiplicity of tribes with whom they are cast into associations. Its importance to them is thus exaggerated and it becomes the basis on which they interact with all strangers.

88 Shaler, N. S., 1904. 89 Hiller, E, T., 1947, p. 643.

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A tribe in the rural areas is a group of people united in a single social and political system, sharing a common set of beliefs and values. We use the word 'tribe' in the sense, therefore, to denote the group of people who are linked in one particular social system. But when we talk about tribalism in urban areas, we refer not to the linking of people in a patterned structure, i.e., a tribe, but rather to a sub-division of people in terms of their sense of belonging to certain categories, these categories being defined in terms of ethnic criteria. Tribalism on the Copperbelt thus refers to groupings made on the basis of broad cultural differences. There is a tendency for the Bemba and other tribes from the Northern Province to consider the Chewa, Nsenga, Kunda and other people from the Eastern Province, for example, as 'Ngoni', and all tribes from Nyasaland, though they are as different as Tunbuka and Lomwe, as 'Nyasa'. In the same way the Eastern Province tribes tend to lump together the Lungu, Tabwa, Eastern Lunda, Bemba and other Northern Province tribes in one category - the 'Bemba'. It is thus clear that there is no necessary correlation between a tribal structure on one hand and tribalism, as I use the word, on the other. The one is a system of social relationships, the other is a category of interaction within a wider system. Harlow, it seems, has failed to make this distinction in one of the few published papers dealing specifically with tribalism.81 He says for example : 'There is much evidence to support the view that tribalism in Africa is on the way out', and then proceeds to describe the changes going on in tribal social structure. Later he says : 'Under the terrifying pressure of Western techniques and ideas Africans in many territories instinctively close their ranks for selfpreservation ; and the only ranks they know are those of the tribe. Hence the aggressive reassertion of tribal identity and prestige.' As evidence that tribalism is not on its way out Harlow cites the Chagga who have recently elected a paramount chief when previously they had never had one. But an important clue is contained in his sentence : 'The Chagga had acquired a spokesman and had vested him with authority and prestige to speak with the Europeans.' 82 My impression is of a people, formerly loosely linked, now becoming united in opposition to an external group of Europeans. Chagga identity has become a relevant category of interaction in a social system wider than that of the tribe. The internal structure of the tribe may in fact be undergoing great changes and the tribal system may be breaking down rapidly ; but it is still possible for a sense of tribal unity to be evoked in opposition to an external group. But the tribalism of the Chagga is a phenomenon of a different order from that of the Africans on the Copperbelt. for the Chagga tribalism is a political category : their chief represents the people to outside authority. On the Copperbelt tribalism is a category in day-to- day social intercourse. It provides a mechanism whereby social relation-

90 Harlow, V., 1955. 91 Harlow, V., 1955, p. 19. My italics.

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ships with strangers may be organized in what of necessity must be a fluid social situation. Here, where many men from many different tribes are concentrated in a small area, the Trade Unions, African National Congress, and similar bodies, operate in the same sort of social field as the Chagga and they combine Africans regardless of their tribal origin in opposition to the Europeans. TRIBALISM AND URBAN ADMINISTRATION The fact that tribalism as a social category is significant in a framework of social interaction among Africans alone cannot be brought out more clearly than in the history of tribal representation on the Copperbelt. The copper-mining companies were quick to appreciate the significance of tribalism as a factor in social relationships and in 1931 decided to organize council of workers along tribal lines. Spearpoint, who originated the scheme, was then Compound Manager92 at the Roan Antelope Copper Mine and fortunately he has recorded the steps by which the committee came into being.93 Before 1931 the Compound Police were the representatives of the Compound Manager. Spearpoint clearly recognized that the Compound Police were unsatisfactory as a means of forming contact between the seat of authority and the actual workers living in the compound'. He points out that the Compound Police were not likely to be impartial in the representation of troubles to the Compound Manager where they themselves were involved. Since all the labourers belonged to some tribal group, the obvious solution was to make use of that fact. Thus, as Spearpoint has recorded it : 'The various tribes in our compound were approached with the suggestion that they might welcome the idea of having representation on a council of tribal elders and that the people selected to represent each tribe be chosen by themselves at an election conducted entirely by the tribe. The suggestion was received with acclamation...'94 'The function of this council were firstly, to sit as a court to arbitrate in minor disputes, particularly those depending on tribal law and custom. Secondly, the Compound Manager used the Council of Elders as an avenue of approach to the seat of authority.' Here a point of considerable importance arises. The fact that the tribal representatives in the early days were called 'tribal elders', suggests that African workers were regarded as tribesmen temporarily resident in town, whose relationships to one another were fixed by the categories of social interaction appropriate to their rural origins. If

92 The Compound Manager was the mine official who was responsible for the recruiting, housing, feeding and general welfare of the African workers. Recently the office was renamed 'African Personnel Manager'. 93 Spearpoint,F.,1937. 94 Spearpoint,F.,1937,p.19.

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this were so it would be logical to assume that a 'tribal elder', by reason of his position in the tribal structure, would have authority and jurisdiction over his fellow-tribesmen in town. He would, in fact, be their leader and would be able to present their difficulties to the Management. Whether this was, in fact, the reasoning behind the institution of the system we do not know, but subsequent events have shown, as we have pointed out, that membership of a tribe or ethnic group involves different types of social relationships in different situations. For the purpose of analysis we may distinguish three general social situations on the Copperbelt in which membership of a tribe has, or had, significance for the African town-dweller. The first situation is that within a location where the population is drawn from many different tribes. Among these strangers there will be some who come from the same locality and others from the same chiefdom. In so far as these men share the same set of beliefs and have the same general background, they are able to organize their relationships in town by reference to their common standards. In this way a 'tribal elder', if he occupied an appropriate position in the tribal structure, could serve to settle disputes among the members of his tribe, and so emphasize tribal norms, because the tribesmen are linked by a set of relationships imported with them from their rural home. When relationships with other tribes are involved, however, the significance of having a particular tribal origin is somewhat different. Town-dwellers display their ethnic origin by the language they speak and their way of life generally. This enables members of other tribal groups immediately to fit their neighbours and acquaintances into categories which determine the mode of behaviour towards them. For Africans in the Copperbelt 'tribe' is the primary category of social interaction, i.e. the first significant characteristic to which any African reacts in another. Frequently relationships never penetrate beyond this and tribes appear to one another to be undifferentiated wholes. A third field in which tribal membership became significant was as a means of approach to the authority. The tribal elder system spread from the mines to the non-mine locations and the council of tribal elders for many years served to present the African residents' point of view to the Location Superintendent.95 In 1947 when the Northern Rhodesia Government decided to form elective Urban Advisory Councils, which would form the bottom rung of a ladder of representation in Legislative Council, it was inevitable that the councils of tribal elders both in the Management Board Locations and on the mines should form the electoral college from which some of the members of the Urban Advisory Council were drawn.96 It thus transpired that at least a part of the urban African population was represented tribally on the lowest rung of the political structure. Representation on the Urban Advisory

95 E.g. Grimsvedt's evidence to the Russell Commission shows that by 1935 the tribal elder system was working in the Ndola Location. Russell Commission Evidence, p.183. 96 Clay, G. C. T., 1949, p.35 ; Heath, F. M. N., 1953. 127.

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Councils was revised by the Urban Areas Housing Ordinance introduced in 1954 and a ward system then came into being. It was clear however at this stage that tribal representation was no longer meeting the situation.97 The processes underlying this change can perhaps be illustrated best from the history of the position of tribal elders in the administrative structure in the mines. When the Council of Elders was constituted on the mines part of its function was to serve as a workmen's committee through which workers could approach the Mine Management. In Northern Rhodesia, Africans occupy, in general, the lower paid and less responsible posts. This was more so on the copper mines in the early days. All managerial posts were occupied by Europeans. It was natural, therefore, that from the point of view of the African workers, 'European' and 'Management' became synonymous. Here the relevant criterion was colour. From the point of view of the African workers, all Europeans were placed in one category : Management,Missions and Government were all inextricably connected because Europeans operated and dominated them all. The tribal elders, therefore, in their capacity of a Workmen's Committee and in their dealings with the Compound Manager, were operating within two congruent fields of social relationships. Firstly, they represented the interests of workers to Management, and secondly, they represented the interests of Africans to Europeans. In these fields it is apparent that tribalism, as such, is irrelevant and it is of considerable interest to note that, in industrial crisis, the African workers have always rejected the tribal elders as their leaders.98 The failure of the tribal elder system in situations outside the locations must be related to the mistaken view that a category of interaction significant in one social field is significant in all others that tribal elders operating within an industrial urban situation do so in terms of a tribal structure and not in terms of their position within the industrial and civic structure. The history of industrial relations on the Copperbelt has shown this clearly and the logical development which we might have expected from our analysis has recently taken place. The African Mine Workers' Union started agitation for the abolition of the Tribal Representative system99 and the climax was reached when a prominent member of the African Mine Worker's Union was involved in an assault against a Tribal Representative. Subsequently, African workers in a ballot voted overwhelmingly in favour of the abolition of the official Tribal Representative, this was evidence of the declining significance of tribalism. It merely shows that the African workers wish there interests to be represented to Management by leaders who are operating

97 This is described in Epstein, A. L., 1956. 98 This is fully discussed in Epstein, A. l., 1956. Note that the system of government through tribal headmen operative in Freetown since 1904 had broken down by 1932. Banton, M., 1954. 99 See Epstein,A. L., 1956

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within an industrial frame of values. And so it is also that the representatives now elected to the Urban Advisory Councils are mainly young men in professional or white-collar occupations, many of whom are keen supporters of the African National Congress. They represent the interests of the wage-earner and town dweller and are acutely conscious of these interests. Tribalism is still a significant category of social interaction within the field of African- to-African relationships, and the field exists simultaneously with many other fields. It is highly significant that, while tribalism may have disappeared as a relevant category in Management- worker relationships, within the African Mine Workers' Union the struggle for power seems to have been phrased in tribal terms. This was shown when the General Secretary, Mr. Simon Kaluwa, a Nyanji-speaking man, was dismissed by the Supreme Council on 5th July, 1952. The President of the Union, Mr. Lawrence Katilunga, is a Bemba, and the Union appears to have been split along these broad 'tribal' lines.90 It is significant that no where in kalela are anti-white sentiments expressed. In urban areas, in particular, Black and White are brought together by the nexus of productive activity and it is in urban areas that hostility, is most freely expressed. But these expressions of hostility take place largely in political and quasi-political situations, through organizations and institutions such as the Urban Advisory Boards, African Representative Councils, Legislative Council, the African Mine Workers' Union, and the African National Congress. The better-educated Africans appreciate that tribalism is divisive and makes pleas for 'unity' but such pleas are made in a context of Black-White relationships : they seek African unity against Europeans. From the evidence we have at present, tribalism on the Copperbelt is still the dominant category of interaction in social fields in which Africans alone are involved. But it is not a relevant category in the field of Black-White relations.101

100 Nothern News, 10th July, 1952, reports a protest by Nyasaland and Portuguese Territory Africans against a 'Bemba dictatorship' in the African Mine Workers' Union. The newspaper report brought several letters to the editor on the subject. In one of these, in the Northern News dated 7th August, 1952, the writer says that he cannot understand why other Africans object to Bemba dictatorship because 'it is in the nature of these people to be a dictator tribe'. Another in the Northern News, dated, 2nd September, 1952, from a man with a Lozi name, reads : 'The Bemb are not the most famous tribe in Northern Rhodesia. Other great tribes like the Ngoni and the Tonga do not recognize the Bemba as their superiors and I am at a loss to understand how the WaWemba can be called the most famous people in the country. Have a look at the independent tribe the Mulozi who have a good reason to be the most famous.' 101 The Northern News, in reporting the protest described in footnote 86, linked the affair with a campaign against Federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland, then being pursued by certain leaders. It is significnt that Kuluwa himself, writing to the Northern News (19th July, 1952), specifically states that, as far as the anti-Federation issue was concerned, there was no division of tribal grounds. The opposition to Federation, from the African point of view, of course, was largely an issue involving the relationships between Europeans and Africans.

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JOKING TRIBES IN TOWNS The kalela dance takes place during leisure hours in an African residential area. Europeans other than officials are rarely seen in this area102 and on Sundays and holidays even European officials are seldom present. As we have seen, it is in this situation, where Africans interact with Africans, that tribalism emerges as a significant category of social intercourse. Here where political matters are set aside for the moment, the dancers express their unity against their spectators as members of a limited number of broad tribal groups and address theirtaunting songs to them in these terms. The kalela dance is only one of the many possible situations in which tribalism operates as a category of interaction. I have already mentioned other situations in which it became significant as, for example, in tribal fights, in the struggle for power within a trade union, and so forth. If we take into account the great importance of tribalism in the life of African townsmen who have diverse origins, it is surprising that more tribal conflicts do not arise in urban situations. A full examination of this problem requires much more intensive work than I was able to give it. Nevertheless from what evidence I have been able to collect it appears that on the Copperbelt at least, one possible mechanism for the control of inter-tribal hostility lies in institutionalized joking relationship. The co-existence of traditional tribal hostilities and enforced peaceful association in industrial areas presents us with an interesting sociological problem. We know that at the end of the last century Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were peopled by a large number of small, relatively weak, tribal groups over which a few more powerful organized tribes such as the Lozi, the Ngoni, the Bemba, the Western Lunda and one or two others had established some sort of dominance. Between these more powerful tribes there was considerable hostility and it is possible that were it not for the entry of the British at the end of the century there would inevitably have been a trial of strength between these groups. In fact when the British South Africa Company started administering the territory the first task they had before them was to suppress the inter-tribal warfare and the slave-trade with which it was closely connected. The result of this was that the trial of strength never came, and the dominance of some tribes over others was never clearly established. Instead members of these tribes found themselves occupying neighbouring houses or working shoulder to shoulder in the same gangs with their erstwhile enemies. Moreover their European masters were exercised to see that hostility in their work gangs was not openly expressed. It became increasingly clear that tribesmen had to co-operate with their erstwhile enemies not only because of their

102 Under section 143 of the Townships Regulations (cap. 120 of the Laws of Northern Rhodesia) no person may loiter or be within the limits of a location without a reasonable excuse or the permission of the Location Superintendent.

Page 36. common role in the productive process, but also because in the industrial situation they stood united in opposition to their European employers. It is exactly in this situation, as Radcliffe-Brown points out, that joking relationships develop. He writes : 'The theory is that both the joking relationships which constitute an alliance between clans or tribes, and that between relatives by marriage, are modes of organizing a definite stable system of social behaviour in which disjunctive and conjunctive components are maintained and combined.'103 Scrivenor drew attention to the existence of joking relationships between tribes in Tanganyika in a paper in 1937 and Moreau supplied some interesting detailed information in 1941.104 There are several features of Moreau's paper which are particularly interesting in view of the Copperbelt material. The first point is that Moreau shows unequivocally that joking relationships between tribes have arisen where in the past there have been tribal wars. He noted that the Ngoni, notorious for their warlike characteristics, had joking relationships with more tribes than any other single tribe. He quotes an informant who tells how a certain tribe was not admitted into a joking relationship with another because there had been no fighting with them. Moreau goes on to say that : 'While I have gained the impression that [the joking relationship] is still a living force of great importance there is no doubt that it is being constantly weakened by a combination of modern influences. Especially in townships where many different tribes are rubbing shoulders every day, [the joking relationship] inevitably falls into desuetude through the physical impossibility of observing it. On the whole it would perhaps be safest to regard the customs described in this paper as those of the last generation rather than of the rising one.'105 There are three points however to suggest a different interpretation. The first is not explicitly stated by Moreau, but we may gather from the cases he quotes, that he collected the material for his paper not in the rural areas but in administrative centres, which were congregated tribes whose paths otherwise would never have crossed. The second and third points are made explicitly by Moreau himself : (a) that all of the instances he cites have been collected from men under the age of forty f ive, and (b) there appears to be no vernacular term for tribal joking relationships : instead all tribes used the Swahili word ulani, which may have been derived from an Arabic word watan, 'to reside in'. In summary, then, joking relationships are still a living force of importance between tribes who were formerly at war with one another, and a Swahili term was used by all tribes to describe the relationship - a fact, incidentally, which puzzled Moreau. The material on which the observations were based seems to have been collected in extra-tribal situations from comparatively young men. These facts suggest strongly that joking relationships between tribes

103 Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., 1940, p. 96. 104 Scrivenor, T. V., 1937 ; Moreau, R. E., 1941. 105 Moreau, R. E., 1941, p. 2.

Page 37.

is a relatively recent phenomenon. The older men apparently did not find them of much interest but the younger men working in administrative centres together with former enemies did, and they used a word from the lingua franca to describe relationships in this new situation. The strong suggestion therefore is that tribal joking relationships came into being mainly after the establishment of European law and government, and that in fact they are most viable in townships where erstwhile hostile tribesmen were thrown together under conditions in which peace was enjoined on them - in other words where ' a mode of organizing a definite and stable system of social behaviour in which disjunctive and conjunctive components ' had of necessity ' to be maintained and combined.'106 It is possible that the decline of tribal joking relationships with the growth of towns, as Moreau posits, was in fact not an empirical observation but a deduction based on the mistaken assumption that tribal joking relationships are traditional and that modern urban situations are therefore inimical to them. ;In Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland joking relationships exist between certain categories on kinsmen, between certain clans, and between certain tribes. In those tribes east of the Luangwa River there appear to be no joking clans at all, but joking relationships exist, (a) between certain kinsmen such as cross-cousins, and grandchildren and grandparents, and (b) between a lineage section or village section and some individuals who have performed funeral duties for them. Among the Chewa and Nyanja people these individuals are given quasi- kinship status and called 'grandchildren' by the village or lineage section.107 Among the Yao the same type of joking relationship exists but it is referred to by a descriptive term, awilo, and not by a kinship term.108 Among the Yao also a former village headman may have performed the funeral duties for a particular chief.109 The joking relationship is then inherited through professional succession and becomes perpetuated, but there are no institutionalized joking relationships between clans whereby any member of one clan jokes with any member of its opposite. Clan joking relationships seem to be confined to the west of the Luangwa River.110 Among these tribes joking relationships exist

106 Moreau, R. E., 19941, p. 10, however, quotes the Kami who had to pass through Doe country to reach the coast. The Doe in turn were subject to periodical hunger and could most easily acquire food from the Kami. With the addition of the mutual performance of funeral duties, these services could be subsumed under a joking relationship. Moreau, however, significantly notes that the 'joking between these tribes is said to be relatively unimportant. 107 Marwick, M., 1956, Chap. IV. I prefer this view to the one presented by Pretorius, J. L., 1949, and Bruwer, J., 1951, which is that the kinsmen are required to perform the funeral duties. Because of the significance of the funeral duties in the relationship, Tew, 1951, suggests the term 'funeral friendship'. Colsen, E., 1953, disputes the central importance of funeral duties in the relationship. 108 Mitchell, J. C., 1951, p. 339. 109 A commoner cannot perform these duties for a chief : they must be performed by a person of like status. 110 Richards, A. L., 1937 ; Stefaniszyn, B., 1950, 1951.

Page 38.

between certain categories of kinsmen as among the people east of the Luangwa, but in addition to this each clan recognizes at least one other clan as a joking clan. The relationship between the clans is usually explained by a myth or formula based on their names, in which the opposition or hostility of the objects to which the names refer is emphasized. The joking is frequently expressed in the idiom of the myth. For example, the Crocodile and Fish clans are a joking pair. A man from the Crocodile clan may say to one from the Fish clan: 'You are my food !'. to which the man from the Fish clan may reply : 'You cannot live without me 111 !' Among the peoples west of the Luangwa this type of joking has a term of its own : the Bemba word is bunungwe. Among them it is institutionalized : funeral duties flow from the joking relationships. Among the peoples east of the Luangwa on the other hand joking relationships flow from the funeral duties, and are referred to by kinship or descriptive terms.112 In either case the relationships may be looked upon as an extension of the kinship system whereby strangers are brought into a special relationship because they perform those funeral duties which kinsmen may not. Colson makes an observation about the operation of the joking relationship among the Plateau Tonga which has a bearing on the system of social relationships on the Copperbelt. She points out that since the joking clan is not usually one of the clans to which a man is linked through his father, mother or wife, it provides the means whereby a man could operate further afield than his own vicinage in the days when it was dangerous to be a stranger anywhere. The similarity between the way the joking relationship operates here and the way in which it operates between joking tribes on the Copperbelt will emerge later.113 On the Copperbelt there are several tribes who stand in joking relationships to each other. I was able to record incidents involving joking between the following tribes : Bemba - Ngoni Lozi - Tonga / Ila Lozi - Ndebele Yao - Bisa

111 Dokes says of the Lmba : 'It is probable that originally some of these clans were violently opposed, though to-day the opposition is confined to jesting.' Doke, C., 1931, p. 197. He then lists some typical opposites and quotes a few of the formulae. Stefaniszyn, B., 1950, 1951, gives extensive lists. 112 Thus the Ngoni explain the joking relationship with the Bemba by the fact that since they were formerly enemies they came into possession of each other's corpses and therefore had to perform the burial duties for them. Brewer, 1951, p. 31. 113 Colson, E., 1953, makes another observation that this is very likely of importance on the Copperbelt but about which I have collected no information. She points out that because no umbrage may be taken at the things said within the framework of the joking relationship it may operate as a powerful medium of social control. Although I did not realize it t the time, this is obviously an important element in the joking relationship perpetuated between a Yao chief and some of his village headmen. In this privileged position they are able to criticize the chief's behaviour as no other person may.

Page 39.

The Lamba, Swaka, Lala, Lenje, Soli, Sala, Chokwe, Western Lunda, Ambo and many other smaller tribes appear to have no joking relationships with other tribes. Before I can proceed to illustrate the sort of situation in which the joking relationship is invoked, I must revert to a point which emerged from the tribal distance experiment114. The tribal labels in the list of joking tribes I have mentioned are really much broader categories than is implied. The point is perhaps well illustrated by an incident which took place in Lusaka. A Bemba-speaking man grew some carrots near his house in one of the African townships. His neighbour's children came one day and uprooted some and started to eat them. When the Bemba-speaking man complained to his neighbour about the children's behaviour, the neighbour, who spoke Nyanji, retorted in such a way that it was obvious that he was treating the incident as part of the Ngoni-Bemba joking relationship. The Bemba speaking man happened to be a Lungu from Chief Mukupa's area and the Nyanjispeaking man a Chewa. They were able to rationalize their relationship and avoid conflict by invoking the Bemba- Ngoni joking relationship. The joking relationship comes into operation in many different situations. Miss Richardson noticed in Kitwe that Bemba women who were performing puberty rites for a girl chose to sing outside the huts of the Nsenga who lived in that part of the township until the Nsenga gave them some money as a gift. But it is particularly in drinking situations that joking relationships between tribes are invoked. A man for example may appropriate a pot of beer from another who belongs to his joking tribe and expect to have the same thing done to him in similar circumstances. A typical incident was recorded by an African Research Assistant of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute who is himself an Ngoni.104 He writes : ' One Sunday afternoon in March 1955 I came across a drinking party in a compound. Among the people drinking were two Ndebele women who live in the neighbouring compound. Shortly afterward a Lozi woman came in and sat next to the Ndebele women. I greeted the Ndebele women in my poor Ndebele and they offered me a cup of beer. After drinking the beer I asked the beer seller to bring another sixpenny cup of beer which I gave to the Ndebele women. The Lozi woman was quiet all the time. I produced the sixpenny to pay for the cup of beer that was given to me and passed it in front of the Lozi woman. I thought she was going to give it to the beer seller but she put the sixpence in her pocket saying with a smile to me in the Lozi language " "A foreigner has lost his money." I was surprised at this but the Ndebele women explained that this was because of the joking relationship between the Ndebele and the Lozi. I told the Lozi woman that I was not an Ndebele but an Ngoni from Fort Jameson and that I wanted my money back. She stood up and asked the beer seller to give her a cup of beer, paying for it with the sixpence she had taken from me. She sat down and started drinking

114 See pp.22 ff.above 115 Mr. M. B. Lukhero.

Page 40.

the beer saying : "You are all cattle stealers and you should Thank God we did not drown all you people in the Zambezi." When I went further with my investigation the Lozi woman said that the joking relationship existed between the Lozi and the Ngoni and the Ndebele because they both came from the same Zulu origin.' The joking relationship not only avoids open conflict between hostilely opposed tribes in the urban areas but also provides the basis of active co-operation. This is most obviously demonstrated in the funeral duties that these tribes perform for each other. Above I have given an example of this where the Yao performed funeral duties for the wife of a Bisa man. But there have been other occasions also where the joking relationship has been the basis of active co-operation. One example was when a well-known and respected Ngoni died in Luanshya. It was a Bemba tribal elder who initiated a collection to assist his widow and dependants. But the joking relationship is not accepted without question by all in urban areas. Some of the joking leads to court cases. The following case was heard by the urban court in Lusaka in November, 1953.116 A Lozi woman complained to the court that an Ila man had assaulted her at the butchery. She said : ' I went to the butchery to buy meat on Saturday morning and the Ila man was at the counter. When I had bought the meat I went outside to where my bicycle was and was packing the meat into my cycle bag when the Ila man came up to me and started to joke with me. There is a joking relationship between the Lozi and the Ila : he started touching the beads around my waist and fondling my breasts. I tried to stop him but he carried on doing so. He then used bad language to me and I was annoyed at this. I told him I was a married Woma n and did not like joking in that manner. I told him I would summons him to court.' The woman went on to say that she was loyal to her husband and although he did not like her taking this man to court, because of the joking relationship between the two tribes, she had decided that if she did not do so he would suspect her of adultery with other Ila men. The Lozi assessor on the Bench, who was the Court President, said that he knew that there was a joking relationship between the two tribes but that in this case the joking had been conducted in a bad and disgraceful manner. He said that it was not right that the man should have touched the woman's beads in public. The Lozi assessor then asked the Ila man if he did not agree with this view. The Ila man pointed out that the incident had taken place in public. Had the affair occurred in private it would have been tantamount to adultery but since it was done openly it could only have been joking. The parties were dismissed while the assessors discussed the case. The assessors could not agree among themselves on the case. The joking relationship between the Lozi and the Ila was not questioned. The point was whether touching a woman's beads in public could be accepted as suitable joking behaviour. The division of opinion between the Lozi

116 I am grateful to Mr. B. Lukhero, once again, who recorded this case.

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assessor and the others. The Lozi assessor maintained that the behaviour was incorrect while the others were prepared to accept it. Eventually the Lozi assessor's views prevailed and the parties were recalled. In passing judgment the Lozi assessor said : 'We all know that before the Europeans came to our country different tribes used to have many disgraceful customs some of which have died. In my opinion this joking relationship is one of them. Using insulting language to the woman and touching her beads in public would be a serious crime if her husband were present. For this reason the court awards 20s. 0d. damages to the woman and 5s. 0d court fee.' The Ila man paid these amounts. A relative of the Ila man now stood up and addressed the court. He said :'We have watched with interest the way this case has been conducted. But let it be known from this time that no Lozi person will joke with an Ila person, especially at the butchery, and in beer parties where this happens frequently.' An assessor representing the Ila and the Tonga in court said that it was the first time that a case had been decided in this way since he had been on the Bench. He mentioned several other cases brought by Ila or Tonga against Lozi but these had been dismissed because of the joking relationship. The fact that the cases should have been brought to court at all indicates that the joking relationship is not accepted completely by all in town. In the trial reported here the existence of the joking relationship was admitted by the complainant and accepted by the court. In his summing up the Lozi assessor said he thought that it was a custom that should fall away but it was clear he was expressing his own opinion for the other assessors did not agree with him. The main issue in this case was the sort of behaviour acceptable under the joking relationship between tribes and on this the courts are arbiters. But a point raised in the proceedings bears on Moreau's contention that the joking relationship is disappearing in town. This hinges on the particular situations in which the joking relationship may be invoked. The Ila man's kinsman mentioned two situations in which joking is most likely to occur, namely in the crowd outside the butcher shop and in drinking parties. The drinking relationship is invoked mainly in situations of casual social intercourse, where interaction does not take place within the framework of some well-defined social structure. It is highly significant in terms of my interpretation of the role of tribalism in urban areas that the joking relationship does not operate between co-workers in industry or between officials of an organization like a Trade Union. Not every social situation in an urban area, as Moreau seemed to assume, evokes the joking relationship between tribes.

The situation in which the kalela dance takes place has some of the features of a joking Hah, how unhappy are the Nsenga ! There have been some slanderous rumours Unheard of before.

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What have I heard ? The Nsenga woman slept with what ? You tell me - you who have heard it. She slept with a dog. I should deny it for the sake of the Nsenga, People are just telling lies about them. But yesterday I desired an Nsenga woman, Why did she refuse me ? I pleaded with her but she entirely refused, Saying that I did not know how to copulate. I said that I would teach her how to. She entirely refused. How do you speak falsely against the Nsenga? Saying that they have fornicated with a dog? If they refuse human beings How can they accept a dog - a beast ? Can they agree to it ? You are just teasing. I shall send my dog to the Nsenga woman, The one that refused me will then acquiesce. There has never been, as far as I know, any umbrage taken by the Nsenga people against this song, nor by the Lamba, Lwena or any other of the tribes that are mocked by the kalela singers. In fact, the spectators, of whom there are usually many, appear to enjoy the songs immensely. I think it is significant that this most insulting of all stanzas should be directed towards the Nsenga. This would fall into line with the broad pattern of joking relationships between Bemba and the Ngoni categories. But in general the kalela dancers, as representatives of the Bisa tribe, set up a sort of unilateral joking relationship with their spectators in which they express their hostility towards other tribes and yet do not incur animosity. KALELA IN THE URBAN SITUATION We are now able to return to the apparent paradox which originally attracted my attention to the kalela dance. It will be recalled that one of the outstanding features of the kalela dance was that it was undoubtedly a tribal dance, in the sense that the team was composed mainly of Bisa tribesmen and they set out to praise the Bisa in general, and their chief Matipa in particular. But the clothing they wore and the language they used in their songs served to sink their identity as a tribal group, and to merge them with the Copperbelt African population as a whole. I have tried to show in this essay that one of the features of the social structure of the African population on the Copperbelt is that except in these dancing teams, tribalism does not form the basis for the organization of corporate groups. It remains essentially a category of interaction in casual social intercourse. Similarly the prestige ranking system does not serve to organize Africans into corporately acting

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groups. It operates as a category of interaction together with tribalism in mediating social relationships in what is predominantly a transient society. These two principles of association determine the behaviour of comparative strangers to one another mainly in day-to-day relationships. It is impossible to generalize about the operation of these principles without reference to the specific social situation in which the interaction takes place.106 McCall writes of 'collectivities which have begun to knit the disparate tribal elements into common units', and mentions as examples of these 'schools, churches, trade unions, political parties, nationalist movements, and public places of recreation such as beer-halls and football fields'. He goes on to say that : 'The more that Africans identify themselves with these groups the less important tribal affiliation becomes.'107 The evidence that we have from Northern Rhodesia is that in certain situations Africans ignore either class differences of tribal differences (or both), and in other situations these differences become significant. I have presented evidence to show that in their opposition to the Europeans, Africans ignore both their 'class' and tribal differences. Inside a tribal association such as those found in Southern Rhodesia I would expect oppositions to be phrased in terms of 'class' differences. I would expect the discussion within a teachers' or clerks' association to be phrased in terms of tribalism. The same people who stand together in one situation may be bitterly opposed in another. The fact that tribalism emerges as a significant category of interaction only in certain situations, may help to explain some of the apparent contradictions which acute observers have noted from time to time. Hellman for example writes that the widening of perspective and increase of knowledge that urban living has brought to the African, 'has created a Native with divided loyalties. He feels unity with the Bantu people as a whole ; but he has not emancipated himself from the feeling of tribal superiority which has caused each tribe in turn to call itself "The People ".108 Hellman mentions tribal fights in the slum area in which she worked and in segregated mine compounds as typical situations in which tribalism serves to divide the population into opposed groups. Her example of a situation in which tribal distinctions are minimized is equally significant. She writes : 'There is in Johannesburg the Bantu Men's Social Centre where any mention of purely tribal loyalties is deprecated, and where English as a language medium is assiduously fostered in the brief that a common language will help to merge Natives of different tribes, each with its different language, into a Bantu nation.'109 Earlier in the same paragraph she had written : 'White South Africa is intimidated by the threat that this emerging "nation" directs at its own security.' The kalela team, being all Bisa and having eliminated possible 'class' differences by adopting clothing appropriate to those in the higher positions in the prestige scale, are able to present a united front

117 Cf. Gluckman, M., 1955, pp. 151-63. 118 McCall, D. F., 1955, p. 158 119 Hellman, E., 1948, p.114.

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to outsiders. To the spectators there is no paradox in this. I think the paradox to us stems from the ambiguity of the concept of tribalism. Consider these manifestations of tribalism. The Chewa use the spectacular masked dances from the nyau ceremony in their dances on the Copperbelt. In Southern Rhodesia where tribesmen form corporate groups in the shape of burial and friendly societies, a title and a constitution perform the same function. It so happens that the Bisa in common with many other tribes from the northern parts of Northern Rhodesia have no particular distinctive dress by means of which they express their unity. Hence they fall back upon the praise verses in the song they sing. But the burial societies and the tribal dancing groups are not led by a headman and a group of tribal elders. Instead that have a committee with a chairman or a 'king' with secretaries, treasurers and other officials, and conduct their business on the same lines as any European association does. The rural tribal structure has no immediate relevance to the composition of the dance team and the particular symbol it uses to express its unity is not definitive. I contend that the set of relationships among a group of tribesmen in their rural home is something very different from the set of relationships among the same group when they are transposed to a urban area. In the rural area the relationships of the members form part of a complete tribal system. They fix their relationships to one another in terms of kinship links, by clanship and by their membership of villages. In towns the pattern of the social system is determined largely by the industrial system which forms the basis of their existence, and by the laws which Government has enacted to regulate the life of the town-dwellers. As cities have developed on the basis of industrial production, 'the pecuniary nexus which implies the purchasability of services and things has displaced personal relations as the basis of associations. Individuality under these circumstances must be replaced by categories.120 'Tribe' on the Copperbelt has become one of these categories and it is in this sense only that kalela is a 'tribal' dance.

120. Wirth, L., 1938, p. 44.

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APPENDIX I Occupational Prestige Ranking Distribution of Prestige Rankings.

Occupation Very High High Med. Low Very Low Don't Know Rank Mean S.D

African Education Officer African Minister of Religion Secondary School Teaching African Police Inspector Headmaster African Welfare Officer Mediccal Orderly T.U Branch Secretary Senior Clerk (mines) Senior Clerk (govt.) Primary School Teacher Carpenter Typist Bricklayer African Constable Garage Mechanic Boss Boy (mines) Plumber Contractor's capitao Painter Lorry Driver Machine Boy Boma Messenger Office Messenger Domestic Servant Hotel Waiter Station Boy Petrol Pump Boy Wood Cutter Garden Boy Scavenger

546 395 382 403 350 319 253 231 178 180 112 111 70 75 67 61 76 51 38 32 14 27 20 5 18 8 8 5 2 3 5

85 178 229 189 266 257 323 323 346 345 336 303 301 237 270 206 173 177 206 116 154 93 110 47 61 29 35 14 17 3 16

8 52 26 31 27 62 62 70 81 97 154 201 214 259 197 248 150 222 259 312 320 215 245 2 174 207 181 128 147 42 45

5 11 15 12 4 7 3 9 12 16 39 22 42 57 80 81 114 90 93 132 121 180 196 260 217 244 254 252 211 129 30

0 4 1 12 1 2 2 2 5 4 3 3 17 12 32 26 50 31 25 30 39 66 64 114 168 153 148 231 251 465 512

9 13 10 6 5 6 10 18 31 11 9 13 9 13 7 31 90 83 32 31 5 72 18 16 15 12 27 23 25 11 45

0.83 0.51 1.18 0.73 1.18 0.69 1.19 0.77 1.26 0.70 1.34 0.73 1.47 0.70 1.52 0.70 1.65 0.68 1.66 0.68 1.86 0.62 1.86 0.61 2.02 0.59 2.04 0.60 2.11 0.65 2.14 0.63 2.19 0.79 2.19 0.65 2.21 0.56 2.32 0.56 2.35 0.50 2.48 0.64 2.48 0.59 2.72 0.55 2.75 0.68 2.78 0.59 2.79 0.59 2.98 0.58 3.00 0.58 3.37 0.50 3.43 0.52

The respondents were African students and scholars at educational institutions in and around Lusaka. They were made up as follows : Secondary School Teachers' Training College Technical School Total 303 124 226 653

The mean rank was obtained by apportioning a weight to each of the prestige categories and then computing from them a weighted mean.

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The weights were computed on the assumption that the distribution of ranks over all occupations was normal'. The method is set out in Yaukey, D., ' A Metric Measurement of Occupational Status'. Sociology and Social Research, XXIX, 5 (May-June, 1955), pp. 317-23. The weights were : Very high prestige High prestige Neither high nor low Low prestige Very low prestige 0.62 1.96 2.27 2.85 3.64

The means were taken to four places of decimal. The order of ranking in the tied ranks in the table were thus decided by the third decimal place. APPENDIX II RANKING OF TRIBES FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DIFFERENT ETHNIC GROUPS TABLE I
E. MAT. THE EASTERN MATRILINEAL PEOPLE S. PAT. N. N.PAT BILAT MAT Ngoni Nsenga Chewa Bemba Ndebele Tumbuka Mambwe Bisa Tonga Aushi Nyamwanga Lozi Soli Ila Kaonde Lunda Cholwe Luvale Luchazi Lenje Tonga C.MAT. W.MAT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Eastern Matrilineal test group was made up of: Nsenga 17; Chewa 16; Nyasa Tonga 7; Nyanja 4; Yao 2. Total 46.

Page 47. TABLE II

S. Pat. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Ngoni Ndebele Chewa Nsenga Tumbuka Bemba Bisa Lenje Mambwe Tonga Kaonde Lozi Soli Nyamwanga Mambwe Aushi Bemba E.Mat. N. Pat. N. Mat. C. Mat. Bilat. W. Mat

Ila Lunda Luvale Luchazi Chokwe

Southern Patrilineal test group was made up of 28 Ngoni. TABLE III. The Central Matrilineal People
Central Bilat. S. Pat. N. Mat. E. Mat. N. Pat. 1 Tonga 2 Lenje 3 Ila 4 Soli 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Aushi Luvale Luchazi Chokwe Chewa Nyamwanga Bisa Tumbuka Mambwe Lunda Lozi Ndebele Ngoni Nsenga Bemba Kaonde W. Mat.

Central Matrilineal group was made up of: N. Rhodesia Tonga 33; Lenje 11; Ila 7; Sala 3; Soli 2. Total 56.

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TABLE IV. The Northern Patrilineal People

N. Pat. S. Pat. 1 Mambwe 2 Tumbuka 3 4 Ngoni 5 Nyamwanga 6 Ndebele 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 N. Mat. E. Mat. C. Mat. Bilat. W. Mat.

Bemba

Bisa Nsenga Chewa Lenje Aushi Tonga Ila Lozi Kaonde Soli Lunda Luchazi Chokwe Luvale

Northern Patrilineal test group was made up of : Tumbuka 15 ; Mamwe 11 ; Henga 10 ; Nyamwanga 7 ; Fungwe 2 ; Nyakyusa 2 ; Ngonde 1 ; Sukwa 1. Total 49.

TABLE V. The Bilateral People

Bilat. C. Mat. S. Pat. 1 Lozi 2 Ndebele 3 Tonga 4 Lenje 5 Ila 6 7 8 9 Soli 10 11 12 Ngoni 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 W. Mat. N. Mat. N. Pat. E. Mat

Kaonde Bemba Nsenga Mambwe Lunda Luvale Nyamwanga Luchazi Aushi Bisa Tumbuka Chokwe Chewa

Bilateral test group was made up of : Lozi 30 ; Lumbu 1 ; Totela 1. Total 32.

Page 49. TABLE VI. The Kaonde and Lunda

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 W. Mat. C. Mat. Bilat. N. Pat. Kaonde Lenje Lunda Tonga Soli Mambwe Lozi Ila Tumbuka Ngoni Nsenga Ndebele Bisa Nyamwanga Chewa Aushi Luvale Chkwe Luchazi S.Pat. E. Mat. N. Mat.

Bemba

Composition : Kaonde 10 ; Lunda 9 ; Total 19. TABLE VII. The Chokwe, Luvale and Luchazi
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 W. Mat. Bilat. S. Pat. N. Pat. Luchazi Chokwe Luvale Lunda Lozi Ndebele Kaonde Mambwe Tumuka E. Mat. N. Mat. C. Mat.

Chewa Bemba Ngoni Soli Nyamwanga Nsenga Lenje Bisa Ila Tonga Aushi

Composition : Chokwe 2 ; Lovale 7 ; Luchazi 3. Total 12.

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NOTE The UNESCO publication, Social Implications of Industrialization and Urbanization in Africa south of the Sahara was issued just as this paper went to press. It has not been possible to consider its bearing on this study.