HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

X L M THANH, HNH NH
(Dng cho sinh vin h o to i hc t xa) Lu hnh ni b

H NI - 2007

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

X L M THANH, HNH NH
Bin son : TS. NGUYN THANH BNH THS. V NGUYN QUC BO

LI NI U
Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn "X l m thanh v hnh nh" dnh cho khi o to t xa chuyn ngnh in t vin thng. Ti liu ny s gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v x l m thanh v hnh nh. c bit, tc gi ch trng ti vn x l tn hiu ng dng trong mng vin thng: l cc phng php nn tn hiu, lu tr, cc tiu chun nn tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh. Nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ti liu s gip hc vin tip cn nhanh vi cc vn thc tin thng gp trong mng vin thng. V khi lng kin thc trong lnh vc x l m thanh cng nh hnh nh rt ln, v vi qu thi gian qu eo hp dnh cho bin son, ti liu hng dn ny cha thu tm c ton b kin thc cn c v lnh vc x l m thanh v hnh nh. tm hiu v mt s vn c trong cng mn hc i hi hc vin phi nghin cu thm trong s sch tham kho c tc gi cp ti trong phn cui ca ti liu ny. Ni dung cun sch c chia lm hai chng: Chng 1: K thut x l m thanh Chng 2: K thut x l hnh nh.

c th hc tt mn ny, sinh vin cn phi c kin thc c bn v x l tn hiu s. Cc kin thc ny cc bn c th tm hiu trong cun X l tn hiu s dnh cho sinh vin i hc t xa ca Hc vin. y l ln bin son u tin, chc chn ti liu cn nhiu s st, rt mong cc bn c trong qu trnh hc tp v cc thy c ging dy mn hc ny ng gp cc kin xy dng. Trong thi gian gn nht, tc gi s c gng cp nhp, b xung thm ti liu hng dn c hon chnh hn. Mi kin ng gp ngh gi v theo a ch email: binhntptit@yahoo.com

Tp. H Ch Minh 19/05/2007 Nhm bin son

CHNG 1

K THUT X L M THANH

1.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH

1.1.1 Gii thiu s lc v m thanh & h thng x l m thanh 1.1.1.1 c tnh ca m thanh tng t [1]
Mc ch ca li ni l dng truyn t thng tin. C rt nhiu cch m t c im ca vic truyn t thng tin. Da vo l thuyt thng tin, li ni c th c i din bi thut ng l ni dung thng ip, hoc l thng tin. Mt cch khc biu th li ni l tn hiu mang ni dung thng ip, nh l dng sng m thanh.

Hnh 1.1 Dng sng ca tn hiu ghi nhn c t m thanh ca ngi K thut u tin dng trong vic ghi m s dng cc thng s v c, in cng nh trng c th lm nn nhiu cch thc ghi m ng vi cc loi p sut khng kh khc nhau. in p n t mt microphone l tn hiu tng t ca p sut khng kh (hoc i khi l vn tc). D c phn tch bng cch thc no, th cc phng php khi so snh vi nhau phi dng mt t l thi gian. Trong khi cc thit b tng t hin i trng c v x l m thanh tt hn nhng thit b c in, cc tiu chun x l th hu nh khng c g thay i, mc d cng ngh c v x l tt hn. Trong h thng x l m thanh tng t, thng tin c truyn t bng thng s lin tc bin thin v hn. H thng x l m thanh s l tng c nhng tnh nng tng t nh h thng x l m thanh tng t l tng: c hai hot ng mt cch trong sut v to li dng sng ban u khng li. Tuy nhin, trong th gii thc, cc iu kin l tng rt him tn ti, cho nn hai loi h thng x l m thanh hot ng s khc nhau trong thc t. Tn hiu s s truyn trong khong cch ngn hn tn hiu tng t v vi chi ph thp hn. Trong gio trnh ny, tp trung cp n h thng s x l m thanh. Thng tin dng truyn t ca m thoi v bn cht c tnh ri rc [2], v n c th c biu din bi mt chui ghp gm nhiu phn t t mt tp hu hn cc k hiu (symbol). Cc k hiu t mi m thanh c th c phn loi thnh cc m v (phoneme). Mi ngn ng c cc tp m v khc nhau, c c trng bi cc con s c gi tr t 30 n 50. V d nh ting Anh c biu din bi mt tp khong 42 m v. Tn hiu thoi c truyn vi tc nh th no? i vi tn hiu m thoi nguyn thy cha qua hiu chnh th tc truyn c lng c th tnh c bng cch lu gii hn vt l ca vic ni lu lot ca ngi ni to ra m thanh thoi l khong 10 m v trong mt giy. Mi 3

mt m v c biu din bi mt s nh phn, nh vy mt m gm 6 bit c th biu din c tt c cc m v ca ting Anh. Vi tc truyn trung bnh 10 m v/giy, v khng quan tm n vn luyn m gia cc m v k nhau, ta c th c lng c tc truyn trunh bnh ca m thoi khong 60bit/giy. Trong h thng truyn m thoi, tn hiu thoi c truyn lu tr v x l theo nhiu cch thc khc nhau. Tuy nhin i vi mi loi h thng x l m thanh th c hai iu cn quan tm chung l: 1. Vic duy tr ni dung ca thng ip trong tn hiu thoi 2. Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi t c mc tiu tin li cho vic truyn tin hoc lu tr, hoc dng linh ng cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu thoi sao cho khng lm gim nghim trng ni dung ca thng ip thoi. Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi m bo vic cc ni dung thng tin c th c d dng trch ra bi ngi nghe, hoc bi cc thit b phn tch mt cch t ng.

1.1.1.2 Khi nim tn hiu

L i lng vt l bin thin theo thi gian, theo khng gian, theo mt hoc nhiu bin c lp khc, v d nh: m thanh, ting ni: dao ng sng theo thi gian (t) Hnh nh: cng sng theo khng gian (x, y, z) a chn: chn ng a l theo thi gian Biu din ton hc ca tn hiu: hm theo bin c lp V d:

u (t ) = 2t 2 5

f ( x, y ) = x 2 2 xy 6 y 2
Thng thng cc tn hiu t nhin khng biu din c bi mt hm s cp, cho nn trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng hm xp x cho cc tn hiu t nhin. H thng: l thit b vt l, thit b sinh hc, hoc chng trnh thc hin cc php ton trn tn hiu nhm bin i tn hiu, rt trch thng tin, Vic thc hin php ton cn c gi l x l tn hiu.

1.1.1.3 Phn loi tn hiu:

Tn hiu a knh: gm nhiu tn hiu thnh phn ,cng chung m t mt i tng no (thng c biu din di dng vector, v d nh tn hiu in tim (ECG-ElectroCardioGram) , tn hiu in no (EEG ElectroEncephaloGram), tn hiu nh mu RGB. Tn hiu a chiu: bin thin theo nhiu hn mt bin c lp, v d nh tn hiu hnh nh, tn hiu tivi trng en. Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian: l tn hiu c nh ngha ti mi im trong on thi gian [a,b], k hiu x (t ) .

Hnh 1.2 Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian

Tn hiu ri rc thi gian: l tn hiu ch c nh ngha ti nhng thi im ri rc khc nhau, k hiu x(n) .

Hnh 1.3 Tn hiu ri rc theo thi gian

Tn hiu lin tc gi tr: l tn hiu c th nhn tr bt k trong on [Ymin , Ymax ] , v d tn hiu tng t (analog).

Hnh 1.4 Tn hiu lin tc gi tr

Tn hiu ri rc gi tr: tn hiu ch nhn tr trong mt tp tr ri rc nh trc (tn hiu s).

Hnh 1.5 Tn hiu ri rc gi tr Tn hiu analog: l tn hiu lin tc v thi gian, lin tc v gi tr.

Hnh 1.6 Tn hiu analog Tn hiu s: l tn hiu ri rc v thi gian, ri rc v gi tr.

Hnh 1.7 Tn hiu s Tn hiu ngu nhin: gi tr ca tn hiu trong tng lai khng th bit trc c. Cc tn hiu trong t nhin thng thuc nhm ny Tn hiu tt nh: gi tr tn hiu qu kh, hin ti v tng li u c xc nh r, thng thng c cng thc xc nh r rng

1.1.1.4 Phn loi h thng x l

Gm hai loi h thng l h thng tng t v h thng s. Trong h thng x l s: l h thng c th lp trnh c, d m phng, cu hnh, sn xut hng lot vi chnh xc cao, gi thnh h, tn hiu s d lu tr, vn chuyn v sao lu, nhc im l kh thc hin vi cc tn hiu c tn s cao 6

1.1.1.5 H thng s x l m thanh [3]

nhy ca tai ngi rt cao, n c th phn bit c s lng nhiu rt nh cng nh chp nhn tm bin m thanh rt ln. Cc c tnh ca mt tn hiu tai ngi nghe c c th c o c bng cc cng c ph hp. Thng thng, tai ngi nhy nht tm tn s 2kHz v 5kHz, mc d cng c ngi c th nhn dng c tn hiu trn 20kHz. Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng logarith. Tn hiu m thanh c truyn qua h thng s l chui cc bit. Bi v bit c tnh chtt ri rc, d dng xc nh s lng bng cch m s lng trong mt giy, d dng quyt nh tc truyn bit cn thit truyn tn hiu m khng lm mt thng tin.

Hnh 1.8 nhn c tm mc tn hiu khc nhau mt cch phn bit, tn hiu nhnh ca tn hiu nhiu phi nh hn hoc sai bit gia cc mc . T s tn hiu trn nhiu phi ti thiu l 8:1 hoc l 18dB, truyn bi 3 bit. 16 mc th t s tn hiu trn nhiu phi l 24dB, truyn bi 4 bit.

1.1.1.6 M hnh ha tn hiu m thanh [4]

C rt nhiu k thut x l tn hiu c m hnh ha v p dng cc gii thut trong vic khi phc m thanh. Cht lng ca m thoi ph thuc rt ln vo m hnh gi nh ph hp vi d liu. i vi tn hiu m thanh, bao gm m thoi, nhc v nhiu khng mong mun, m hnh phi tng qut v khng sai lnh so vi gi nh. Mt iu cn lu l hu ht cc tn hiu m thoi l cc tn hiu ng trong thc t, mc d m hnh thc tin th thng gi nh khi phn tch tn hiu l tn hiu c tnh cht tnh trong mt khong thi gian ang xt. M hnh ph hp vi hu ht rt nhiu lnh vc trong vic x l chui thi gian, bao gm vic phc hi m thanh l m hnh Autoregressive (vit tt AR), c dng lm m hnh chun cho vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh.

Tn hiu hin ti c biu din bi tng gi tr ca P tn hiu trc v tn hiu nhiu trng, P l bc ca m hnh AR:

s[u ] = s[n i ]ai + e[n]

i =1

(1.1)

M hnh AR i din cho cc qu trnh tuyn tnh tnh, chp nhn tn hiu tng t nhiu v tn hiu tng t iu ha. Mt m hnh khc ph hp hn i vi nhiu tnh hung phn tch l m hnh auto regressive moving-average (ARMA) cho php cc im cc cng nh im 0. Tuy nhin m hnh AR c tnh linh ng hn trong phn tch hn m hnh ARMA, v d mt tn hiu nhc phc tp cn m hnh c bc P > 100 biu din dng sng ca tn hiu, trong khi cc tn hiu n gin hn ch cn biu din bng bc 30. Trong nhiu ng dng, vic la chn bc ca m hnh ph hp cho bi ton sao cho m bo vic biu din tn hiu l tha vic khng lm mt i thng tin ca tn hiu l vic hi phc tp. C rt nhiu phng php dng c lng bc ca m hnh AR nh phng php maximum likelihood/least-squares [Makhoul, 1975], v phng php robust to noise [Huber, 1981, Spath, 1991], v.v Tuy nhin, i vi vic x l cc tn hiu m nhc phc tp th thng thng s dng m hnh Sin (Sinusoidal) rt c hiu qu trong cc ng dng m thoi. M hnh Sin rt ph hp trong cc phng php dng gim nhiu. Tn hiu c cho bi cng thc sau

nT s[n] ai [n]sin i (t )dt + i i =1 0

Pn

(1.2)

y l m hnh tng qut i vi cc iu ch bin v iu ch tn s, tuy nhin li khng ph hp i vi cc tn hiu tng t nhiu, mc d vic biu din tn hiu nhiu c th c biu din bi s lng hm sin rt ln.

1.1.1.7 Kin trc h thng s x l m thanh

i vi my tnh s x l m thanh, ngi ta thng dng phng php iu ch xung (Pulse Code Modulation , vit tt PCM). Dng sng m thanh c chuyn sang dy s PCM nh sau, xt tn hiu hnh sin lm v d: Tn hiu gc l tn hiu nh Hnh 1.9
Air Displacement

Time

Hnh 1.9 Dng sng m thanh nguyn thy K n, s dng mt microphone thu tn hiu m thanh (trong khng kh) v chuyn i thnh tn hiu in, tm in p ng ra ca microphone 1 volt nh Hnh 1.10.

+1.0 Voltage +0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 Time

Hnh 1.10 Dng sng ca tn hiu in Tn hiu in p dng tng t sau c chuyn thnh dng s ha bng thit b chuyn i tng t-s (analog-to-digital converter). Khi s dng b chuyn i 16bit tng t-s, tm s nguyn ng ra c gi tr 32,768 n +32,767, c m t nh hnh 1.11.
+32,767 Converter Output +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 Time

Hnh 1.11 Ng ra ca b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s V s lng im d liu l v hn nn khng th ly tt c cc im thuc trc thi gian, vic ly mu s c thc hin trong mt khong thi gian u n. S lng mu trong mt giy c gi l tn s ly mu (sampling rate). Hnh 1.12 m t 43 mu c ly
+32,767 +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43

Hnh 1.12 Thc hin vic ly mu Kt qu ca vic ly mu l mt chui gm 43 ch s biu din cho cc v tr ca dng sng ng thi gian gian l mt chu k (hnh 1.13).
+32,767 Recorded Value +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43

Hnh 1.13 Kt qu ca vic ly mu cc gi tr 9

Converter Output

My tnh sau s xy dng li dng sng ca tn hiu bng vic kt ni cc im d liu li vi nhau. Dng sng kt qu c m t Hnh 1.14.
+32,767 Recorded Value +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43

Hnh 1.14 Dng sng c ti to li Lu rng c mt vi im khc bit gia dng sng nguyn thy v dng sng ti to (Hnh 1.9 v Hnh 1.14), l do: A. Cc gi tr c to ra ti b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s l cc s nguyn v c lm trn gi tr. B. Hnh dng ca tn hiu ti to ph thuc vo s lng mu c ghi nhn. Tng qut, mt dy s hu hn (i din cho tn hiu s) ch c th biu din cho mt dng sng tn hiu tng t vi chnh xc hu hn.

1.1.1.8 Tn s ly mu
Khi chuyn i mt m thanh sang dng s, iu cn lu l tn s ly mu ca h thng x l phi m bo tnh trung thc v chnh xc khi cn phc hi li dng sng tn hiu ban u. Theo nh ly mu Nyquist v Shannon, tn s ly mu quyt nh tn s cao nht ca tn hiu phc hi. ti to li dng sng c tn s l F , cn phi ly 2 F mu trong mt giy. Tn s ny cn c gi l tn s Nyquist. Tuy nhin, nh l Nyquist khng phi l ti u cho mi trng hp. Nu mt dng sng hnh Sin c tn s l 500Hz, th tn s ly mu 1000Hz. Nu nh tn s ly mu cao hn tn s Nyquist s gy ra tnh trng hiu ng l nh hng n bin ca tn hiu v tn hiu b cng nhiu, tuy nhin lc th cc thnh phn hi tn s thp li c tn hiu chnh xc hn khi c phc hi.

1.1.2

Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh

Php bin i z ca mt chui c nh ngha bi cp biu thc

1.1.2.1 Php bin i z [5]

X (z ) =
x ( n) =

n =

x ( n) z

(1.3a) (1.3b)

1 n 1 X ( z ) z dz 2j C

Bin i z ca x (n) c nh ngha bi biu thc (1.6a). X (z ) cn c gi l dy cng sut v hn theo bin z khc
1

vi cc gi tr ca x(n) chnh l cc h s ca dy cng sut.

Min hi t ROC l { z X (z ) < }, l nhng gi tr ca z sao cho chui hi t, hay ni cch

10

n =

x ( n)

z n

<

(1.4)

Thng thng, min hi t ca z c dng:

R1 < z < R2
V d: Cho x ( n) = ( n n0 ) . Theo cng thc (1.3a), ta c X ( z ) = z V d: Cho x ( n) = u ( n) u ( n N ) . Theo cng thc (1.3a), ta c
n0

(1.5)

X ( z ) = (1).z n =
n =0

N 1

1 zN 1 z 1
n

V d: Cho x(n) = a .u (n) . Suy ra X ( z ) = a z

n
n n =0

=
n

1 ,a < z 1 az 1 1 , z <b 1 bz 1
Bin i z

V d: Cho x( n) = b u ( n 1) . Then X ( z ) =
n

n =

z n =

Bng 2.1 Chui tn hiu v bin i z tng ng Chui tn hiu 1. Tuyn tnh 2. Dch 3. Hm m 4. Hm tuyn tnh

ax1 (n) + bx2 (n) x(n + n0 ) a n x(n )

nx(n)

aX 1 ( z ) + bX 2 ( z ) z n X ( z)
0

X (a 1 z )
z

dX ( z ) dz

5. o thi gian 6. Tng quan 7. Nhn chui

x(-n) x(n)*h(n) x(n)w(n)

X ( z 1 )
X(z)H(z)

1 1 X ( )W ( z / ) d 2j C

1.1.2.2 Php bin i Fourier

Bin i Fourier ca tn hiu ri rc thi gian c cho bi biu thc

X (e jw ) = x ( n) =

n =

x(n)e
jw

jwn

(1.6a) (1.6b)
iw

1 2

X (e

)e jwn dw

Bin i Fourier l trng hp c bit ca php bin i z bng cch thay th z = e . Nh m t trong Hnh 1.4, trong mt phng z, tn s w l gc quay. iu kin tn ti bin i Fourier l z = 1 , nh vy

11

 x(n) <

(1.7)

Hnh 1.15 Vng trn n v thuc mt phng z Mt c tnh quan trng ca bin i Fourier ca mt chui l X (e ) l hm iu ha w, vi chu k l 2 . Bng cch thay z = e
iw iw

bng 2.1, c c c bng bin i Fourier tng ng.

1.1.2.3 Php bin i Fourier ri rc

Trong trng hp tn hiu tng t, tun hon vi chu k N

~ ( n) = ~ ( n + N ) x x

< n<

(1.8)

x Vi ~ ( n) c th c dng l tng ri rc cc tn hiu sin thay v tch phn nh cng thc

(1.9b). Php bin i Fourier cho chui tun hon nh sau
2 N 1 kn j ~ X ( k ) = ~ ( n )e N x
n=0

(1.9a)

~(k ) = 1 x N

2 j kn ~ X ( k )e N
N 1 k =0

(1.9b)

Chui x(n) hu hn, c gi tr bng 0 vi 0 n N 1 , c php bin i z l.

X ( z ) = x ( n) z n
n =0

N 1

(1.10)
N

j 2k Nu chia X (z ) thnh N im trn vng trn n v, z k = e

, k = 0,1,..., N 1 , ta

c:

X (e

2 k N

) = x ( n )e
n =0

N 1

2 kn N

, k = 0,1,..., N 1

(1.11)

x Chui tun hon v hn ~ ( n) c cng thc t x(n) nh sau ~ ( n) = x

r =

x(n + rN )

(1.12)

12

Ta nhn thy rng cc mu X (e

2 k N

) t phng trnh (1.9a) v (1.11) chnh l cc h s

x Fourier ca chui tun hon ~ ( n) trong phng trnh (1.12). Nh vy, mt chui c chiu di N
c th c biu diwnx bi php bin i Fourier ri rc (DFT) nh sau:

X ( k ) = x ( n )e
n =0

N 1

2 kn N

, k = 0,1,..., N 1 , n = 0,1,..., N 1

(1.13a)

1 x ( n) = N

X ( k )e
k =0

N 1

2 kn N

(1.13b)

iu khc bit duy nht gia biu thc (1.12) v (1.9) l k hiu (loi b k hiu ~ khi ni n tn hiu tun hon) v gii hn hu hn 0 k N 1 v 0 n N 1 . Lu mt iu l ch dng php bin i DFT cho tn hiu tun hon c tnh cht l module ca N .

x ( n) =

k =

x(n + rN ) = x( n

module N )

(1.14)

= x((n)) N
Bng 2.2 Chui v bin i DFT Chui tn hiu 1. Tuyn tnh 2. Dch 3. o thi gian 4. Kt hp
N 1

Bin i N im DFT

ax1 (n) + bx2 (n) x((n + n0 )) N x((n)) N

aX 1 (k ) + bX 2 (k ) e
j

2 kn0 N

X (k )

X * (k )
X(k)H(k)
N

x(m)h((n m))
m =0

5. Nhn chui

x(n)w(n)

1 N 1 X (r )W ((k r )) N N r =0

1.2 M HNH X L M THANH

1.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi 1.2.1.1 Ly mu tn hiu min thi gian v ti to tn hiu lin tc [6]
x l mt tn hiu lin tc bng cc phng tin x l tn hiu s, ta phi i tn hiu lin tc ra dng mt chui s bng cc ly mu tn hiu lin tc mt cch tun hon c chu k l T giy. Gi x(n) l tn hiu ri rc hnh thnh do qu trnh ly mu, tn hiu lin tc xa (t ) , ta c

x(n) = xa ( nT ) < n <

(1.15)

Cc mu x (n) phi c lng ha thnh mt tp cc mc bin ri rc ri mi c a vo b x l s. Hnh 1.16 minh ha mt cu hnh tiu biu cho h thng x l tn hiu tng

13

t bng phng php s. Trong cc phn sau, ta b qua sai s lng ha pht sinh trong qu trnh bin i A/D Tn hiu lin tc Mch lc

xa (t )

x (n) Mch x l tn y (n)

A/D hiu s D/A

ya (t ) Mch
lc

x'a (t )

Hnh 1.16 Cu hnh h thng x l tn hiu tng t bng phng php s xc nh quan h gia ph ca tn hiu lin tc v ph ca tn hiu ri rc to ra t qu trnh ly mu tn hiu, lin tc , ta ch n quan h gia bin c lp t v n ca tn hiu

xa (t ) v x(n)
t = nT = n Fs
(1.16)

nh l ly mu: mt tn hiu lin tc c bng tn hu hn, c tn s cao nht l B Hertz c th khi phc t cc mu ca n vi iu kin tn s ly mu Fs 2 B mu / giy

1.2.1.2 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu lin tc

Ta bit tn hiu lin tc c nng lng hu hn th c ph lin tc. Trong phn ny, ta s xt qu trnh ly mu ca cc tn hiu loi mt cch tun hon v s ti to n hiu t cc mu ca ph ca chng Xt mt tn hiu lin tc xa (t ) vi mt ph lin tc X a ( F ) . Gi s ta ly mu X a ( F ) ti cc thi im cch nhau F Hertz. Ta mun ti to X a ( F ) hoc xa (t ) t cc mu X a ( F ) Nu tn hiu tng t xa (t ) c gii hn thi gian l giy v Ts c chn

Ts > 2 th aliasing khng xy ra v ph X a ( F ) c th c khi phc hon ton t cc mu.

1.2.1.3 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu ri rc
Xt mt tn hiu ri rc khng tun hon x( n) c php bin i Fourier:

X ( ) =

n =

x ( n )e

jn

(1.17)

Gi s ta ly mu X ( ) tun hon ti cc im cch nhau rad. V X ( ) tun hon vi chu k 2 , ch c cc mu trong phm vi tn s c bn l cn thit. thun tin, ta ly N mu cch u nhau trong khong 0 2 theo khong cch = 2 / N Xt = 2k / N , ta c X Xt tn hiu x p ( n) =
2 k = x(n)e j 2kn / N k = 0,1,..., N 1 (1.18) N n=

l =

x(n lN ) nhn c bng cch lp li tun hon

2

x(n) ti mi

N mu, tn hiu ny tun hon vi chu k N , do c th c trin khai theo khai trin
Fourier

x p ( n) =
14

1 N

X( N
k =0

N 1

k )e j 2kn / N , n = 0,1,..., N 1

(1.19)

T cng thc x p ( n) trn, ta nhn thy c th khi phc tn hiu x p ( n) t cc mu ca ph X ( ) . Nh vy, ta phi tm ra mi tng quan gia x p ( n) v x( n) c th thc hin khi phc x( n) t X ( ) V x p (n) l s m rng tun hon ca x ( n) , nn x ( n) c th c khi phc t x p ( n) nu khng c aliasing ci thi gian, ngha l nu x( n) c thi gian gii hn nh hn hoc bng chu k N ca x p (n) .

1.2.1.4 Cc chun m ha m thoi trong cc h thng x l thoi [7]

Chun m ha m thoi thng thng c nghin cu v pht trin bi mt nhm cc chuyn gia ginh ht thi gian v tm huyt thc hin cc cng vic kim nghim, m phng sao cho m bo mt tp cc yu cu a ra p ng c. Ch c cc t chc vi ngun ti nguyn khng l mi c th thc hin c cc cng vic kh khn ny, thng thng, thi gian ti thiu cn thit hon thnh mt chun trong trng hp gp nhiu thun li trong qu trnh l khong bn nm ri. iu ny khng c ngha l mt chun c a ra th khng c li hoc khng cn phi ci tin. Do , cc chun mi lun lun xut hin sao cho tt hn chun c cng nh ph hp vi cc ng dng trong tng lai. Hi ng chun l cc t chc c trch nhim trong vic gim st vic pht trin cc chun cho mt ng dng c th no . Sau y l mt s hi ng chun ni ting c nhiu nh cung cp sn phm tun theo Lin minh vin thng quc t - International Telecommunications Union (ITU): Cc chun vin thng ca ITU (chun ITU-T) c uy tn trong vic nh ra cc chun m ha m thoi cho h thng mng in thoi, bao gm cc mng v tuyn ln hu tuyn. Hip hi cng nghip vin thng - Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): c trch nhim ban hnh cc chun m ha thoi cho cc ng dng c th, l mt thnh vin ca Vin tiu chun quc gia Hoa K - National Standards Institute (ANSI). TIA thnh cng trong vic pht trin cc chun s dng trong cc h thng tng i t bo s Bc M, bao gm cc h thng s dng chun a kt phn thi gian - Time division multiple access (TDMA) v a truy nhp phn chia theo m - Code division multiple access (CDMA). Vin tiu chun vin thng chu u - European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI): ETSI c cc hi vin t cc nc cng nh cc cng ty Chu u, l t chc a ra cc chun sn xut thit b ti Chu u. ETSI c thnh lp bi nhm c nh hng nht trong lnh vc m ha m thoi l nhm di ng c bit - Groupe Speciale Mobile (GSM), a ra rt nhiu chun hu dng v c trin khai rt nhiu trn th gii B quc phng Hoa K - United States Department of Defense (DoD). DoD c lin quan n vic sng lp cc chun m ha thoi, c bit n vi cc chun lin bang Hoa K (U.S. Federal) dng nhiu cho cc ng dng qun s Trung tm pht trin v nghin cu cc h thng v tuyn ca Nht Bn - Research and Development Center for Radio Systems of Japan (RCR). Cc chun t bo s c pht hnh bi RCR.

15

Bng 2.3 Cc chun m ha m thoi chnh Nm hon thnh 1972a 1984b 1987b 1990c 1990b 1990c 1990c 1991b 1992b 1993b 1995a 1995b 1996 1996
a a

Tn chun

Tc bit truyn (kbps) 64 2.4 13 16, 24, 32, 40 7.95 5.6 6.7 4.8 16 8.5, 4, 2, 0.8 5.3, 6.3 8 12.2 7.4 2.4 12.2, 10.2, 7.95, 7.40, 6.70, 5.90, 5.15, 4.75

Cc ng dng

ITU-T G.711 PCM FS 1015 LPC ETSI GSM 6.10 RPELTP ITU-T G.726 ADPCM TIA IS54 VSELP ETSI GSM 6.20 VSELP RCR STD-27B VSELP FS1016 CELP ITU-T G.728 LD-CELP TIA IS96 VBR-CELP ITU-T G.723.1 MLQ/ACELP MP-

S dng cng cng Lin lc bo mt V tuyn di ng s S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s TDMA Bc M H thng t bo GSM H thng t bo Nht Lin lc bo mt S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s CDMA Bc M Lin lc a phng tin, in thoi truyn hnh S dng cng cng S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s TDMA Bc M Lin lc bo mt S dng cng cng vin thng

ITU-T G.729 CS-ACELP ETSI GSM EFR ACELP TIA IS641 ACELP FS MELP ETSI AMR-ACELP

1997b 1999
a

l c m t mt phn l c gii thch y c l c m t ngn gn m khng c m t k thut chi tit

b

1.2.1.5 Kin trc ca h thng m ha m thoi [8]

Hnh 1.17 m t s khi ca h thng m ha m thoi. Tn hiu m thoi tng t lin tc c t ngun cho trc s c s ha bi b mt b lc chun, b ly mu (b chuyn i thi gian ri rc), v b chuyn tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s. Tn hiu ng ra l tn hiu m thoi thi gian ri rc vi cc gi tr ly mu cng ri rc ha. Tn hiu ny c xem l tn hiu m thoi s.

16

Hnh 1.17 S khi ca h thng x l tn hiu thoi Thng thng, hu ht cc h thng m ha m thoi c thit k h tr cc ng dng vin thng, vi tn s gii hn gia 300 v 3400Hz. Theo l thuyt Nyquist, tn s ly mu ti thiu phi ln hn hai ln bng thng ca tn hiu lin tc thi gian. Gi tr 8kHz thng c la chn l tn s ly mu chun cho tn hiu thoi. B m ha knh thc hin vic m ha hiu chnh li ca chui bit truyn trc khi tn hiu c truyn trn knh truyn, ni m tn hiu s b thay i do nhiu cng nh giao thoa tn hiu. B gii m thc hin vic hiu chnh li c c tn hiu m ha, sau tn hiu c a vo b gii m c c tn hiu m thoi s c cng tc vi tn hiu ban u. Lc ny, tn hiu s s c chuyn sang dng tng t thi gian lin tc. B phn thc hin vic x l tn hiu thoi ch yu ca m hnh h thng x l thoi l b m ha v gii m. Thng thng, khi x l cc bi ton v truyn thoi, m hnh c n gin ha nh Hnh 1.18 V d tn hiu thoi ng vo l tn hiu ri rc thi gian c tc bit l 128kbps c a vo b m ha thc hin m ha chui bit hoc thc hin nn d liu thoi. Tc ca chui bit thng thng s c tc thp hn tc ca tn hiu ng vo b m ha. B gii m nhn chui bit m ha ny v to ra tn hiu thoi c dng l ri rc thi gian v c tc bng vi tc ca tn hiu ban u truyn vo h thng.

Hnh 1.18 S khi n gin ha ca b m ha m thoi

17

1.2.1.6 Kin trc tng qut ca b m ha gii m m thoi [9]

Hnh 1.19 M t s khi tng qut ca b m ha v gii m m thoi. i vi b m ha, tn hiu m thoi u vo c x l v phn tch nhm thu c cc thng s i din cho mt khung truyn. Cc thng s ngy c m ha v lng t vi m ch s nh phn v c gi i nh l mt chui bit c nn. Cc ch s ny c ng gi v biu din thnh chui bit, chng c sp xp th t truyn da vo cc thng s quyt nh trc v c truyn n b gii m.

Hnh 1.20 M hnh chung ca b m ha m thoi. Hnh trn: b m ha, hnh di: b gii m. B gii m thc hin vic phn tch chui bit nhn c, cc ch s nh phn c phc hi sau qu trnh phn tch v dng kt hp vi cc thng s tng ng ca b gii m c

18

c cc thng s c lng t. Cc thng s gii m ny s kt hp vi nhau v c x l to li tn hiu m thoi tng hp.

1.2.1.7 Cc yu cu cn c ca mt b m ha m thoi [10]

Mc tiu chnh ca ca m ha thoi l ti a ha cht lng nghe ti mt tc bit no , hoc ti thiu ha tc bit ng vi mt cht lng c th. Tc bit tng ng vi m thoi no s c truyn hoc lu tr ph thuc vo chi ph ca vic truyn hay lu tr, chi ph ca m ha tn hiu thoi s, v cc yu cu v cht lng ca m thoi . Trong hu ht cc b m ha m thoi, tn hiu c xy dng li s khc vi tn hiu nguyn thy. Tc bit truyn b gim bi vic biu din tn hiu m thoi (hoc cc thng s trong m hnh to m thoi) vi chnh xc b gim, v bi qu trnh loi b cc thng tin d tha ca tn hiu. Cc yu cu l tng ca mt b m ha thoi bao gm: Tc bit thp: i vi chui bit m ha c tc bit t l thun vi bng thng cn cho truyn d liu. iu ny dn n nu tc bit thp s lm tng hiu sut ca h thng. Yu cu ny li xung t vi cc cc c tnh tt khc ca h thng, nh l cht lng ca m thoi. Trong thc t, vic nh i gia cc la chn ph thuc vo p dng vo ng dng g. Cht lng thoi cao: tn hiu m thoi gii m phi c cht lng c th chp nhn c i vi ng dng cn t. C rt nhiu kha cnh v mt cht lng bao gm tnh d hiu, t nhin, d nghe v cng nh c th nhn dng ngi ni. Nhn dng ting ni / ngn ng khc nhau: k thut nhn dng ting ni c th phn bit c ging ni ca ngi ln nam gii, ngi ln n gii v tr con cng nh nhn dng c ngn ng ni ca ngi ni. Cng mnh trong knh truyn nhiu: y l yu t quan trng i vi cc h thng truyn thng s vi cc nhiu nh hng mnh n cht lng ca tnh hiu thoi. Hiu sut cao i vi cc tn hiu phi thoi (v d nh tn hiu tone in thoi): trong h thng truyn dn kinh in, cc tn hiu khc c th tn ti song song vi tn hiu m thoi. Cc tn hiu tone nh l a tn tone i Dual tone multifrequency(DTMF) ca tn hiu m bn phm v nhc thng thng b chn vo trong ng truyn tn hiu. Ngay c nhng b m ha thoi tc thp cng c th khng th to li tn hiu mt cch hon chnh. Kch thc b nh thp v phc tp tnh ton thp: nhm mc ch s dng c b m ha m thoi trong thc t, chi ph thc hin lin quan n vic trin khai h thng phi thp, bao gm c vic b nh cn thit h tr khi h thng hot ng cng nh cc yu cu tnh ton. Cc nh nghin cu m ha m thoi n lc trong vic tm kim hin thc bi ton trin khai trong thc tin sao cho c hiu qu nht. tr m ha thp: trong qu trnh x l m ha v gii m thoi, tr tn hiu lun lun tn ti, chnh l thi gian trt gia m thoi ng vo ca b m ha vi tn hiu ng ra ca b gii m. Vic tr qu mc s sinh ra nhiu vn trong vic thc hin trao i ting ni hai chiu trong thi gian thc.

1.2.2

Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh [11]

1.2.2.1 M hnh quang ph 1.2.2.1.1 M hnh sin

19

Tn hiu m thanh c th c trin khai t tp hp cc m hnh sin nu nh c c dng

y (t ) = Ai (t )e j ( t )
i

(1.20)

i =1

Vi i (t ) =

( )d ,
i

Ai (t ) v i (t ) l thnh phn bin v tn s tng ng ca

thnh phn sin th i . Trong thc t, tn hiu c xem xt l tn hiu ri rc thi gian thc, nh vy ta c th vit li

y (n) = Ai (n) cos(i (n ))

i =1

(1.21)

Vi i ( n) = i ( ) d + 0,i .
0

nT

(1.22)

V c bn, nu nh I c gi tr v cng ln, th bt c tn hiu m thanh no cng c th c trin khai t m hnh sin, php tnh gn ng c p dng tnh ton trong m hnh ny. Thc t, tnh hiu nhiu cng c trin khai thnh v s cc tn hiu sin, v ta tch vic x l ring tn hiu ny thnh phn x l Stochastic ( ) c k hiu l e(n) .

y (n) = Ai (n) cos(i (n )) + e(n)

i =0

(1.23)

Thnh phn c th c tnh bng php bin i Short-Time Fourier s dng lu hnh 1. Phng php ny c ng dng trong cc phn mm sms, vit tt ca tng hp m hnh ph - spectral modeling synthesis.

Hnh 1.21 Phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin ca phn stochastic

20

Pht hin nh v ghp (Peak detection and continuation): thc hin vic phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin t tn hiu thng d, ta phi tm c v ghi ch li cc nh tn s ni tri, tc l cc thnh phn hnh sin nm vai tr chnh trong cng thc phn tch c. Mt chin thut c s dng thc hin iu ny l v bng ch dn trong cc khung STFT. thc hin vic phn chia phn no l tn hiu, phn no l nhiu, cc tn s v pha phi c xc nh mt cch chnh xc. Ngoi ra, qu trnh tng hp li hai tn hiu c n gin, bin ca cc thnh phn nn c ni suy gia cc khung tn hiu, v php ni suy tuyn tnh thng c s dng. Cc tn s cng nh pha ca tn hiu cng c th c ni suy, tuy nhin cn phi lu l php ni suy tn s c nh hng cht ch n php ni suy pha. Tng hp li cc thnh phn sin: Trong giai on tng hp li, cc thnh phn sin c th c to bi bt k phng php no nh my to dao ng s, my to dao ng bng sng hoc tng hp ly mu bng sng, hoc k thut da trn c s FFT. K thut FFT c s dng nhiu do tnh tin li khi tn hiu c nhiu thnh phn hnh sin. Trch tn hiu thng d (Extraction of the residual): Vic trch ph ca tn hiu nhiu thng d c th c thc hin min tn (c m t trong hnh 1) hoc trc tip t min thi gian. S hiu chnh ph thng d (Residual spectral fitting): thnh phn stochastic c m hnh ha l tn hiu nhiu bng rng, c lc bi khi c trng tuyn tnh. Ph cng ca tn hiu thng d c th c xp x bng gi tr trung bnh ca hm piecewise-linear. Vic tng hp trong min thi gian c th c thc hin bng php o FFT, sau khi n nh c mt tp cng mong mun v mt tp pha ngu nhin. Hiu chnh m thanh: m hnh sin l mt m hnh hu dng v n cho php p dng vic truyn cc m thanh nhc ly t vic ghi bng thc t. Hnh 1.22 m t mt cc bc thc hn cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu m nhc

Hnh 1.22 C cu t chc cho vic biu din vic truyn tn hiu m nhc

1.2.2.1.2 Tn hiu sin + nhiu + nt m

Trong m hnh sin + nhiu, iu c bn l cc tn hiu m thanh l tng hp ca nhiu tn hiu sin tn s thp v cc loi nhiu bng rng hu nh dng tnh. Khi , mt thnh phn ca m thanh khng c xem xt n, l nt m. Vic hiu chnh m thanh c th c thc

21

hin d dng bng cch tch ring thnh phn nt m xt ring. Thc t, hu ht cc dng c m nhc m rng trng ca mt nt nhc khng lm nh hng n cht lng x l. Vi l do ny, mt m hnh mi l sin + nhiu + nt m c pht ha dng trong vic phn tch m thanh. tng chnh ca vic trch m m trong thc t t vic quan st rng, cc tn hiu hnh sin trong min thi gian c nh x qua min tn thnh cc nh c v tr xc nh, trong khi cc xung ngn i ngu trong min thi gian khi c nh x qua min tn li c dng hnh sin. Nh vy, m hnh sin c th c ng dng trong min tn s biu din cc tn hiu hnh sin. S ca vic phn tch SNT c m t trong Hnh 1.23.

Hnh 1.23 Phn tch tn hiu m thanh theo m hnh sin + nhiu + nt m Khi DCT trong Hnh 1.23 m t hot ng ca php ri rc cosin. Php bin i, c nh ngha nh sau:
N 1 (2n + 1)k C (k ) = x(n) cos 2N n =0

(1.24)

Php bin i DCT thc hin vic mt xung c bin i thnh dng cosin v ngc li.

1.2.2.1.3 M hnh LPC

M ha d on tuyn tnh c th c s dng m hnh ph tnh. Tng hp LPC c m t trong lu trong Hnh 1.24. V bn cht, m hnh chnh l gii thut tr tng hp thc hin mt tnh hiu c ph c c lc bi mt b lc cc. Tn hiu kch thch c th s dng chnh tn hiu thng d e c c qua qu trnh phn tch, hoc c th d dng cc thng tin ca tn hiu thoi/phi thoi.

Hnh 1.24 Tng hp LPC

1.2.2.2 M hnh min thi gian

Vic m t m thanh trong min tn rt c hiu qu, tuy nhin trong mt vi ng dng, tin vic nghin cu vic tng hp m thanh, vic phn tch trong min thi gian li c u th hn. 22

1.2.2.2.1 My to dao ng s
Ta nhn thy mt m thanh phc tp uc tng hp t nhiu thnh phn hnh sin bng php tng hp FTT-1. Nu nh cc thnh phn hnh sin khng qu nhiu, vic tng hp tng thnh phn c thc hin bng cch ly gi tr trung bnh ca my to dao ng s.

e j ( n+1) = e j e j n
0 0 0

(1.25)

Vi e nh sau:

j0 n

= xR (n) + jxI (n) dng s phc, mi bc nhy thi gian c nh ngha

xR (n + 1) = cos 0 xR ( n) sin 0 xI (n) xI (n + 1) = sin 0 xR ( n) + cos 0 xI (n)
j 0 0

(1.26) (1.27) v thc hin vic (1.28)

Thng s bin v pha ban u c th tnh da theo pha ban u e lch pha vo s m. Tn hiu xR ( n + 1) c th c tnh theo cng thc sau

xR (n + 1) = 2 cos 0 xR (n) xR (n 1)
p ng xung ca b lc nh sau

H R ( z) =

1 1 2 cos 0 z + z
1 2

(1 e

1
j0 z 1

)(1 e )
j0 z 1

(1.29)

Gi tr cc ca b lc biu thc 10 nm trn chu vi ng trn n v. Gi xR1 , xR 2 l hai bin trng thi ca hai mu troc ca tn hiu ng ra xR , pha ban u 0 c th c tnh theo h phng trnh sau

xR1 = sin (0 0 ) xR 2 = sin (0 20 )

(1.30) (1.31)

My to dao ng s c bit hu ch trong vic biu din tng hp tn hiu i vi cc b vi x l a mc ch, khi cc php ton trn du chm ng c trin khai. Tuy nhin, phng php ny dng cho vic to tn hiu sin c hai bt li: Vic cp nht thng s yu cu tnh ton trn hm cosin. y l mt iu kh i vi iu ch tc m thanh, do phi thc hin php tnh cosin ng vi tng mu trong min thi gian Thay i tn s ca my dao ng s s lm thay i bin tn hiu sin. Khi b phn logic iu khin bin cn c s dng iu chnh hn ch ny.

1.2.2.2.2 My to dao ng bng sng

Trong phng php kinh in v linh ng nht v tng hp cc dng sng c chu k (bao gm tn hiu dng sin) l vic c lp i lp li mt bng cha ni dung ca mt dng sng c lu tr trc. Nu dng sng c tng hp dng sin, i xng th vic lu tr cho php ch cn lu tr chu k, v vic tnh ton s hc s c ni suy cho c chu k. t buf [

] l b m c ni dung cha l chu k ca dng sng, hoc bng dng sng.

My to dao ng dng sng hot ng lp li theo chu k qut bng dng sng l bi s ca gia s I v c ni dung ca bng dng sng ti v tr .

23

Gi B l chiu di ca b m, f 0 l tn s m ta mun to tn s ly mu Fs , khi gi tr ca gia s I l:

I=
S thay i tn s ly mu

Bf 0 Fs

(1.32)

Bi ton thit k my to dao ng bng sng c th chuyn thnh bi ton thay i tn s ly mu, v d nh bin i tn hiu c ly mu ti tn s ly mu Fs ,1 thnh tn hiu c ly mu ti tn s Fs , 2 . Nu

Fs , 2 Fs ,1

L , vi L v M l cc s nguyn ti gin, vic thc hin thay M

i tn s ly mu c th c nh hin bng cc bc: 1. Tng tn s ly mu bng h s L 2. S dng b lc thng thp 3. Gim tn s ly mu bng h s M

Hnh 1.25 S khi phn r ca qu trnh thay i tn s ly mu

Hnh 1.26 V d v thay i tn s ly mu vi L / M = 3 / 2

1.2.2.2.3 Tng hp ly mu bng sng

Tng hp ly mu bng sng l phn m rng ca my dao ng bng sng i vi 24

Dng sng phn tch khng phi dng sin Bng dng sng c lu tr vi nhiu chu k Cc tn hiu iu khin rt quan trng trong vic nhn c m thanh t nhin

1.2.2.2.4 Tng hp ht (vi Giovanni De Poli)

Cc bng sng ngn c th c c vi nhiu tc khc nhau, v kt qu l m iu c th chng cho vo nhau trong min thi gian. Trong phng php min thi gian, vic tng hp m thanh ny c gi l tng hp ht. Tng hp ht bt u t tng vic phn tch m thanh trong min thi gian c thay th bng biu din chng thnh mt chui cc thnh phn ngn c gi l ht. Cc thng s ca k thut ny l cc dng sng ca ht th g k () , v tr trong min thi gian lk v bin ak

s g ( n ) = ak g k ( n lk )
k

(1.33)

Khi s lng ht ln, th vic tnh ton s tr nn phc tp. Tnh cht ca cc ht v cc v tr trong min thi gian quyt nh m sc ca m thanh. Vic la chn cc thng s ty thuc vo cc tiu chun a ra bi cc m hnh th hin. Vic la chn cc m hnh biu din lin quan n cc qu trnh hot ng m cc qu trnh ny c th nh hng n m thanh no theo nhiu cch khc nhau. Loi c bn v quan trng nht ca tng hp ht (tng hp ht bt ng b) l phn phi cc ht khng theo quy lut trong min tn s -thi gian. Dng sng ht c dng

g k (i ) = d (i ) cos(2f k Ts i )
ph f k .

(1.34)

Vi d (i ) l ca s c chiu di l d mu, dng iu khin nhp thi gian v bng tn

1.2.2.3 Cc m hnh phi tuyn 1.2.2.3.1 iu pha v iu tn

K thut tng hp phi tuyn thng dng nht l iu tn (FM). Trong lin lc thng tin, FM c dng trong cc thp k gn y, nhng ng dng ca n trong gii thut tng hp m thanh trong min thi gian ri rc c bit n vi ci tn John Chowning. V bn cht, Chowning thc hin cc nghin cu trn cc phm vi khc nhau ca vic to ting rung bng cc b to dao ng n gin, v thu c kt qu l cc tn s rung nhanh s to ra cc thay i y kch tnh. Nh vy, iu ch tn s ca mt my to dao ng cng to ra tn hiu m thanh c ph phc tp. M hnh FM ca Chowning nh sau:

x(n) = A sin (c n + I sin (m n )) = A sin (c n + (n ))

(16) thc t cng l phng trnh iu pha. Tn s tc thi ca phng trnh (16)

(1.35)

Vi c l tn s sng mang v m l tn s iu ch, I l ch s iu ch. Phng trnh

(n) = c Im cos(m n )
Hoc:

(1.36) (1.37)

f (n) = f c If m cos(2f m n)

Hnh 1.27 m t vic trin khai pd ca gii thut FM n gin. Tn s iu ch c dng iu khin trc tip b to dao ng, trong khi tn s sng mang dng iu khin b

25

to pha n v, to pha theo chu k. Vi tn s sng mang, tn s iu ch v ch s iu ch cho trc, ta c th d dng d on cc thnh phn ph tn s ca m thanh kt qu.

Hnh 1.27 Phn trin khai phn phi pd ca iu pha. Vic phn tch da trn c tnh lng gic

x(n) = A sin (c n + I sin (m n )) k = A J 0 ( I ) sin(c n) + J k ( I ) sin ((c + km )n ) + ( 1) sin ((c km )n ) k =1 carrier side frequencies

(1.38)

Vi J k (I ) l bc th k ca hm Bessel. Cc hm Bessel c v trn hnh 9 ng vi nhiu gi tr k trn trc s lng side-frequencies v gi tr I trn trc ch s iu ch.

Hnh 1.28 Cc gi tr ca hm Bessel. 26

Bng thng c gi tr xp x bng

BW = 2(I + 0.24 I 0.27 )m 2 Im

(1.39)

1.2.2.3.2 Mo phi tuyn

Khi nim tng hp m thanh bng mo phi tuyn Nonlinear distortion (NLD) rt n gin: ng ra ca mch to dao ng c dng nh l thng s ca mt hm phi tuyn. Trong min thi gian ri rc s, hm phi tuyn c lu tr trong mt bng, v ng ra ca b dao ng c dng nh l ch s truy nhp vo bng. iu th v ca NLD l l thuyt ny cho php thit k mt bng mo cho bi cc c im k thut ca mt ph mong mun. Nu b to dao ng c dng tn hiu sin, ta c th tnh ton NLD nh sau

x(n) = A cos(0 n)
y (n) = F ( x(n ))

(1.40) (1.41)

Vi hm s phi tuyn, dng a thc Chebyshev. a thc Chebyshev cp n c nh ngha quy nh sau:

T0 ( x) = 1 T1 ( x) = x Tn ( x) = 2 xTn1 ( x) Tn2 ( x) ,
v c tnh cht:

(1.42) (1.43) (1.44)

Tn (cos ) = cos n

(1.45)

Nh vy, vi tnh cht (31), nu hm mo phi tuyn l a thc Chebyshev cp m , gi tr ng ra y c c bng cch s dng b dao ng sin x (n) = cos 0 n , nh vy

y (n) = cos(m0 n ) l hi bc m ca x .

Ph ca y(n) vi:

y (n) = hk cos(k0 n)
k

(1.46)

l:

F ( x) = hk Tk ( x)
k

(1.47)

Ngoi cc m hnh trn, cc m hnh vt l cng c p dng trong vic tng hp, x l m thanh nh mch dao ng vt l, mch dao ng i v mch phn phi cng hng mt chiu

1.2.3

M hnh thi gian ri rc [12]

Trong hu ht cc trng hp lin quan n x l thng tin, vic biu din tn hiu sao cho m bo tnh tin li trong phn tch m vn khng lm mt i tnh cht ca tn hiu l iu m cc nh khoa hc quan tm. Sng m thanh xut pht t li ni ca ngi c tnh cht t nhin v ngu nhin nht. Phn tch ton hc thun tin nht l xem sng m thanh l mt hm s theo bin thi gian t . Ta k hiu xa (t ) l dng sng tng t theo thi gian t .

27

Hnh 1.29 Biu din tn hiu m thoi Trong gio trnh ny, ta dng k hiu x ( n) m t cho chui s. Trong trng hp ly mu tn hiu m thoi, mt chui c th c xem nh l mt dy cc mu ca tn hiu tng t c ly mu mt cch u n vi thi gian ly mu l T, khi tn hiu sau khi ly mu c k hiu bi xa (nT ) . Hnh 1.1 m t mt v d ca vic tn hiu m thoi c biu din c hai dng l tn hiu tng t v dng chui cc mu c ly mu tn s l 8kHz. Xung n v c nh ngha nh sau:

( n) = 1 n = 0
= 0 ngc li
Chui bc n v c k hiu (1.48)

u ( n) = 1 n 0
=0 n<0
Hm m (1.49) (1.50)

x( n) = a n
Nu a dng s phc, a = re
jw0

, th
0

x (n) = r n e jw n = r n (cos 0 n + j sin 0 n)

(1.51)

28

Hnh 1.30 (a) Ly mu n v, (b) n v bc, (c) hm m thc v (d) hm sin suy gim

Hnh 1.31 S khi (a) h thng n ng vo/n ng ra; (b) h thng n ng vo/a ng ra Khi h thng gm nhiu ng ra, tn hiu chui ng ra s c biu din bng mt vector c m t nh Hnh 1.31. H thng tuyn tnh dch bt bin l h thng c bit hu dng cho vic x l tn hiu m thoi. H thng c c trng bi p ng xung, h(n) , khi tn hiu ng ra c tnh bi cng thc

y ( n) =

k =

x ( k ) h( n k ) = x ( n) * h( n)

(1.52a)

29

y ( n) =
vi * l php chp hai tn hiu

k =

h( k ) x ( n k ) = h( n) * x ( n)

(1.52b)

1.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN

1.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh [12]
D on tuyn tnh (Linear prediction, vit tt l LP) l mt phn khng th thiu ca hu ht tt c gii thut m ha thoi hin i ngy nay. tng c bn l mt mu thoi c th c xp x bng mt kt hp tuyn tnh ca cc mu trong qu kh. Trong mt khung tn hiu, cc trng s dng tnh ton kt hp tuyn tnh c tm bng cch ti thiu ha bnh phng trung bnh li d on; cc trng s tng hp, hoc cc h s d on tuyn tnh (LPC) c dng i din cho mt khung c th. Trong phn chng 3, s sp xp LP theo h thng da trn m hnh ngc t ng Trong thc t, phn tch d l mt tin trnh c lng tm cc thng s ca AR, m cc thng s ny c cho bi cc mu ca tn hiu. Nh vy, LP l mt k thut nhn dng vi cc thng s ca mt h thng oc tm t vic quan st. Vi gi nh l tn hiu thoi c m hnh nh l tn hiu AR, iu ny c chng minh tnh ng n ca n trong thc tin. Mt cch biu din LP khc l phng php c lng ph. Nh trnh by trn, phn tch LP cho php vic tnh ton cc thng s ca AR, c nh ngha trong mt ph cng sut (PSD) ca chnh bn thn tn hiu. Bng cch tnh ton LPC ca mt khung tn hiu, ta c th to ra mt tn hiu khc theo cch thc c ni dung ph gn nh tng ng vi tn hiu gc. LP cng c th c xem nh l mt qu trnh loi b cc d tha khi thng tin b lp li trong mt s trng hp cn kh. Sau cng, vic truyn d liu c th khng cn thit nu nh d liu cn truyn c th c d on trc. Bng cch thc chuyn ch cc d tha trong mt tn hiu, s lng bit cn thit mang thng tin s t hn v nh th s t c mc tiu nn d liu. Trong phn ny s cp n bi ton c bn ca phn tch LP c nh r, kt hp vi vic hiu chnh li cho ph hp theo hng cc tn hiu ng, cng nh v d v cc gii thut cn thit cho qu trnh d on tuyn tnh.

1.3.1.1 Bi ton d on tuyn tnh

D on tuyn tnh c m t nh l mt bi ton nhn dng h thng, vi cc thng s ca mt m hnh AR c c lng t bn thn tn hiu. M hnh c trnh by Hnh 1.32. Tn hiu nhiu trng x[n] c lc bi qu trnh tng hp AR c c tn hiu AR s[n] , vi cc thng s AR c k hiu l a i . D on tuyn tnh thc hin c on s[ n] da vo M mu trong qu kh:
^

s [n] = ai s[n i]
i =1

(1.53)

Vi ai l cc c lng ca cc thng s AR c xem l cc h s d on tuyn tnh (LPC). Hng s M trong cng thc l bc d on. Nh vy, vic d on d trn t hp tuyn tnh ca M mu trong qu kh ca tn hiu, chnh v th vic d on mang tnh tuyn tnh. Li d on c tnh bng cng thc: 30

e[n] = s[n] s[ n]

(1.54)

Hnh 1.32 H thng nhn dng di dng d on tuyn tnh

Hnh 1.33 B lc li d on Li d on chnh l sai bit gia mu tht s v mu c lng. Hnh 1.33 m t lu tn hiu thc hin b lc li d on. B lc c ng vo l tn hiu AR v ng ra chnh l tn hiu li d on. Ti thiu ho li Bi ton nhn dng h thng bao gm vic c lng cc thng s AR a i t s[n] . thc hin vic c lng, tiu chun phi c thit lp. Trong , bnh phng trung bnh li d on c tnh bi cng thc:
2 M J = E {e [n]} = E s[n] + ai s[n i ] i =1 2
^

(1.55)

c ti thiu ha bng cch la chn LPC thch hp. Thng s LPC ti u c th c tm bng cch thit lp cc o hm ring phn ca J khi ai tin ti zero:

31

M J = 2 E s[n] + ai s[n i ] s[n k ] = 0 ak i =1 ^

(1.56)

Vi k = 1,2,..., M , khi (4.4) xy ra th ai = a i , lc ny LPC chnh bng cc thng s AR. li d on li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc

2 E{s 2 [n]} PG = 10 log10 s2 = 10 log10 E {e 2 [n]} e

(1.57)

L t s gia bin tn hiu ng vo v bin ca li d on theo n v decibels (dB). li d on l thng s o lng cht lng ca b d on. Mt b d on tt hn c kh nng to ra li d on nh hn vi li cao hn. Ti thiu ha bnh phng trung bnh li d on T Hnh 1.33, ta c th nhn xt khi ai = a i , th e[ n] = x[ n] ; nh vy li d on tng t nh dng tn hiu nhiu trng to ra tn hiu AR s[ n] . y l trng hp ti u khi li bnh phng trung bnh c ti thiu ha, vi
^

J min = E {e 2 [ n]} = E {x 2 [ n]} = x2

(1.58)

Khi , li d on t gi tr ln nht. iu kin ti u c th t c khi bc ca b d on ln hn hoc bng bc ca qu trnh tng hp AR. Trong thc t, M thng l s cha bit trc. Mt phng php n gin c th c lng c gi tr M t tn hiu ngun l v biu li d on nh l mt hm ca bc d on. Vi phng php ny, ta c th quyt nh c bc ca d on ng vi li bo ha, khi khi tng bc d on th li khng tng. Gi tr ca bc d on ti im tha iu kin bo ha ny c xem l gi tr c lng tt nht cho bc ca tn hiu AR. Sau khi xc nh c gi tr M, hm chi ph J t gi tr ti thiu khi ai = a i , dn n
^

e[n] = x[n] . V khi , li d on s bng vi gi tr tn hiu u vo ca b tng hp qu trnh

AR.

1.3.1.2 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng

Tn hiu thoi trong thc t l tn hiu ng, nn LPC phi c tnh ng vi tng khung tn hiu. Trong mt khung tn hiu, mt tp LPC c tnh ton v dng i din cho cc thuc tnh ca tn hiu trong mt chu k c th, vi gi nh rng s liu thng k ca tn hiu vn khng thay i trong mt khung. Qu trnh tnh ton LPC t d liu tn hiu c gi l phn tch d on tuyn tnh. Bi ton d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng c pht biu li nh sau: y l bi ton thc hin vic tnh cc gi tr LPC ng vi N im d liu vi thi gian kt thc l m : s[ m N + 1] , s[m N + 2] , , s[m] . Vector LPC c vit nh sau:

a[m] = [a1 [m]

32

a2 [m]

...

aM [m]]

(1.59)

Vi M l bc d on li d on li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc

m 2 s [n] PG[m] = 10 log10 n = mm N +1 2 e [n] n = m N +1

Vi

(1.60)

e[n] = s[n] s[n] = s[n] + ai [m]s[n i ] ; n = m N + 1 , , m

i =1

(1.61)

Cc LPC ai [m] c tnh ton t cc mu trong chu k. li d on nh ngha cng thc (4.23) l mt hm theo bin thi gian m . V d: Nhiu trng c to ra bi b to s ngu nhin phn phi u, sau c lc bi b tng hp AR vi

a1 = 1.534 a6 = 0.061

a2 = 1 a7 = 0.172

a3 = 0.587 a8 = 0.156

a4 = 0.347 a9 = 0.157

a56 = 0.08 a10 = 0.141

Khung tng hp ca tn hiu AR c dng cho phn tch LP, vi tng cng l 240 mu. c lng t ng tng quan khng hi qui s dng ca s Hamming. Phn tch LP c thc hin vi bc t 2 n 20. Hnh 1.34 tm tt kt qu, vi li d on c tnh ton ti M = 2 v t gi tr cao nht ti M = 10 . Cc bc ln hn 10 khng cho c li cao hn na, cho nn ta c th ch cn xt n M = 10 .

Hnh 1.34 li d on (PG) l mt hm theo bin bc d on M 33

1.3.1.3 Gii thut Levison-Durbin

Thng thng, vic tnh ton ma trn nghch o khng n gin, tuy nhin i vi bi ton ny, cc h s gii thut c th c tnh thng qua tnh ton ma trn tng quan. Hai gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen l hai gii thut rt ph hp cho vic tnh ton LP ca cc h thng trin khai trong thc t. Gii thut Levison-Durbin thc hin vic tm b d on bc th M t b d on bc th ( M 1) . y l qu trnh lp quy cho n khi tm c ln u tin b d on bc zero, sau s dng b bc zero s c dng tnh b d on bc 1 v qu trnh tip tc cho n khi tnh ton c b d on c bc cn tm. Gii thut: bin u vo l cc h s t tng quan R[l ] , gi tr tnh c l cc LPC v RC nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp J 0 = R[0] Thc hin quy, for

l = 1,2,..., M
l 1 1 (R[l ]) + ai (l 1) R[l i ] , J l 1 i =1

o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =

o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc LPC ng vi b d on bc l

ai( l ) = kl ;
l ai( l ) = ai( l 1) kl al(1) ; i 1,2,..., l 1 i

Dng nu l = M o Bc 3: Tnh gi tr bnh phng trung bnh li d on tng ng vi li gii ti bc l

J l = J j 1 (1 kl2 )

Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1

1.3.1.4 Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen

Bi ton s dng gii thut Levinson-Durbin da trn cc gi tr ca cc LPC, bi v chng c thuc mt tm vc rng v gi tr bin ca bin ca cc LPC khng th tnh c ng vi c s l thuyt. Vn xy ra khi gii thut c p dng cho tnh ton trn du chm tnh. Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen khc phc im yu ny ca gii thut Levison-Durbin. Leroux v Gueguen [1979] xut mt phng php tnh ton cc RC t cc gi tr t tng quan m khng cn phi tnh thng qua cc LPC. Do , bi ton lin quan n tm ng vi iu kin du chm tnh c gii quyt. Xt thng s sau

( l ) [k ] = E {e ( l ) [n]s[n k ]} = ai( l ) R[i k ] ,

l i =0

(1.62)

Vi

e ( l ) [n] ai(l )
34

= li d on s dng b lc d on li bc th l = LPC ca b d on bc th l

R[k ]
nh l:

= gi tr t tng quan ca tn hiu s[n]

( l ) [k ] R[0]
Sinh vin c th t chng minh Bng 1.4 m t cc thng s cn thit ng vi mi bc l trong gii thut Leroux-Gueguen

(1.63)

Cc thng s cn thit

M M 1 M 2
M 3

( M 1) [0], ( M 1) [M ]

( M 2 ) [ 1], ( M 2 ) [0], ( M 2 ) [M 1], ( M 2 ) [M ] ( M 3) [ 2],, ( M 3) [0], ( M 3) [M 2],, ( M 3) [M ]

( M 4 ) [ 3],, ( M 4 ) [0], ( M 4 ) [M 3],, ( M 4 ) [M ]

M 4

1
0
Gii thut:

(1) [ M + 2],, (1) [0], (1) [2],, (1) [M ]

( 0 ) [ M + 1],, ( 0 ) [0], ( 0 ) [1],, ( 0 ) [M ]
nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp Thc hin quy, for
(0)

[k ] = R[k ], k = M + 1,..., M
( l 1) [l ]
, dng khi l = M

l = 1,2,..., M

o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl = o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc thng s

e ( l 1) [0]

( l ) [k ] = ( l 1) [k ] kl ( l 1) [l k ];

k = M + l + 1,...,0, l + 1,...M .

o Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1

1.3.1.5 So snh gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen

Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen ph hp hn cho cc bi ton du chm tnh i vi cc bin trung gian c bin c bit trc. Nhc im ca gii thut ny l ch c cc gi tr RC l kt qu tr v, l kt qu khng cn thit i vi b lc li. i vic cc b lc c dng trc tip, cc gi tr LPC c th c c nu dng mt trong hai gii thut. Vic s dng b lc mt cao thng trong vic tnh ton LP thng khng n gin do s lng tnh ton. Ngoi ra, i vi trng hp thi gian bin i, cc h s c cp nht t khung thi gian ny n khung thi gian khc s lm cho vic tnh ton cng phc tp hn i vi cu trc li. Ngoi ra, phng php Leroux-Gueguen s dng bin i RC-sang-LPC khng cung cp vic lu tr li cc bc tnh ton quan trng so vi gii thut Levinson-Durbin. Tt c cc iu trn lm cho gii thut Levinson-Durbin thng dng hn trong thc tin, c bit l i vi cc bi ton s. 35

Trong cc bi ton ng dng thc t, gii thut Levison-Durbin dng trong iu kin du chm tnh phi c cn nhc k sao cho m bo cc bin phi nm trong tm vc cho php.

1.3.2

D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi [13]

i vi vic n gin ha m hnh x l thoi, gii thut d on tuyn tnh (LPC) l mt trong nhng gii thut p dng to cc b m ha chun cho vic x l m hot ng tn s thp. tc 2.4kbps, b m ha FS1015 LPC [Hng Tremain, 1982] l mt bc tin vt bt trong ngnh x l m thanh; mc d cht lng ca m thanh c gii m khng cao, nhng h thng gii m n gin v d hiu. Thut ng m ha d on tuyn tnh xut hin t khi vic to ra m thanh thoi s dng bt k gii thut ng dng m hnh LPC, trong chun FS1015 l chun in hnh. Ban u, trong vic pht trin cho vic truyn thng bo mt thuc cc ng dng qun s, b m ha FS1015 c c trng bi tn hiu thoi m tng hp ng ra thng cn n cc nhn vin vn hnh tng i c hun luyn s dng. Mc d hu ht cc b m ha thoi da vo cng ngh LP t c hiu sut cao hn ngy nay, nhng v c bn, hot ng ca chng l c ngun gc t LPC, vic ci tin nhm mc ch t c cht lng tt hn v hiu sut m ha ti u hn.

1.3.2.1 M hnh x l tn hiu thoi

M hnh x l thoi da vo m hnh m ha d on tuyn tnh c m t trong Hnh 1.35. M hnh c dng da vo vic quan st cc c tnh c bn ca tn hiu thoi v bt chc k thut to m thanh thoi ca ngi. B lc tng hp c m phng theo s pht m, khu m ca ming ngi. Tn hiu li ng vo ca b lc hoc tn hiu kch thch mch c m phng theo dng xung truyn ng (m thanh thoi) hoc l nhiu ngu nhin (m thanh phi thoi). Nh vy, ph thuc vo trng thi m thanh thoi hay phi thoi ca tn hiu, mch chuyn c thit lp v tr thch hp sao cho ng vo tng ng s c chn a vo mch. Mc nng lng ca tn hiu ng ra wojc iu khin bi thng s li. Lm cch no m hnh ph hp vi ng cnh ca m ha m thoi? Xt cc mu thoi mt cch ring l ng vi tng khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. ng vi tng on khung ngn, thuc tnh ca tn hiu v c bn l hng s. Trong mi khung, cc thng s ca m hnh c c lng t cc mu thoi, cc thng s bao gm: Dng: tn hiu thuc khung l thoi hay phi thoi li: lin quan ch yu n mc nng lng ca khung H s lc: nh r p ng ca b lc tng hp Chu k m thanh: trong trng hp i vi khung thoi, l chiu di thi gian gia cc xung kch thch lin tip nhau. Qu trnh c lng thng s c thc hin ng vi tng mi khung, cc kt qu chnh l cc thng tin ca khung. Nh vy, thay v truyn cc xung PCM, cc thng s ca m hnh s c gi i. Gim gim thiu nhiu v s mo tn hiu, cc bt truyn c cp pht theo ch nh ng vi tng thng s, v t s nn ti u c th t c.

36

Hnh 1.35 M hnh LPC tng hp ting ni Vic c lng cc thng s l nhim v ca b m ha. B gii m s s dng cc thng s c lng ny v dng m hnh to thoi tng hp m thoi.

Hnh 1.36 Hnh v cc cc khung phi thoi Hnh 1.36 m t mt khung tn hiu phi thoi c 180 mu (s dng b m ha FS1015). Cc mu nguyn thy c x phn tch LP qua qu trnh tng hp LPC dng cho vic tng hp m thoi da trn m hnh Hnh 1.35. Tn hiu ca tn hiu nguyn thy v tn hiu sau khi tng hp c v ging nhau do mt ph c sut c dng tng ng, c m t trong Hnh 1.37.

37

Hnh 1.37 S ca mt khung m thanh phi thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d on LPC.

Hnh 1.38 S khung tn hiu m thanh thoi. Hnh trn: tn hiu nguyn thy; Hnh di: tn hiu tng hp.

38

Hnh 1.39 S ca mt khung m thanh thoi, Hnh bn tri: tn hiu nguyn thu; Hnh bn phi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng php d on LPC.

1.3.2.2 Cu trc ca gii thut dng m hnh LPC 1.3.2.2.1 B m ha (Encoder)

Hnh 1.40 m t s khi ca b m ha. Tn hiu thoi ng vo u tin s c phn ct thnh cc khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. B lc u dng hiu chnh ph ca tn hiu ng vo, b nhn dng ting ni phn loi khung hin ti ang x l l tn hiu thoi hay phi thoi v cc ng ra mt bit biu th trng thi ca m thoi. Tn hiu ra ca b lc u c dng phn tch LP, mch bao gm mi LPC . Cc h s ny s c lng t ha vi cc ch s c truyn nh l thng tin ca khung. Cc LPC c lng t ho dng xy dng b lc d on li, dng lc cc tn hiu m thanh t b lc u c c tn hiu d on li ng ra.

Hnh 1.40 S khi ca b m ha LPC 39

1.3.2.2.2 Tnh ton cng sut

Cng sut ca chui li d on ng vi hai trng hp khung thoi v khung phi thoi l khc nhau. K hiu chui li d on l e[ n] , n [0, N 1] vi N l chiu di ca khung. Trng hp tn hiu l phi thoi:

p=

1 N

e [n]
2 n=0

N 1

(1.64)

Trng hp tn hiu l m thoi, T l chu k ln nht ca tn hiu thnh phn

p=

1 [N T ]T

[ N T ]T 1
n =0

e [n]
2

(1.65)

dng [] lun m bo rng vic tnh ton lun nm trong vng bin ca khung.

Vi [] l hm tnh gi tr nh hn hoc bng vi ton hng. Gi s rng N > T th vic

1.3.2.2.3 B gii m
Hnh 1.41 m t s khi ca b gii m theo m hnh to m LPC vi cc thng s c iu khin bi lung bit. Gi s rng ca b to chui xung to ra cc xung c bin n v, trong khi b to nhiu trng c tn hiu ng ra c bin khc i lng n v. Vic tnh ton li c thc hin nh sau: i vi tn hiu l phi thoi, cng sut ca tn hiu ca b lc tng hp phi bng vi li d on ca b m ha. K hiu li l g , ta c

g=
1.3.2.2.4 Gii hn ca m hnh LPC

(1.66)

Gii hn 1: Trong mt s trng hp, mt khung m thanh c c phn loi l tn hiu dng thoi hay phi thoi. Gii hn 2: Vic s dng hon ton nhiu ngu nhin hoc hon ton chui xung c chu k to kch thch khng ph hp vi thc t l s dng tn hiu m thoi thc. Gii hn 3: Thng tin v pha ca tn hiu nguyn thy khng c xem xt. Gii hn 4: Phng php thc hin vic tng hp cc khung thoi, trong khi mt chui xung dng kch thch b lc tng hp vi cc h s c c t vic phn tch LP vi phm nn tng ca m hnh AR.

1.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI

1.4.1 Cc phng php m ho
Dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho khch hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii. m bo h tr tt khch hng nhm t c li th cnh tranh, cc nh khai thc di ng cn h tr tt dch v c bn ny. Do , vic nh gi cc ch tiu cht lng cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng. Cc phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc vin thng (nh ITU,ETSI...) nghin cu, xy dng. Trong phn ny trnh by mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi, c bit l cho mng vin thng (c nh, di ng). Vic nh gi cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng i vi cc nh khai thc mng thng tin di ng v c nh. V thoi l dch v thng tin c bn cho nn vic m bo cung cp dch v ny vi cht lng n nh l mt yu t cnh tranh ca cc nh khai thc mng. 40

Phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc tiu chun nh ITU-T, ETSI, 3GPP thc hin chun ha. Bi bo phn tch bn cht ca mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn: phng php nh gi theo thang im MOS (Mean Opinion Score) da trn khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800 [1], cc phng php nh gi da trn m hnh gic quan PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 [2], PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 [3] v phng php da trn m hnh nh gi truyn dn E-model theo tiu chun ETR 250 [4] ca ETSI. Cc phng php ny c so snh v u nhc im v phm vi ng dng.

1.4.2

Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi

Cc tham s truyn dn c bn lin quan n cht lng thoi l: Tham s nh gi cng m lng/tn hao tng th (OLR-Overall Loudness Rating): OLR ca h thng phi khng c vt qu gii hn c nh ngha trong khuyn ngh G.111 ca ITU-T. Cc gi tr nh gi tn hao pha pht v thu (SLR v RLR) i vi h thng GSM c nh gi cho n giao din POI. Tuy nhin, tham s nh hng chnh l c tnh ca MS gm c b chuyn i tng t - s (ADC) v s tng t (DAC). Do vy, thng thng, ngi ta nh gi OLR ca giao din v tuyn. Tr: thi gian truyn dn tn hiu gia hai u cui gy ra nhng kh khn trong vic hi thoi. Tr bao gm: tr chuyn m thoi, tr m ha knh, tr mng v tr x l tn hiu thoi loi b ting vng v gim nhiu ch Handsfree. Ting vng (echo). Ct ngng (clipping): l hin tng mt phn u hoc phn cui ca cm tn hiu thoi. Cc tnh cht lin quan n nhy tn s. Xuyn m (sidetone loss). Nhiu nn...

1.4.3

Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn

Vic nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM cng nh cc h thng thng tin khc (c nh v v tuyn) c th c thc hin bng cch nh gi cc tham s truyn dn c nh hng n cht lng thoi v xc nh tc ng ca cc tham s ny i vi cht lng tng th. Tuy nhin, vic nh gi tng tham s rt phc tp v tn km. Hin nay, vic nh gi cht lng thoi c da trn mt tham s cht lng tng th l MOS (Mean Opinion Score). Nhng phng php s dng MOS u mang tnh cht ch quan do chng ph thuc vo quan im ca ngi s dng dch v. Tuy vy, chng ta c th phn chia cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi ra lm hai loi c bn: Cc phng php nh gi ch quan: vic nh gi theo quan im ca ngi s dng v mc cht lng c thc hin trong thi gian thc. Phng php ny c quy nh trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan: s dng mt s m hnh c lng mc cht lng theo thang im MOS. Phng php nh gi khch quan c th c phn thnh: a) Cc phng php so snh: da trn vic so snh tn hiu thoi truyn dn vi mt tn hiu chun bit.

41

b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i: da trn vic c lng tuyt i cht lng tn hiu thoi (phng php ny khng s dng cc tn hiu chun bit); vd: INMD (s dng trong khuyn ngh P.561 ca ITU-T). c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn: phng php ny xc nh gi tr cht lng thoi mong mun da trn nhng hiu bit v mng; vd: m hnh ETSI Model. Vic phn chia cc phng php nh gi c cho trn Trn thc t, cc thit b o c th s dng kt hp nhiu phng php nh gi cht lng thoi. Tuy vy, trong cc phng php ny th phng php so snh (hay cn gi l intrusive methods) c kt qu nh gi chnh xc nht. Cc phng php nh gi cc cng c th c s dng cho mt s ng dng c th.

Hnh 1.41 Phn loi cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi: a) Cc phng php so snh, b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i, c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn

1.4.3.1 Phng php nh gi ch quan (MOS)

K thut ny nh gi cht lng thoi s dng i tng l mt s lng ln ngi nghe, s dng phng php thng k tnh im cht lng. im nh gi bnh qun ca nhiu ngi c tnh l im Mean Opinion Scoring (MOS). K thut thc hin tnh im MOS c m t trong khuyn ngh P.800 ca ITU. Khuyn ngh P.830 th hin cc phng php c th nh gi cht lng thoi cho cc b m ha. C hai khuyn ngh ITU ny m t: phng thc nh gi, cch tnh im theo phng thc nh gi ch quan, gi tr ca im, tnh cht ca cc mu thoi c s dng nh gi v cc iu kin khc m vic kim tra cht lng c thc hin. Phng thc nh gi theo MOS c th c thc hin theo cc bi kim tra hi thoi hai chiu hoc bi nghe mt chiu. Cc bi kim tra nghe mt chiu s dng cc mu thoi chun. Ngi nghe nghe mu truyn qua mt h thng v nh gi cht lng tng th ca mu da trn

42

thang im cho trc. P.800 nh ngha mt s hnh thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo phng php ch quan: Bi kim tra hi thoi (Conversation Opinion Test). nh gi phn loi tuyt i (Absolute Category Rating (ACR) Test). Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)). Phng thc phn loi so snh (Comparison Category Rating (CCR)). Mi phng thc trn c mt thang im nh gi. V d: phng thc nh gi hi thoi v ACR u c thang im tng t gi l im hi thoi v im cht lng nghe. Trong phng thc hi thoi, ngi nghe c hi v quan im ca h i vi kt ni ang s dng. ACR hi ch th v cht lng thoi. Thang im cho c hai phng thc trn nh sau:

im nh gi 5 4 3 2 1

Cht lng thoi Rt tt Tt Chp nhn c Ti Rt ti

y l thang im t 1-5 thng thng c s dng tnh MOS. V d th hai l im n lc nghe trong phng thc ACR (ACR Listening Effort Score). Trong phng thc ny, ch th c yu cu nh gi n lc ca h thc hin hiu ng ngha ca cc cu chun s dng lm mu. Thang im c cho nh sau:

im nh gi 5 4 3 2 1

Mc c gng cn thc hin hiu cu Khng cn c gng Cn ch nhng khng cn c gng nhiu Cn tng i tp trung Cn tp trung Khng hiu cu mu

Hin nhin, cc thng thc cho im theo MOS c mt s nhc im nh sau: Phng thc ny mang tnh cht ch quan v kt qu ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khng th kim sot ca ch th nh: trng thi tm l, thi i vi bi kim tra v trnh vn ha. Trn thc t, phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo thang im MOS khng phi l phng thc nht qun. 43

Phng thc ny rt tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp. Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng php nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t. Nhng hn ch ca phng php nh gi cht lng thoi da trn MOS cho thy cn c mt phng thc nh gi khch quan, phng php ny c th thc hin mt cch t ng nh gi cht lng thoi.

1.4.3.2 Cc phng php so snh da trn m hnh gic quan 1.4.3.2.1 Phng php PSQM
PSQM l k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c pht trin bi John G. Beerends v J. A. Stemerdink thuc Trung tm nghin cu KPN H Lan. Trong khong t 1993-1996, nhiu k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c ITU so snh xc nh k thut c chnh cao nht (c lng gn nht vi phng php nh gi ch quan). Theo ITU, PSQM l k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c tng quan ln nht vi cc kt qu theo phng php nh gi ch quan. PSQM sau c ITU-T Study Group 12 thng qua v c cng b trong khuyn ngh P.861 nm 1996. K thut ny c s dng rng ri v th hin chnh xc tng i cao. PSQM l mt phng php tnh ton nhm c lng cht lng thoi theo kt qu ca phng php nh gi ch quan theo khuyn ngh P.830 (MOS). Tuy nhin, PSQM tnh theo thang im khc so vi MOS. im PSQM th hin lch gia tn hiu chun v tn hiu truyn dn. PSQM c thit k s dng cho tn hiu thoi (300-3400 Hz) qua cc b m ha thoi. Phng thc ny c s dng o tn hao ca cc b m ha thoi ny da trn cc thng s nhn thc ca con ngi. Phng thc ny s dng hiu qu i vi cc b m ha thoi tc thp. Vic x l trong phng thc PSQM c th hin trn Error! Reference source not found.. thc hin php o PSQM, mt mu ting ni c a vo h thng v c x l bi mt b m ha thoi bt k. Nhng tnh cht ca tn hiu vo ging nh ca cc tn hiu s dng cho php nh gi MOS c nh ngha trong chun ITU P.830. Cc tn hiu vo c th l mu ting ni tht hoc ting ni nhn to theo khuyn ngh ITU P.50. ITU-T khuyn ngh tn hiu vo c lc theo modified IRS (Intermediate Reference System trong khuyn ngh ITU P.48) c nhng tnh cht c nh ngha trong ph lc ca D/P.830. N m phng c tnh tn s ca my in thoi u cui. Khi nhn c, tn hiu ra c ghi li. Sau , n c ng b v mt thi gian vi tn hiu vo. Hai tn hiu ny c thc hin so snh bi cc thut ton PSQM. So snh c thc hin theo tng phn on thi gian (khung thi gian) trong min tn s (c bit n l cc phn t thi gian - tn s) hot ng da trn cc tham s ly t mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu vo v ra ca cc phn t thi gian - tn s. Vic so snh da trn cc tham s nhn thc ca con ngi nh: tn s v nhy m lng (khng ch ph thuc vo Mt ph cng sut - Spectral Power Densities (SPD)). im PSQM nm trong di t 0 n v cng. im s ny th hin lch v mt cm nhn gia tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo. VD: im 0 th hin tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo hon ton trng khp, nh gi l mc cht lng hon ho. im PSQM cng cao th th hin mc tn hao cng ln v nh gi l mc cht lng thp. Trn thc t, gii hn trn i vi thang im PSQM trong khong t 15-20. 44

Hnh 1.42 Phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi PSQM

1.4.3.2.2 Phng php PESQ

PESQ l phng php nh gi cht lng thoi so snh; phng php ny c m t trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 [] c s dng thay th cho khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861. PESQ so snh tn hiu gc X(t) vi tn hiu suy gim Y(t) l kt qu ca vic truyn tn hiu X(t) qua h thng thng tin. u ra ca PESQ l mt c lng v cht lng thoi nhn c ca tn hiu Y(t). Trong bc u tin ca PESQ, mt lot cc tr tn hiu gia tn hiu vo ban u v tn hiu ra c xc nh; mi gi tr tr c tnh cho mt khong thi gian m c s khc bit v tr so vi phn on thi gian trc . ng vi mi phn on thi gian, im bt u v kt thc c xc nh. Mt thut ton sp xp da trn nguyn tc so snh gia kh nng c hai tr trong mt on thi gian vi kh nng c mt tr trong on thi gian . Thut ton ny c th x l thay i v tr trong c khong lng v trong thi gian tch cc thoi. Da trn tp cc tr xc nh c, PESQ so snh tn hiu vo ban u vi tn hiu ra c sp xp bng cch s dng mt m hnh gic quan. im mu cht ca qu trnh ny l chuyn i c tn hiu gc v tn hiu b suy gim thnh dng biu din ca tn hiu m thanh trong h thng thnh gic ca con ngi c tnh n tn s thnh gic v cng m. Qu trnh ny c thc hin theo nhiu giai on: sp xp v mt thi gian, sp xp mc tn hiu v mc tn hiu nghe c cn chnh, nh x thi gian - tn s, frequency warping v cn chnh cng m. Trong PESQ, hai tham s li c tnh ton trong m hnh kinh nghim; chng c kt hp li c lng im MOS. Mt m hnh my tnh ca ch th bao gm m hnh gic quan v m hnh kinh nghim c s dng so snh tn hiu u ra vi tn hiu gc s dng cc thng tin sp xp ly c t cc tn hiu nh thi trong mun sp xp nh thi.

45

Hnh 1.43 M t phng php nh gi cht lng thoi PESQ Phng php PESQ l c th s dng khng ch nh gi cc b m ha thoi m cn nh gi cht lng thoi u cui n u cui. Cc h thng thng tin trn thc t c th b nh hng ca nhiu khu lc, tr kh bin v cc tn hao do li knh truyn dn v vic s dng cc b codec tc thp. Phng php PSQM c m t trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 ch c khuyn ngh s dng nh gi cc b codec thoi m khng tnh n cc yu t nh lc, tr kh bin ... PESQ tnh n cc yu t ny nh s dng cn bng hm truyn dn, sp xp nh thi, v mt thut ton mi thc hin xc nh tn hao trung bnh. PESQ c kim tra trong iu kin kt hp nhiu yu t nh: lc, tr kh bin, tn hao m ha v li knh truyn dn. Phng php ny c khuyn ngh s dng thay th cho PSQM nh gi cht lng thoi t u cui n u cui.

1.4.3.2.3 M hnh nh gi truyn dn E-Model

E-model (tham kho ETR 250 [4], EG 201 050 [2] v khuyn ngh ITU-T G.107 [7]) c s dng lm mt cng c quy hoch truyn dn trong cc mng in thoi. N h tr vic c lng cht lng tn hiu thoi t mt kt hp ca nhiu yu t can nhiu. E-model khc so vi cc phng php nh gi cht lng phn tch trn: y khng phi l mt cng c o m l mt cng c quy hoch mc d n c th s dng kt hp vi cc php o. N c lng cht lng thoi hai chiu v tnh n cc yu t nh: ting vng, tr ... u vo ca E-model bao gm cc tham s c s dng ti thi im quy hoch. Lu rng vic quy hoch c th c thc hin trc v sau khi trin khai mng. E-model c tnh n cc tham s nh: nhiu, tr, ting vng v tnh cht ca thit b u cui m c chun ha hoc c xc nh, c th o c. Ngoi ra, E-model xc nh trng s i vi nh hng ca thit b s hin i (cc b codec tc thp, cc b ghp knh ...) n cht lng truyn dn.

46

Trong nhiu trng hp, s lng v chng loi cc thit b ny c xc nh ti thi im quy hoch. E-model da trn gi thit l cc tn hao truyn dn c th c chuyn i thnh "psychological factors" v cc h s ny c tnh cng dn trn mt "psychological scale". Ni cch khc, nhn thc ch quan v cht lng thoi c coi nh l tng hp ca cc tn hao truyn dn. E-model u tin thc hin tnh ton mt "gi tr gc" v cht lng (gi tr ny c xc nh t nhiu trn mng). Mi tn hao thm vo c biu din di dng mt gi tr tn hao. Kt qu ca php tr gi tr gc vi cc gi tr tn hao th hin c lng cht lng thoi cho mt mng c th. Cui cng, kt qu cht lng thoi thu c c s dng c tnh t l thu bao nh gi cht lng l tt hay ti. C th, E-model tnh mt h s nh gi truyn dn R nh sau: R = Ro - Is - Id - Ie + A (1.67) H s ny bao gm: gi tr gc Ro, cc tn hao Is, Id v Ie v mt h s thun li (Advantage factor) nh sau: Ro m t t s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) ca kt ni. N bao gm tp m trong mng, trong mi trng pha ngi ni v ngi nghe v nh hng ca tp m ti pha ngi nghe, SNR c coi l mt tham s biu din cht lng c bn. Is th hin cc tn hao nht thi bao gm: mc cng m, mc xuyn m vt qu phm vi cho php v tn hao lng t (m ha PCM). Id cha cc tn hao do tr v ting vng. Ie bao gm cc tn hao gy ra bi cc k thut nn thoi (codec tc thp). A cho php iu chnh cht lng trong nhng trng hp c bit nh thm vo cc yu t phi k thut nh gi cht lng. Cui cng, E-model s dng mt nh x phi tuyn tnh chuyn gi tr R thnh gi tr MOS tng ng. Nh vy, E-model cho php xc nh cht lng thoi nh phn tch tc ng ca nhiu tham s truyn dn. Nh c th nh gi nh hng ca cc tham s ny i vi mc cht lng tng th.

1.4.3.2.4 Kt lun
Phn 2.4.3.2 phn tch cc phng php nh gi cht lng c th s dng nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM. Nh phn tch trn, im MOS l ch tiu cht lng tng th c s dng nh gi cht lng thoi. Phng php nh gi ch quan s dng s liu vo l nhn xt ca khch hng v mc cht lng t tnh ton ra im nh gi bnh qun MOS. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan s dng cc m hnh tnh ton c lng ra mc cht lng quy i v MOS. Da trn nhng u nhc im v phm vi ng dng ca cc phng php ny, s dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM ca VNPT c th s dng cc phng php nh gi nh sau: S dng PESQ nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui. M hnh nh gi E-Model c th c s dng phn tch h thng nhm xc nh cc yu t nh hng n cht lng thoi. 47

Ngoi ra, nu c iu kin c th s dng kt hp phng php nh gi ch quan kim chng li vic nh gi theo PESQ.

1.5 M HNH NG DUNG X L THOI

1.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng [14] 1.5.1.1 Tng quan
Nhn dng ting ni t ng (Automatic speech recognition-ASR) l mt lnh vc nghin cu quan trng v c nhiu ng dng trn thc t, da trn vic lu tr mt hay nhiu mu m thanh (template) ng vi tng t trong bng t vng nhn dng. Qu trnh nhn dng thc hin vic so trng ting ni nhn c vi cc mu lu tr. Cc mu c khong cch o lng thp nht so vi mu ting ni nhn c chnh l t c nhn dng. Gii thut dng tm c s tng thch tt nht l da trn lp trnh ng (Dynamic Programming - DP), v mt trong cc gii thut l gii thut m hnh thi gian ng (Dynamic Time Warping-DTW). c th nm bt c kin thc v DTW mt cch nhanh chng, c hai khi nim cn lm r im c trng: l thng tin ca tng tn hiu c biu din di dng no . Sai bit: dng o lng no c dng tnh ton c s tng thch, c hai dng: 1. Cc b: tnh ton sai bit gia im c trng ca mt tn hiu mt tn hiu khc. 2. Ton cc: tnh ton sai bit tng gia mt tn hiu tng vi mt tn hiu khc c th c sai bit. Vic phn tch im c trng bao gm vic tnh ton vector c trng vi khong thi gian thng thng. i vi vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh, vector c trung bao gm vic tnh ton cc h s d on (hoc cc php bin i gia chng). Mt loi vector c trng thngdng dng trong nhn dng ting ni l Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs). V cc vector c trng c th c nhiu phn t phc tp, nn gi tr trung bnh ca vic tnh ton cn c thit lp. Php o sai bit gia 2 vector c trng c tnh ton bng n v theo h Euclidean. Nh vy sai bit cc b gia vector c trng x ca tn hiu 1 v vector c trng y ca tn hiu 2 c cho bi

d ( x, y ) =

(x
i

yi )

(1.68)

Mc d s dng h n v Euclidean cho vic tnh ton s tng phc tp hn so vi cc h o lng khc, nhng n li cho tc dng nhiu hn vi sai bit ln i vi mt c trng n. Nu nh vic quay lui trong qu trnh tm kim s tng thch nht cn thit th mt dy c nhim v lu tr cc entry trc trong qu trnh x l tm kim, c gi l backtrace array.

1.5.1.2 Gii thut DTW i xng

Ting ni l mt qu trnh ph thuc vo thi gian. Ting ni c nhiu m tit tng t nhau nhng vi khong thi gian pht m khc nhau, hoc c m tit ng m nhng khc ch nhn m, v.v phn tch c s sai bit ton c gia hai mu ting ni (i din bi mt chui cc vector), vn v thi gian phi c xem xt.

48

Bi ton c m t hnh 0, m t mt ma trn hai chiu theo thi gian s dng cho vic canh chnh theo thi gian. Ct l m t cho ting ni mu (template) v dng l ting ni thu c cn nhn dng. Trong hnh minh ha, tn hiu vo SsPEEhH c xem l mt dng nhiu ca ting ni mu. Tn hiu vo ny s c so snh trng vi tt c cc mu ting ni c lu tr trong h thng. Mu c tng thch tt nht s c sai bit nh nht so vi tn hiu vo cn so snh. Gi tr sai bit ton cc l tng cc sai bit cc b ca vic so snh.

Hnh 1.44 M t canh chnh thi gian gia mu ting ni SPEECH v tn hiu ting ni u vo SsPEEhH Lm cch no c th tnh c tng thch tt nht (c gi tr sai bit ton cc nh nht) gia tn hiu cn so snh v ting ni mu? Vic ny c thc hin bng cch c lng tt c khong cch c th c, nhng cch ny khng hiu qu khi s lng khong cch c dng hm m theo chiu di ca tn hiu ng vo. Thay vo , ta xem xt nhng rng buc tn ti trong qu trnh so trng (hoc c th p t cc rng buc ny) v dng nhng rng buc ny c c gii thut hiu qu hn. Cc rng buc c thit lp phi khng phc tp v cng khng hn ch nhiu, nh: Cc khong cch so trng khng th thc hin vic i lui; Mi khung ca tn hiu cn so trng phi c dng trong qu trnh so trng; Cc gi tr sai bit cc b c kt hp bng phng php cng dn vo gi tr sai bit ton cc. Mi khung trong tn hiu cn so trng vi mu ting ni c xem xt ng vi tng tnh ton sai bit. Nu thi im ang xt l (i, j ) , vi i l ch s ca khung tn hiu ng vo, j l ca khung ting ni mu, th cc v tr trc l (i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) . tng chnh ca lp trnh ng l ti v tr (i, j ) , vic tnh ton d trn sai bit nh nht ca cc v tr

(i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) .
Gii thut lp trnh ng thc hin cn phi ng b thi gian: mi ct ca ma trn thi gian-thi gian c xem nh l mt s k v cc tnh ton trc , do , ng vi mt mu ting ni c chiu di N , s lng bc so trng ti a l N . Gi D (i, j ) , d (i, j ) tng ng l sai bit ton cc v sai bit cc b ti v tr

(i, j ) .

D(i, j ) = min[D(i 1, j 1), D(i 1, j ), D(i, j 1)] + d (i, j )

(1)

49

Vi D(1,1) = d (1,1) l gi tr khi to ban u, gii thut ng dng qui vo vic tnh ton cc sai bit ti D (i, j ) . Gi tr cui D ( n, N ) chnh l gi tr chnh lch gia template v tn hiu cn so snh, lu rng N s khc nhau ng vi mi template. i vi vic nhn dng ting ni, gii thut DP khng cn phi chy trn cc my tnh c b nh ln, vic lu tr c thc hin bi mt array, lu gia tng ct n trong ma trn thi gian-thi gian. Ma trn c v tr u tin c gi tr l 0, nh vy ch nhng hng di chuyn trong ma trn c m t hnh 1 mi c th xut pht t v tr (i, j ) .

Hnh 1.45 Ba hng c tng thch tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut DTW i xng. Phng trnh (1) c thc hin bng phng php quy. Tuy nhin, tr khi ngn ng c ti u cho vic quy, phng php ny c th tn nhiu thi gian ngay c i vi nhng tn hiu cn so snh c kch thc nh. Mt phng php khc c th ci tin c tc x l cng nh cn b nh thc thi nh hn l dng hai vng lp, s dng hai array lu tr cc ct k vi ma trn thi gian-thi gian.

Hnh 1.46 V tr (i, j ) v (i,0) c cc nh hng khc nhau. T (i,0) ch c th i t

(i 1,0) . Tuy nhin ti (i, j ) th c th i n 3 nh mc nh.

Gii thut tm chi ph ton cc nh nht: 50

1. Tnh ti ct 0, bt u t y ca . Gi tr chi ph ton c ca bng gi tr chi ph cc b. Sau , tnh ton gi tr chi ph ton cc ca cc c kh nng cho c gi tr thp bng cch ly gi tr chi ph cc b ca cng thm cho gi tr ton cc ca ngay di , ny c gi l predCol (predecessor column). 2. Tnh gi tr chi ph ton cc ca u tin ca ct k tip l curCol. Gi tr cc b ca cng thm cho gi tr ton cc ca pha di cng ca ct trc n. 3. Tnh gi tr ton cc ca cc cn li ca curCol. 4. curCol c nh l predCol v lp li bc 2 cho n khi tt c cc ct c tnh ton xong. 5. Gi tr chi ph ton cc ti v tr ct cui cng, dng trn cc l gi tr cn tm. M gii ca qu trnh nh sau:

1.5.1.3 Gii thut DTW bt i xng

Mc d gii thut c bn DP c u im l i xng (tt c cc khung ca tn hiu cn so trng v mu ting ni cn tham kho c xem xt), tuy nhin gii thut vn cn yu im l ti cc v tr ct v hng l thuc vo cc v tr ng cho c th sinh li. Mt cch trnh vic ny l thc hin vic dng d (i, j ) hai ln trong mi bc ti v tr ng chp, iu ny dn n loi b li ti cc v tr ct v hng, gi gi tr li c lp d h , d v tng ng cho cc bc di chuyn theo hng v ct. Phng trnh (1) s tr thnh (2)

D(i, j ) = min[D(i 1, j 1) + 2d (i, j ), D(i 1, j ) + d (i + j ) + d h , D (i, j 1) + d (i, j ) + d v ]

Vi gi tr d h , d v c c qua thc nghim Cc rng buc trong vic nhy n cc k tip: (i 1, j 2) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ng cho m rng ( c l 2)
(i 1, j 1) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ong cho chun ( dc l 1) (i 1, j ) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ng ngang ( dc l 0) Gi s rng mi khung ca tn hiu ng vo ch c xt n mt ln duy nht, nh vy ta c th khng xt n vic chun ha di ca mu ting ni. Do vic tnh ton ti tng khc nhau nn gii thut c gi l gii thut lp trnh ng bt i xng.

51

Hnh 1.47 Ba hng c gi tr so trng tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut DTW bt i xng.

Hnh 1.48 Cc v tr ti (i, j ) , (i,0) v (i,1) c cc nh hng khc nhau. Ti

(i,0) ch c th i n (i 1,0) ; ti (i,1) c th i n (i 1,1) hoc (i 1,0) ; ti (i, j ) c

th i n cc v tr chun.

Hnh 1.49 Vng t mu m t vng m cc hng di chuyn khng bao gi i n. Cc hnh ch nht m t l cc trng hp c bit. Trong gii thut DTW i xng, dng 0 l trng 52

hp c bit, cn trong gii thut DTW bt i xng, dng 1 c x l khc vi cc trng hp cn li. Cc trng hp c bit thng xy ra ti v tr j = 2i 1 , v j = 2i , gi tr chi ph ton cc cho tng trng hp c tnh nh sau: 2i 1 : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol [ j 1] v predCol [ j 2] 2i : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol [ j 2] M gi ca qu trnh nh sau:

Gi tr chi ph nh nht l ct cui cng lu trong highestJ

1.5.2

M hnh chui markov n [15]

1.5.2.1 Tng quan

M hnh Markov (Hidden Markov Model - HMM) n c s dng trong vic thng k m hnh to m thoi. Tnh hiu qu ca m hnh c th hin trong vic c th m t c im ca tn hiu m thoi theo dng ton hc d dng cho vic x l tn hiu. Cc trng thi ca HMM c c trc khi thc hin vic x l cc trng thi (trch cc thng s). Nh th, ng vo ca HMM chnh l chui cc thng s vector ri rc theo thi gian.

1.5.2.2 nh ngha m hnh Markov n

M hnh Markov n l mt tp cc trng thi hu hn, m mi trng thi c lin quan n hm phn phi xc sut. Vic chuyn tip gia cc trng thi c nh ngha bi mt tp xc sut c gi l xc sut chuyn tip (transition probability). Trong mt trng thi c th, kt qu c th c to ra da trn hm phn phi xc sut tng ng. Kt qu ny khng phi l mt 53

trng thi c th nhn thy c thng qua vic quan st cc trng thi, cho nn c gi l m hnh Markov n. Trong m hnh Markov n, cc k hiu sau y c s dng S lng trng thi ca m hnh, N . S lng k hiu quan st theo th t, M . Nu vic quan st l lin tc th c gi tr M l v hn Tp cc trng thi xc sut chuyn tip = aij

{ }

aij = p{qt +1 = j qt = i}, 1 i, j N vi qt l trng thi hin ti.

Xc sut trng thi chuyn tip phi tha mn rng buc trc giao sau

aij 0,
-

1 i, j N v

a
j =1

ij

=1 ,

1 i N

Hm phn phi xc sut ca mi trng thi B = b j (k )

b j (k ) = p{at = vk qt = j},

1 j N,

1 k M vi vk nh ngha cho k hiu

M

quan st th k theo th t alphabet, v at l vector thng s hin ti. iu kin

b j (k ) 0,
-

1 j N,

1 k M v

b (k ) = 1,
k =1 j

1 j N

Nu vic quan st l lin tc th phi dng hm mt xc sut lin tc thay cho xc sut ri rc. Trong trng hp ny, cc thng s ca hm mt xc sut lin tc phi c nh r. Thng thng mt xc sut xp x vi trng s tng M ca phn b Gaussian

b j (at ) = c jm ( jm , jm , at ) vi
m =1

c jm

= h s trng s = vector trung bnh = ma trn ng bin

1 m M v

jm
jm

c jm tha cc iu kin c jm 0, 1 j N ,
-

c
m =1

jm

= 1,

1 j N

Trng thi ban u ca hm phn phi = { i } vi i = p{qi = i},

1 i N

K hiu = (, B, ) dng cho HMM vi hm phn phi xc sut ri rc, v

= (, c jm , jm , jm , ) dng cho HMM vi hm mt xc sut lin tc

ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi c lp ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc

Mt s ng dng m hnh Markov n trong thc tin l:

ng dng HMM trong vic x l cu trc a cp cho vn phm ting Anh ng dng HMM trong hc bn tho vit tay

54

1.5.2.3 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi c lp

Nhn dng c lp vi ngha tng qut l nhn dng m thoi da trn bt k loi n v m thoi c lp, c th l mt t hoc l mt phn ca t hoc l mt s t lin tc nhau. c bit vic nhn dng mt phn ca t trong ch c lp c th c c kt qu tt trong vic nhn dng cc t lin tc nhau ng vi cng k thut nhn dng. Trong vn nhn dng m thoi n v c lp, gi s t vng cha N m thoi n v, ta dng h thng m t hnh 1.1

Hnh 1.50 B nhn dng m thoi n v c lp C rt nhiu gii php cho vic nhn dng ny, v c rt nhiu cc tiu chun la chn ti u, trong tiu chun MMI l phng php da vo Gradient. Phng php ny gm hai phn nh: hun luyn v nhn dng, s dng mi mt HMM cho vic nhn dng tng n v m thoi.

1.5.2.4 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc

Trong ch c lp, ta s dng mt HMM cho tng n v m thoi, cn trong trng hp nhn dng lin tc, h thng cn nhn dng mt chui cc m n v kt ni li vi nhau, i khi cn nhn din c mt cu, hoc nhiu cu. Khi s lng cu c th rt ln. Phng php thc hin cng tng t nh trong nhn dng m thoi c lp, bao gm hai bc hun luyn v nhn dng. Bc hun luyn c th dng hoc l tiu chun MMI hoc l ML, v bc nhn dng c th s dng cc phng php nh nhn dng trn c s Veterbi, xy dng cp , tm kim Ntt nht v tnh ton hiu sut b nhn dng.

1.5.3

Mng nron

1.5.3.1 Tng quan

Mng neural nhn to (Artificial Neural Network - ANN) l mt m hnh x l thng tin da trn c ch hot ng ca h thng thn kinh sinh hc, nh no b. Thnh phn chnh yu ca m hnh ny l cu trc c bit ca h thng ny. N tp hp mt s lng ln cc phn t x l kt hp ni ti (c gi l cc neuron) hot ng hp nht gii quyt cc bi ton c th. Mt ANN s c cu hnh cho mt ng dng c th no , v d nh nhn dng m hnh hoc phn loi d liu thng qua qu trnh hc. Vic hc trong h thng nhm mc ch iu chnh cc kt ni thuc k tip hp c phn chia trong t bo m c sn gia cc neuron. Neuron nhn to u tin c to ra vo nm 1943 bi nh nghin cu neuron hc Warren McCulloch v nh logic hc Walter Pits. Nhng k thut thi khng cho php neuron pht trin c cc th mnh ca n. Mng neuron ny nay c nhiu ci tin cng nh p ng 55

c cc yu cu t ra ca cc bi ton, mt s u im ca mng neuron ngy nay so vi thi trc l: 1. Hc thch ng: c kh nng hc cch thc thc hin cng vic da trn cc d liu cho sn trong qu trnh hun luyn hoc nh cc thng s ban u 2. Kh nng t t chc: mt ANN c th t thn t chc hoc miu t cc thng tin m n nhn c trong sut thi gian hc 3. Hiu chnh li thng qua m ha thng tin d tha: c th hy mt phn mng lm cho hiu sut h thng gim. Tuy nhin, mt s mng c kh nng nh c phn mng hy.

1.5.3.2 Phng php hc ca no ngi

Trong no ngi, mt neuron s thc hin nhim v thu thp cc tn hiu t cc neuron khc thng qua cc cu trc thn kinh phc tp c gi l dng cy. Neuron gi cac hot ng in thng qua s mng, di, gi l si trc thn kinh axon, c phn chia thnh hng ngn nhnh nh. Ti cui mi nhnh, mt cu trc c gi l khp thn kinh synapse s chuyn i cc hot ng t axon thnh cc hiu ng in thc hin vic c ch hoc kch thch hoc ng ny i vi cc neuron kt ni ti nhnh. Khi mt neuron nhn c tn hiu kch thch u vo c mc so snh tng i ln so vi tn hiu cm ng vo, neuron s gi mt gai in n axon ca n. Vic hc xy ra theo cch thc thay i hiu lc ca khp thn kinh dn n vic truyn thng tin t mt neuron n mt neuron khc v s thay i.

Hnh 1.51 Cc thnh phn ca mt neuron

Hnh 1.52 Khp thn kinh

1.5.3.3 T neuron ngi n neuron nhn to

Thc hin qun l cc mng neuron bng cch u tin tm cch suy lun bn cht ca cc neuron v cc kt ni ni ti bn trong. Sau thc hin vic lp trnh gi lp cc c tnh ny. Tuy nhin, do nhn thc v cc neuron khng y cng nh nng lc ca vic tnh ton l c

56

gii hn, cho nn m hnh mng neuron nhn to so vi mng neuron ngi thuc dng l tng v n gin hn.

Hnh 1.53 M hnh neuron

Hnh 1.54 M hnh ha m hnh neuron M phng hot ng ca cc neuron thn kinh, mng neuron nhn to l h thng bao gm nhiu phn t x l n gin (neuron) hot ng song song. Tnh nng ca h thng ny ty thuc vo cu trc ca h, cc trng s lin kt neuron v qu trnh tnh ton ti cc neuron n l. Mng neuron c th t d liu mu v tng qut ho da trn cc d liu mu hc.

Hnh 1.55 M hnh mng Neuron theo cc lp Mt nhm cc neuron c t chc theo mt cch sao cho tt c chng u nhn cng mt vector vo X x l ti cng mt thi im. Vic sn sinh ra tn hiu ra ca mng xut hin cng mt lc. V mi neuron c mt tp trng s khc nhau nn c bao nhiu neuron s sn sinh ra by nhiu tn hiu ra khc nhau. Mt nhm cc neuron nh vy c gi l mt lp mng. Chng ta c th kt hp nhiu lp mng to ra mt mng c nhiu lp, lp nhn tn hiu u vo (vector tn hiu vo x ) c gi l lp vo (input layer). Trn thc t chng thc hin nh mt b 57

m cha tn hiu u vo. Cc tn hiu u ra ca mng c sn sinh ra t lp ra ca mng (output layer). Bt k lp no nm gia 2 lp mng trn c gi l lp n (hidden layer) v n l thnh phn ni ti ca mng v khng c tip xc no vi mi trng bn ngoi. S lng lp n c th t 0 n vi lp. M hnh neuron nhn to i hi 3 thnh phn c bn sau: - Tp trng s lin kt c trng cho cc khp thn kinh. - B cng (Sum) thc hin php tnh tng cc tch tn hiu vo vi trng s lin kt tng ng - Hm kch hot (squashing function) hay hm chuyn (transfer function) thc hin gii hn u vo ca neuron. Trong m hnh neuron nhn to mi neuron c ni vi cc neuron khc v nhn c tn hiu

xi t chng vi cc trng s wi . Tng thng tin vo c trng s l: Net = w j x j .

1.5.3.4 ng dng mng neuron trong nhn dng ting ni
Mng neuron (Neuron Network) l mt cng c c kh nng gii quyt c nhiu bi ton kh, thc t nhng nghin cu v mng neuron a ra mt cch tip cn khc vi nhng cch tip cn truyn thng trong l thuyt nhn dng. Trong thc t, mng neuron c trin khai c hiu qu trong nhn dng ting ni thng dng mng neuron lan truyn ngc hng (Backpropagation Neural Network) hoc kt hp vi phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC (Linear Predictive Coding).

1.5.3.4.1 S lc v l thuyt nhn dng

L thuyt nhn dng l phng php xy dng mt h thng tin hc c kh nng: cm nhn-nhn thc-nhn bit cc i tng vt l gn ging kh nng ca con ngi. Nhn dng c gn cht vi 3 kh nng trn l mt lnh vc ht sc rng c lin quan n vic x l tn hiu trong khng gian nhiu chiu, m hnh, th, ngn ng, c s d liu, phng php ra quyt nh... H thng nhn dng phi c kh nng th hin c qu trnh nhn thc ca con ngi qua cc mc: - Mc 1- mc cm nhn: cm nhn c s tn ti cc i tng quan st, hay i tng m h thng cn nhn dng. Mc ny cng a ra qu trnh thu nhn s liu qua cc b cm bin trong h thng nhn dng, v d trong h thng nhn dng ting ni: i tng y l ting ni (speech) v thu nhn u vo qua Micro hoc cc file m thanh .wav. - Mc 2- mc nhn thc: y biu din qu trnh hc, m hnh ho i tng tin ti hnh thnh s phn lp (classification) cc i tng cn nhn dng. - Mc 3- mc nhn bit: t i tng quan st c th tr li nhn bit i tng l g ? Hay y l qu trnh ra quyt nh.

Hnh 1.56 S tng quan ca h thng nhn dng

1.5.3.4.2 Nhn dng ting ni dng mng Neuron

Hnh 1.57 m t chc nng c bn ca h thng nhn dng ting ni 58

Hnh 1.57 S khi m t h thng nhn dng ting ni Phng n la chn s nt ca tng lp trong mng: theo kinh nghim ca cc chuyn gia v mng neuron trong cc bi ton phn lp c s dng mng lan truyn ngc hng, s dng 1 lp tnh ton l lp mng Kohonen lm lp n. Vic xc nh s neuron cho tng lp. + S neuron lp vo = s chiu ca vector vo + S neuron lp Kohonen = s gi tr cc tp tr li + S neuron lp ra = s lng kt qu u ra, s dng phng php m ho bng s bit biu din s lng kt qu Phng php hc cnh tranh ca lp n v qu trnh hc c ch o ti lp ra ca mng theo cc bc sau: + Khi to trng s: cc thnh phn ma trn trng s c khi to bi gi tr ngu nhin + c tn hiu vo cho mng: d liu trong file mu cha thng tin mu hc v cho kt qu gm 2 thnh phn: mng 1 chiu cha vector tn hiu vo v mng 2 chiu cha ma trn trng s lin kt ban u ca lp Kohonen + Hiu chnh ma trn trng s lp Kohonen: hiu chnh trng s lin kt neuron lp n Kohonen sao cho mng c th hc mu tt nht. Phng php nhn dng - u vo: file cha d liu tn hiu ting ni cn nhn dng v file cha thng tin trng s lin kt neuron lp n v lp ra. Ngoi ra u vo ngun m cng c th l t micro thng qua sound card, lc ny d liu ting ni c c trong buffer d liu ca Windows. - u ra: kt qu cn nhn dng Qu trnh nhn dng ting ni c thc hin qua cc bc: + c tn hiu vo: c d liu t file wav hoc t buffer d liu m thanh + X l tn hiu ging nh chc nng phn tch LPC trn + c ma trn trng s lin kt lp n v lp ra ca mng + Xc nh neuron trung tm + Tra cu kt qu: tra cu trn bn topo mng neuron a ra gi tr cn nhn dng.

59

CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH

2.1

TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S

X l nh s l lnh vc khoa hc tng i mi m v c quan tm nhiu hin nay. Hai ng dng c bn ca x l nh l nng cao cht lng hnh nh v x l nh cng nh video s vi mc ch lu tr hoc truyn qua cc h thng truyn dn hnh nh. Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti nhng vn sau: 1- Gii thiu khi nim c bn v nh s v x l video s, xc nh ranh gii ca lnh vc x l nh. 2- Gii thiu cc ng dng quan trng ca x l nh trong mt s lnh vc khoa hc 3- Xc nh cc giai on c bn trong qu trnh x l nh; 4- Gii thiu cc thnh phn ca h thng x l nh tng qut. Khi nim c bn v x l nh Hnh nh tnh c th c biu din bi hm hai chiu f(x,y), trong , x v y l ta khng gian phng (2 chiu). Khi xt nh "en-trng", gi tr hm f ti mt im c xc nh bi ta (x,y) c gi l chi (mc xm) ca nh ti im ny. Nu x,y,v f l mt s hin hu cc gi tr ri rc, chng ta c nh s. X l nh s l qu trnh bin i nh s trn my tnh (PC). Nh vy, nh s c to ra bi mt s hu hn cc im nh, mi im nh nm ti mt v tr nht nh v c 1 gi tr nht nh. Mt im nh trong mt nh cn c gi l mt pixel. H thng th gic l c quan cm nhn hnh nh quang hc tng i hon ho, cho php con ngi cm nhn c hnh nh quang hc trong thin nhin. ng dng quan trng nht ca x l nh l bin i tnh cht ca nh s nhm to ra cm nhn v s gia tng cht lng hnh nh quang hc trong h thng th gic. Tuy nhin, mt ngi ch cm nhn c sng in t c bc sng hn ch trong vng nhn thy c, do nh theo quan nim thng thng gn lin vi hnh nh quang hc m mt ngi c th cm nhn. Trong khi "nh" a vo x l c th c to ra bi cc ngun bc x c ph rng hn, t sng v tuyn ti tia gamma, v d: nh do sng siu m hoc tia X to ra. Nhiu h thng x l nh c th tng tc vi nhng "nh" nu trn, v vy trn thc t, lnh vc x l nh c phm vi tng i rng, v lin quan ti nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc. C th tm phn bit cc h thng x l nh theo mc phc tp ca thut ton x l nh sau: 1- X l nh mc thp: l cc qu trnh bin i n gin nh thc hin cc b lc nhm kh nhiu trong nh, tng cng tng phn hay nt ca nh. Trong trng hp ny, tn hiu a vo h thng x l v tn hiu u ra l nh quang hc. 2.1.1

60

2- X l nh mc trung: qu trnh x l phc tp hn, thng c s dng phn lp, phn an nh, xc nh v d an bin nh, nn anh lu tr hoc truyn pht. c im ca cc h thng x l nh mc trung l tn hiu u vo l hnh nh, cn tn hiu u ra l cc thnh phn c tch ra t hnh nh gc, hoc lung d liu nhn c sau khi nn nh. 3- X l nh mc cao: l qu trnh phn tch v nhn dng hnh nh. y cng l qu trnh x l c thc hin trong h thng th gic ca con ngi. Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh Nh ni trn, cc k thut x l nh trc y ch yu c s dng nng cao cht lng hnh nh, chnh xc hn l to cm gic v s gia tng cht lng nh quang hc trong mt ngi quan st. Thi gian gn y, phm vi ng dng x l nh m rng khng ngng, c th ni hin khng c lnh vc khoa hc no khng s dng cc thnh tu ca cng ngh x l nh s . Trong y hc cc thut tan x l nh cho php bin i hnh nh c to ra t ngun bc x X -ray hay ngun bc x siu m thnh hnh nh quang hc trn b mt film x-quang hoc trc tip trn b mt mn hnh hin th. Hnh nh cc c quan chc nng ca con ngi sau c th c x l tip nng cao tng phn, lc, tch cc thnh phn cn thit (chp ct lp) hoc to ra hnh nh trong khng gian ba chiu (siu m 3 chiu). Trong lnh vc a cht, hnh nh nhn c t v tinh c th c phn tch xc nh cu trc b mt tri t. K thut lm ni ng bin (image enhancement) v khi phc hnh nh (image restoration) cho php nng cao cht lng nh v tinh v to ra cc bn a hnh 3-D vi chnh xc cao. 2.1.2

Hnh 2.1.1 nh nhn c t v tinh dng trong kh tng hc Trong ngnh kh tng hc, nh nhn c t h thng v tinh theo di thi tit cng c x l, nng cao cht lng v ghp hnh to ra nh b mt tri t trn mt vng rng ln, qua c th thc hin vic d bo thi tit mt cch chnh xc hn. Da trn cc kt qu phn tch nh v tinh ti cc khu vc ng dn c cn c th d an qu trnh tng trng dn s, tc nhim mi trng cng nh cc yu t nh hng ti mi trng sinh 61

thi. nh chp t v tinh c th thu c thng qua cc thit b ghi hnh cm nhn c tia sng quang hc ( = 450 520 nm ) (hnh 2a), hoc tia hng ngoi ( = 760 900 nm ) (hnh

2b). Trn hnh 2a v 2b ln lt l nh b mt tri t nhn c t 2 ng ghi hnh ni trn, d dng nhn thy s khc bit r rng gia hai nh. c bit trn nh 2b, hnh con sng c tch bit rt r rng so vi vng nh hai bn b. Thit b thu hnh nhy cm vi vt th bc x cc tia trong min hng ngoi s cho ra nhng bc nh trong vt th c nhit thp s c phn bit r rng so vi vt th c nhit cao hn. Nh vy vic la chn cc thit b ghi hnh khc nhau s to ra nh c c tnh khc nhau, ty thuc vo mc ch s dng trong cc lnh vc khoa hc c th .

2.2.1a

2.2.1b

Hnh 2.1.2 - nh b mt tri t thu c t hai camera khc nhau X l nh cn c s dng nhiu trong cc h thng qun l cht lng v s lng hng ha trong cc dy truyn t ng, v d nh h thng phn tch nh pht hin bt kh bn vt th c bng nha, pht hin cc linh kin khng t tiu chun (b bin dng) trong qu trnh sn xut hoc h thng m sn phm thng qua hnh nh nhn c t camera quan st. X l nh cn c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc hnh s v cc h thng bo mt hoc kim sot truy cp: qu trnh x l nh vi mc ch nhn dng vn tay hay khun mt cho php pht hin nhanh cc i tng nghi vn cng nh nng cao hiu qu h thng bo mt c nhn cng nh kim sot ra vo. Ngoi ra, c th k n cc ng dng quan trng khc ca k thut x l nh tnh cng nh nh ng trong i sng nh t ng nhn dng, nhn dng mc tiu qun s, my nhn cng nghip trong cc h thng iu khin t ng, nn nh tnh, nh ng lu v truyn trong mng vin thng v.v.
Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh 1Thu nhn hnh nh: y l giai on u tin v quan trng nht trong tan b qu trnh x l nh. nh nhn c ti y chnh l nh gc a vo x l ti cc giai on sau, trng hp nh gc c cht lng km hiu qu ca cc bc x l tip theo s b gim. Thit b thu nhn c th l cc ng ghi hnh chn khng (vidicon, plumbicon v.v.) hoc thit b cm bin quang in bn dn CCD (Charge-Coupled Device). 2.1.3

62

2Tin x l nh: giai on x l tng i n gin nhm nng cao cht lng nh tr gip cho cc qu trnh x l nng cao tip theo, v d: tng tng phn, lm ni ng bin, kh nhiu v.v. 3Phn on: l qu trnh tch hnh nh thnh cc phn hoc vt th ring bit. y l mt trong nhng vn kh gii quyt nht trong lnh vc x l nh. Nu thc hin tch qu chi tit th bi ton nhn dng cc thnh phn c tch ra tr nn phc tp, cn ngc li nu qu trnh phn on c thc hin qu th hoc phn an sai th kt qu nhn c cui cng s khng chnh xc. 4Biu din v m t: l qu trnh x l tip sau khu phn on hnh nh. Cc vt th sau khi phn an c th c m t di dng chui cc im nh to nn ranh gii mt vng, hoc tp hp tt c cc im nh nm trong vng . Phng php m t thng qua ranh gii vng thng c s dng khi cn tp trung s ch vo hnh dng bn ngai ca chi tit nh nh cong, cc gc cnh v.v. Biu din vng thng c s dng khi chng ta quan tm ti c tnh bn trong ca vng nh nh ng vn (texture) hay hnh dng skeletal. 5Nn nh - bao gm cc bin php gim thiu dung lng b nh cn thit lu tr hnh nh, hay gim bng thng knh truyn, cn thit truyn tn hiu hnh nh s. 6Nhn dng: l qu trnh phn loi vt th da trn c s cc chi tit m t vt th (v d cc phng tin giao thng c trong nh). Cc qu trnh x l lit k trn u c thc hin di s gim st v iu khin da trn c s cc kin thc v lnh vc x l nh. Cc kin thc c bn c th n gin nh v tr vng nh ni c nhng thng tin cn quan tm, nh vy c th thu nh vng tm kim. Trng hp phc tp hn, c s kin thc c th cha danh sch tt c nhng h hng c th gp trong qu trnh kim sat cht lng thnh phm hoc cc nh v tinh c chi tit cao trong cc h thng theo di s thay i mi trng trong mt vng. Ngoi vic iu khin hat ng ca tng modul x l nh (hnh 2.1.3), c s kin thc cn s dng thc hin vic iu khin tng tc gia cc modules. Trong hnh 2.1.3, qu trnh iu khin ni trn c biu din bng mi tn hai chiu.

63

Hnh 2.1.3 Cc giai on x l nh s

Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s Cu trc mt h thng x l nh a dng dng thc hin cc giai on x l nh cp trn c m t trn hnh 2.1.4.
Mn hnh hin th B nh trong

2.1.4

B nh ngoi

My tnh

Phn mm x l nh

B x l hnh nh chuyn dng

Thit b thu nhn hnh nh

Hnh 2.1.4 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh

Thit b thu nhn hnh nh: l thit b bin i quang-in, cho php bin i hnh nh quang hc thnh tn hiu in di dng analog hay trc tip di dng s. C nhiu dng cm bin cho php lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy hoc hng ngoi. Hai loi thit b bin i quang in ch yu thng c s dng l n ghi hnh in t v chip CCD (Charge Couple Device linh kin ghp in tch).

64

ng vidicon l i din tiu biu cho h n ghi hnh in t c s dng tng i rng ri trong camera mu cng nh en trng. ng Vidicon c kch thc nh gn (ng knh 18-25 mm, chiu di 10-12 cm), nh, cu to n gin, d s dng. n hnh ny s dng nguyn l hiu ng quang in trong v nguyn l tch ly in tch. Chip CCD l linh kin bn dn c kh nng bin i nng lng quang ph thnh tn hiu in. Thnh phn chnh ca chip CCD l cc t in MOS (Metal-OxideSemiconductor). T in MOS c hnh thnh bi ba lp: mt m t bng kim loi, cht in mi nm gia l lp SiO2 v mt m t bng lp bn dn loi p hoc n (hnh 2.1.5).
ien cc kim loai

+U

Nen ban dan "p"

Hnh 2.1.5 Cu trc t in MOS

Mt chui t in MOS phn b u trn b mt chip CCD c biu din trn hnh 2.1.6a, mi t in vi b mt cm quang l m bn dn s to ra mt im trn hnh nh thu c.Theo phng php dch chuyn in tch, cc chip CCD c th chia ra lm hai loi: CCD dng chui (mt chiu) v dng ma trn (hai chiu). Trn Hnh 2.1.6a l cu trc chip CCD dng chui, qu trnh ghi (tch in) v c c thc hin ti hai khu vc khc nhau, gi l min tch in v min nh. Hai khu vc trn c ngn cch bi cng chuyn dch. Sau khi kt thc qu trnh tch in ti cc phn t cm quang, in tch s c truyn song song qua cng chuyn dch vo thanh dch ngang (khng nhy cm vi nh sng) tc min nh. Sau khi cng chuyn dch ng li, qu trnh ghi v c ti hai min ni trn s c tin hnh song song.

65

Hnh 2.1.6 Cu trc chip CCD a) dng chui b) dng ma trn

Chip CCD s dng trong my quay video thng c cu trc ma trn (hnh 2.16b). Cc phn t cm quang trong CCD tp hp thnh ma trn hai chiu, qu trnh c tn hiu c thc hin theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. C nhiu cch t chc qu trnh ghi v c tn hiu trong CCD, nhng ph bin nht l phng php dch chuyn tng nh. Khi s dng phng php ny, trong chip CCD c thit k mt min nh, khng tip xc vi nh sng v c din tch bng min tch ly l ma trn cc phn t cm quang. in tch thu c ti min tch ly c chuyn v min nh. Sau , qu trnh ghi nh ti min tch ly v c nh t min nh vo thanh dch ngang s c tin hnh song song.Tng dng nh c dch chuyn xung thanh dch ngang, sau cc gi in tch ng vi cc im trong dng nh s c y ra ln lt khi thanh dch. Sau khi ton b nh trong min nh c c ra ht, mt nh mi t min tch ly s li c chuyn v y.Vi nhng tnh nng vt tri trc ng ghi hnh in t c in, linh kin bin i - quang in CCD c s dng rt rng ri trong cng ngh truyn hnh v nh s. Hu ht cc camera quay video dn dng v bn chuyn nghip (semi-professional) c thit k trn c s chip CCD.
B nh trong v ngoi trong cc h thng x l nh s thng c dung lng rt ln dng lu tr nh tnh v ng di dng s. V d, lu mt nh s en trng kch thc 1024x1024 im, mi im c m ha bng 8 bits cn b nh ~1MB. lu mt nh mu khng nn, dung lng b nh phi tng ln gp 3. B nh s trong h thng x l nh c th chia lm 3 loi: 1- b nh m trong my tnh lu nh trong qu trnh x l. B nh ny phi c kh nng ghi/c rt nhanh (v d 25 hnh/s); 2- b nh ngoi c tc truy cp tng i nhanh, dng lu thng tin thng dng. Cc b nh ngoi c th l cng, th nh flash v.v.. 3- B nh dng lu tr d liu. Loi b nh ny thng c dung lng ln, tc truy cp khng cao. Thng dng nht l a quang ghi 1 ln (ROM) hoc nhiu ln (ROM) nh a DVD c dung lng 4.7GB (mt mt). Ngoi ra trong h thng x l nh cn s dng cc thit b cho php lu nh trn vt liu khc nh giy in, giy in nhit, giy trong, c th l my in phun, in laser, in trn giy nh c bit bng cng ngh nung nng v.v.

66

B x l nh chuyn dng:

X dng chip x l nh chuyn dng, c kh nng thc hin nhanh cc lnh chuyn dng trong x l nh. Cho php thc hin cc qu trnh x l nh nh lc, lm ni ng bao, nn v gii nn video s v.v.. Trong b x l nh thng tch hp b nh m c tc cao.
Mn hnh hin th: H thng bin i in - quang hay n hnh (en trng cng nh mu) c nhim v bin i tn hiu in c cha thng tin ca nh (tn hiu video) thnh hnh nh trn mn hnh. C hai dng display c s dng rng ri l n hnh CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube) v mn hnh tinh th lng LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). n hnh CRT thng c kh nng hin th mu sc tt hn mn hnh LCD nn c dng ph bin trong cc h thng x l nh chuyn nghip. My tnh: c th l my tnh bn cng nh siu my tnh c chc nng iu khin tt c cc b phn chc nng trong h thng x l nh s. Biu din nh s Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti mt s nhng kin thc c bn v k hiu c s dng trong lnh vc x l nh. l cc vn v nh sng, mu sc, kh nng tip thu hnh nh quanh hc ca h thng th gic. Tip theo l qu trnh bin i nh analog thnh tn hiu nh s, cch biu din hnh nh s, nh hng ca qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha ti cht lng nh s. Ngoi ra, trong phn ny s xt ti quan h tng quan gia cc im nh, nhng kin thc c bn ny s c s dng rng ri trong cc phn sau ca bi ging ny. 2.1.5.1 nh sng, mu sc v hnh nh Ph ca cc sng in t trong thin nhin tri di t tia gamma (10-12 m) n sng radio (10-4-104 m). Mt ngi ch cm nhn c nhng sng in t c bc sng t 380 nm (tia mu tm) n 780 nm (tia mu ) (hnh 2.1.7). 2.1.5

Hnh 2.1.7 Cc mu quang ph trong nh sng mt tri Cc bc x in t c bit ni trn c gi l nh sng. Trong lnh vc x l nh, ngi ta ch quan tm n phn nng lng bc x m mt ngi cm nhn c. Cc i lng trc quang c s dng nh gi tnh cht ca ngun sng: quang thng, sng, 67

 ri v chi. nh gi c tc ng ca nh sng ln mt ngi, chng ta phi lu n hai yu t quan trng: 1 Mt c nhy cm khng ng u i vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau. Trn th nhy ca mt ngi (Hnh 2.1.8) ta thy vng lc vng ( ~ 555 nm) l ni nhy cm nht ca mt. 2 Mt phn b cng sut ca cc ngun sng trong thin nhin khng ng u trn trc tn s (hnh 2.1.9).

tm 380

dng 460

luc 500

vang 590

cam 630

o 700

o nhay

Hnh 2.1.8 p ng ph ( nhy) ca mt ngi

Nang lng (tng oi)

1.5 1.0 0.5

4 3

Bc song (nm) 400 500 600 700

Hnh 2.1.9 th phn b cng sut ca cc ngun bc x: 1- Bu tri pha bc 2- n in 3- Mt tri 4- Ngun sng ng nng E sut trn trc tn s ( ) : Trng hp tng qut, mt ngun bc x c th c trng bi hm mt phn b cng

( ) =

dP ( ) d

(Watt/m)

(2.1.1)

- bc sng (m);

68

P ( )

cng sut ngun bc x c bc sng (Watt);

Cng sut ton phn ca ngun nh sng c ph lin tc (nh sng mt tri, ng sng n t nng v.v.) s bng:

P =

780 370

( ) d

(2.1.2)

c trng cho phn nng lng bc x c ch (cm nhn c bng mt) ta a ra khi nim quang thng F

F = K V ( ) ( ) d
370

780

(lumen 1)

(2.1.3)

V ( )

- hm nhy ph tng i ca mt ngi (khng c n v).

sng 555 nm, do V (555 nm ) = 1 .

Trn th V ( ) (hnh 2.1.8) ta thy mt ngi cm nhn tt nht tia bc x c bc

K l h s t l gia quang thng v cng sut bc x.

Mt s v d v n v quang thng: 1- Bng n si tc c thng c h s pht sng l 8 15 lumen/watt, khi cng sut bng l P=100 watt, quang thng ca n s bng F 800 15 00 lumen . 2- c hnh nh chi trn mn hnh 6x8m, quang thng ca n chiu phi t l 8000 lumen. Ni chung, quang thng ca mt ngun sng c th phn b khng ng u trong mi phng hng. Do ta nh ngha i lng sng I c trng cho kh nng pht sng ca ngun sng theo mt hng no (hnh 2.1.10):

I=

dF , (candela 2) d dS (sr steradian) r2

(2.1.4)

- gc khi; d =

dF quang thng truyn qua gc khi d.

1 2

Lumen (lat.) ngun sng

n v sng l candela (cd) l 1 trong su n v c bn h SI. 1 candela l sng o theo phng vung gc ca b mt platin, nhit ng c, (2046,5 K), c din tch 1/60=0.0053 cm2.

69

A d

n
dSo dS dF

Hnh 2.1.10 Minh ha sng ca ngun im

4 r 2 = 4 , do sng trung bnh ca ngun im 3 s Gc khi ln nht l = 2 r

bng ton b quang thng chia cho gc 4:

I tb =

FA FA = 4

Th d: Bng n si tc cng sut P=100 watt, F 800 1500 lumen , s cho sng trung bnh l:

I tb =

Fa 800 1500 = = 60 120 candela 4 4

Quang thng v sng l hai i lng c trng cho ngun sng. ri E l i lng c trng cho b mt c chiu sng. ri l mt phn b quang thng trn b mt c chiu sng:

E=

dF (lux 4) dS

(2.1.5)

1 lux l ri ln mt b mt khi 1 m2 b mt nhn c quang thng bng 1 lumen. Xt b mt c chiu sng dS bi ngun im A (Hnh 2.1.10). Din tch b mt hnh cu gii hn trong gc khi d l dS0., l gc gia php tuyn ca dS v php tuyn dS0.

Ngun im l ngun sng c kch thc (d) nh hn nhiu ln so vi khong cch (l) n b mt c chiu sng (l 10d).
4

lux (lat.) chiu sng

70

dS0 dS cos = ; r2 r2 dF Id I dS cos = = ES = dS dS dS r2 I cos ES = r2

(2.1.6)

Nh vy ri ca b mt c chiu sng bi ngun im t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch gia ngun sng v b mt . Bng di y cho ta ri trong mt s trng hp:
2.1.6 Bng 2.1.1

Vt c ri sng Mn hnh chiu bng (kino) Trng quay (studio) Trang sch lc c Vt th trong bng rm (ban ngy) Vt th ngoi nng

ri (lx) 40-200 2000 30 1000 100000

chi L l i lng c trng cho b mt pht sng (trong khi ri c trng cho b mt c chiu sng). chi l mt sng trn b mt pht sng. chi c trng cho mc sng ca ngun sng. Cho b mt pht sng S0. Theo hng trc giao vi S0, chi s bng:

L0 =

I0 S

(candel / m 2 )

(2.1.7)

n v chi cn gi l Nt ( Nt l chi ca ngun sng c din tch 1 m2 v cng sng l 1 candela theo hng vung gc vi b mt ngun sng) Di y l chi ca mt s ngun sng: Bng 2.1.2 Vt pht sng Mn hnh chiu phim Bng hnh TV Si tc n chiu sng Mt tri chi (cd/m2) 10-30 40-80 5 106- 107 1.5 109 71

2.1.6.1 Mu sc v cc thng s c trng Cm nhn v mu sc l kt qu ca s nhn bit ch quan ca mt ngi di tc ng ca nh sng. gii thch c ch cm nhn mu ca mt ngi, cc nh khoa hc a ra nhiu gi thuyt khc nhau, trong , thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu, do nh bc hc Nga Lmnxp a ra nm1756 c cng nhn rng ri hn c (T. Young nm 1801 cng a ra gi thit v ba nhm t bo cm nhn trong mt v m hnh mt ngi). Theo thuyt ny, cc t bo hnh nn trn vng mc c th chia ra ba loi. Mi loi t bo c bit nhy cm vi nhng vng ph nht nh trong di quang ph vng sng ngn (mu xanh lam - B), vng sng trung (mu lc - G) v vng sng di (mu - R). Nu kch thch ring r tng loi t bo, mt s cm nhn c cc mu sc bo ha tng ng. Khi qun st hnh nh khng c nhng mu bo ha, ngun sng ca nh c cha tt c cc thnh phn quang ph tc ng cng mt lc ln c ba loi t bo. Sng in t c bc sng khc nhau tc ng ln cc t bo khng ng u, s khc bit v t l kch thch s to nn cm nhn v cc sc mu khc nhau. Thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu c chng minh qua nhiu thc nghim v ph hp vi lut pha trn mu m chng ta s cp ti di y.

Trn phng din sinh hc (cm gic ch quan), nh sng c cm nhn thng qua ba i lng chnh l: sng, sc mu v bo ha mu. sng ph thuc vo cng sut ca ngun sng, ngun sng trng 500 W s c sng ln hn ngun sng trng 15 W. Sc mu (sc iu) l tnh cht c trng ca mu m qua ta nhn bit c mu , xanh, vng v.v. bo ha mu l cng v sc mu qua ta c th phn bit c mu thm hay mu nht v.v. Khi nh gi v s lng ca cc i lng trn (bng cch o lng khch quan) chng ta s s dng ba khi nim tng ng l: chi, bc sng tri v sch ca mu. Sc iu ca ngun sng tng ng vi bc sng c nng lng ln nht trong ph ca ngun sng , i lng ny c gi l bc sng tri . bo ha ca mt mu c bc sng tri c tnh bng:

p = F / ( F + FE )

(2.1.8)

p l sch mu, i lng xc nh s lng nh sng trng trong ngun sng hay pha long ca ngun sng . Nh vy, mu quang ph s c sch l p = 100% , i vi mu trng p = 0 . Da trn nhng tnh cht ca h th gic nh phn gii, tnh lu nh v thuyt ba thnh phn cm nhn mu, to ra cm gic v mt mu no , ngi ta c th thc hin pha trn cc mu c bn theo nhng phng php sau: 1. Phng php cng mu quang hc

72

Phng php ny da trn kh nng tng hp mu khi cc ngun bc x c chiu ln mt mt phng. Cc ngun bc x c th c ri cng mt lc hay ni tip nhau vi mt tc tng i ln (cn gi l php trn mu theo thi gian), khi , nh sng th cp phn x t b mt ca mt phng trn s mang li cho ngi quan st cm nhn v mt mu sc tng hp. Sc mu mi ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca cc bc x thnh phn (hnh 2.1.1).

Hnh 2.1.11 Trn cc mu c bn 2. Phng php trn mu khng gian

Khi trn mu khng gian, cc phn t nh mang sc mu c bn nm c lp vi nhau trong khng gian, nu nhng phn t ny nm gn nhau v c knh thc nh th mt cm nhn chng nh mt im nh, mu sc ca im nh ny ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca cc mu c bn. Hnh dng ca cc phn t c th l cc im trn hay vch mu nh. T l cng sut ca cc mu c bn c th thay i bng cch thay i chi ca cc phn t nh tham gia trn mu hay thay i kch thc ca chng. Vic ti to hnh nh mu trn mn hnh v tuyn thng c thc hin bng phng php trn mu trong khng gian. 3. Phng php tr

to ra mt mu mi, ngoi phng php cng cc mu n sc, ngi ta cn c th s dng phng php loi b bt mt s mu t nh sng trng. Th d, nu cho nh sng trng qua mi trng hp th (knh lc) cc tia mu , ta s nhn c mu l. Phng php ny thng dng trong k thut nh mu, in n v trong hi ha. c im ca phng php tr l chi ca mu c to ra bao gi cng nh hn chi ca mu trng ban u. Ngoi ra, trong k thut truyn hnh stereo, ngi ta cn s dng phng php trn mu mang tn binocular. Ngi ta pha trn hai hay nhiu mu bng cch tc ng cc mu ring r ln mt phi v mt tri ca ngi quan st, kt qu l h th gic s cm nhn c mt mu mi.
2.1.6.2 Cc nh lut trn mu c bn Trn c s cc kt qu nhn c qua nhiu cng trnh thc nghim v cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic, nh bc hc ngi c H.Grassmann a ra bn nh lut v trn mu:

nh lut th nht: Bt k mt mu sc no cng c th to c bng cch trn 3 mu c bn c lp tuyn tnh vi nhau. Ba mu c gi l c lp tuyn tnh khi mt trong nhng mu khng th to ra bng cch pha trn hai mu cn li c. Nh vy, ta c th vit ra c phng trnh so mu nh sau: 73

f = r R + g G + b B F

(2.1.9)

f - ngun nh sng bt k, c n v l F v s lng nh sng l f ; R,G,B n F v mu c bn; r , g , b - s lng cc mu c bn R, G, B, cn gi l modul ca cc mu

. Nm 1931, theo quy nh ca t chc quc t CIE (Commission Internationale dEclairage - International Commission on Ilumination y ban quc t v nh sng) ba ngun bc x n sc mu , lc v lam tng ng c bc sng:

R = 700 nm G = 546,1 nm B = 435,8 nm

Ba mu trn c gi l ba mu c bn. Mi mu c bn s c mt mu b xung tng ng, khi pha trn mu c bn v mu b xung ca n chng ta s nhn c mu trng. Cc cp mu c bn v mu b xung l: L (Cyan), Lc Mn chn (Magenta), Lam Vng (Yellow). nh lut th hai: S bin i lin tc ca cc h s cng sut ca cc mu c bn s dn dn s bin i lin tc ca mu sc tng hp, n chuyn t mu ny sang mu khc. Khi thay i cng sut ca cc ngun sng c bn nhng gi nguyn t l cng sut th mu tng hp s khng thay i sc , ch c s thay i v chi m thi. V vy, t l tng i gia ba mu c bn R:B:G s quyt nh mu sc ca mu tng hp. nh lut th ba: Mu sc tng hp ca nhiu ngun sng ch xc nh bi cc thnh phn mu sc ca tng ngun sng ch khng ph thuc vo thnh phn ph ca chng. Theo nh lut ny ta c th d dng nh lng mu sc ca nh sng tng hp c to ra khi pha trn nhiu ngun sng vi nhau. Cho phng trnh so mu ca 2 ngun sng l:

F1 = r1R + g1G + b1B F2 = r2 R + g2G + b2 B

Phng trnh so mu ca ngun sng tng s l:

F = F1 + F2 = ( r1 + r2 ) R + ( g1 + g2 ) G + ( b1 + b2 ) B

(2.1.10)

T phng trnh (2.1.10) ta thy rng, ta mu ca mu c to ra bng tng ta mu tng ng ca cc mu dng trn. nh lut th t: chi ca mu tng hp bng tng s chi ca cc thnh phn mu.

L = LR + LG + LB
74

2.1.6.3 Khng gian mu RGB xc nh mt mu F, theo nh lut trn mu th nht, ta ch cn bit s lng ca ba mu c bn trong phng trnh (2.1.9). V th mu F c th c biu din bng mt im trong khng gian mu ba chiu rgb hay nh mt vector ni t gc ta ti im , cc

vector mu n v s l R, G, B (Hnh 2.1.12). chi ca mu F s bng chiu di (modul) ca vector F , sc tng ng vi phng hng ca F trong khng gian rgb. Tng ba vector n v s cho ta mu trng chun.
g

f'F F E

0 B R

Hnh 2.1.12 Khng gian mu rgb Xt mt mu bt k trong khng gian mu rgb, xc nh bi phng trnh:

f = r R + g G + b B F

(2.1.11)

Ta thy ba h s r , g , b cho ta bit c v s lng ln cht lng ca ngun sng. Nu ch cn xt n cht lng hay thnh phn sc ca mu, chng ta khng cn bit n gi tr tuyt i r , g , b , m ch cn bit n s lng tng i gia cc thnh phn mu c bn R, G, B, tm c qua cc phng trnh sau:
r= r r = ; r + g + b m g g = ; g= r + g + b m b b = b= r + g + b m

(2.1.12)

m = r + g + b = f - chi ca mu.
Chia (2.1.11) cho m ta nhn c mu F:
F = rR + gG + bB

(2.1.13)

r, g, b - c gi l ta mu. Cc ta mu khng cho ta bit v chiu di ca

vector mu, nhng hon ton xc nh phng hng ca n trong khng gian mu ba chiu.

75

ng thc (2.1.13) cho php chng ta biu din sc ca mt ngun sng bt k nh mt im trn hnh tam gic u RGB c chiu cao bng 1 (Hnh 2.1.13). Mt phng RGB cn gi l mt phng n v. Nu v tr ca im mu F trong tam gic mu c bit trc, ta c th tm ta mu bng cch k cc on thng vung gc t F n hai cnh v o chiu di ca chng. Nu cho trc ta mu, ngi ta tm v tr ca im mu theo lut tm trng tm ca tam gic mu. Sc mu ca nhng im nm ngoi tam gic RGB (nh im N trn Hnh 2.1.13) khng th nhn c khi ta cng ba mu c s, nhn c sc mu im N, mt trong cc ta mu (ta mu - r) s phi l m. K ng thng ni im N l mu quang ph c bc sng

N v im trng ng

nng E, im N1 l im ct ca ng EN v BG s c sc iu tng ng im N, nhng sch mu thp hn ( pN1 < pN ). Ni cch khc, bc sng tri ca tt c cc im mu nm trn ng thng NE s bng

N - tc bc sng ca mu quang ph N. Nh vy

khi cng ba mu R, G, B ta c th to ra tt c cc sc iu, nhng khng th to ra mi bo ha.

A 500

G 550 N2 N N1 r

r,g,b 1.5 1.0 b g

F
C

0.5

450

b 600 R

0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 400 500 r 600 , nm

Hnh 2.1.13 Biu mu RGB

Hnh 2.1.14 c tuyn ta mu trong h RGB

Mu quang ph l cc mu c sch mu tuyt i : p = 100% , mu trng c bo ha pE = 0 , sch mu ti im N1 c gi tr:

pN1 =

N1E 100% NE

(2.1.14)

S dng phng trnh so mu (2.1.11) trong cc th nghim quang hc ngi ta xc nh c quan h ca r, g, b theo bc sng (Hnh 2.1.14). Qua , v d, nhn c ngun sng c sc mu tng ng mu quang ph vi bc sng = 500 nm , cn trn 76

ba mu R, G, B theo t l r = 1,17, g = 1, 39, b = 0.78 . S dng ta mu trn hnh (2.1.14) ta c th tm v tr ca tt c mu quang ph trn mt phng mu n v. Cc mu ny nm trn ng cong hnh mng nga RGAB. Hai u cui ca ng cong l im R v B. Sc mu nm trn ng thng RB ( mn chn) khng phi l mu quang ph, nhng mu ny thng gp trong thin nhin. Cc im nm ngoi ng mu quang ph l nhng mu khng c thc, v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%. S dng tam gic mu, ta c th xc nh c lng sc mu (tng ng ta mu) ca cc mu khc nhau. y cng l c s ng gi mt cch khch quan trung thc ca tn hiu mu, cng nh xc nh sai s cho php i vi cc thng s ca h truyn hnh mu. Mc d h mu RGB tng i tin li cho vic th nghim v cc mu R, G, B l cc mu thc, nhng ta c th nu ra mt s nhc im ca h mu ny: 1. to ra cc mu quang ph cng nh mt s mu khc (nm ngoi tam gic RGB) mt trong nhng to mu trong phng trnh trn mu (2.1.13) s c gi tr m. iu ny d gy nhm ln khi tnh ton. 2. Trong ba ta r , g, b khng c mt ta no cho ta bit trc tip chi tm c chi ca mu tng hp khi pha trn nhiu mu, cn phi bit c

hay quang thng ca ngun sng. 3. ba ta mu r , g, b ca tt cc mu . khc phc nhng nhc im ca h mu RGB, nm 1931, CIE xut mt khng gian mu mi, k hiu l khng gian XYZ. Khi thit k biu mu mi ngi ta t ra nhng yu cu nh sau: 1. Tt c cc mu thc phi c xc nh bi cc modul mu c gi tr dng. Nh vy ta mu ca tt c cc mu thc (nm pha trong ng mu quang ph) phi nm trong tam gic mu XYZ. 2. 3. chi phi c biu din bng mt trc (Y) im trng ng nng phi nm trng tm tam gic mu XYZ.

Khng gian XYZ do CIE cng b vi ba mu c bn X,Y,Z p ng c cc yu cu trn. H to khng gian XYZ c chn lm sao cho cc vector mu thc (nm bn trong ng mu quang ph) u i qua tam gic mu n v XYZ (Hnh 2.1.15). Nh vy, trong phng trnh mu f = xX + yY + zZ cc thnh phn x, y, z s c gi tr dng cho F tt c cc mu thc. Cc mu n v X,Y,Z u khng c thc v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%. nh gi mu sc ca mt ngun sng (khng tnh n chi ca ngun sng ), ngi ta s dng tam gic mu n v vi cc ta mu x , y, z : x + y + z = 1 (Hnh 2.1.16).

77

E 0

r
X

Hnh 2.1.15 Khng gian mu RGB v XYZ Quan st tam gic mu n v XZY ta thy rng: 1- Tt c cc mu thc u nm bn trong tam gic XYZ 2- To ca mu trng ng nng l: x E = yE = zE = 1 / 3 3- Cc mu n v X.Y.Z nm ngoi ng cong cc mu quang ph nn c bo ha ln hn 100%. thun tin cho vic s dng, tam gic mu n v XYZ c bin i thnh biu mu trong h ta vung gc xy (Hnh 2.1.17).

y 1.0
y

0.8
550

520 F1

0.6 y 1 0.4
600 700 x
yE

580

500 E

0.6 0.4 0.2

E
C

700

0.2 0
x1

0.2 xE 0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Hnh 2.1.16 Biu mu trn mt phng n v XYZ

Hnh 2.1.17 Biu mu XYZ theo CIE

78

2.1.6.4 H thng th gic Tuy l thuyt x l nh ch yu da trn nn tng l thuyt ton v xc sut thng k, nhng vic la chn cc phng php x l khc nhau cng nh vic nh gi cht lng hnh nh u ra ca h thng ch yu da trn cm nhn ch quan ca c quan th gic. V vy sau y chng ta s lm quen vi mt s vn c bn v cu to v kh nng phn tch hnh nh ca h thng th gic.
mong mat giac mac thau knh truc nhn thuy tinh dch mo mac iem mu vong mac hoang iem than kinh th giac

Hnh 2.1.18 Cu to ca mt ngi Cu to ca mt ngi (ct dc) c trnh by trn Hnh 2.1.18. Trng mt c dng hnh cu, ng knh khong 24 mm. Pha trc mt l gic mc (cornea) l mng trong sut , c cu trc tng i cng, c ng knh khong 12 mm. Hai lp tip theo ca mt l m mc (choroid) v vng mc (retina). M mc bao gm mt mng mch mu nh nui dng cc c quan ca mt. Ni tip vi m mc l h thng c mt v mng mt. Mng mt c th co gin iu tit lng nh sng i vo mt, m mng mt thay i vi ng knh t 2 n 8 mm. H thng c mt cho php thay i cong ca hai b mt thu knh, do thay i tiu c thu knh nhm hi t hnh nh ln vng mc. Thu knh cha 60-70% nc, c mu vng nht, n hp th khong 8% nh sng nhn c ( hp th t l nghch vi bc sng), cc tia c bc sng ngn (hng ngoi, cc tm ) c hp th bi protein trong cu trc ca thu knh. Phn ln nh sng c hi t vng hong im (fovea) trn vng mc, ni mt cc t bo thn kinh th gic ln nht. C hai loi t bo cm nhn nh sng (receptors) l t bo hnh nn (cones) v t bo hnh que (rods). Trong thnh phn vng mc c khong 7 triu t bo hnh nn v 130 triu t bo hnh que.

79

Hnh 2.1.19 Mt phn b t bo thn kinh th gic trn vng mc Mt phn b cc t bo thn kinh th gic trn vng mc khng ng u: th trn Hnh 2.4.19 cho ta thy mt phn b cc t bo hnh nn ( th 1) v hnh que ( th 2) trn 1 mm2 vng mc (tnh t tm hong im). C th thy cc t bo hnh nn tp trung ti vng hong im, cn gi l vng nhn r nht. Vng ny c hnh bu dc rng 0.8 mm, di 2 mm). T bo hnh que phn b xung quanh hong im. Cc t bo hnh que nhy cm vi nh sng hn t bo hnh nn, nhng chng khng c cm th v mu sc. T bo hnh nn ngc li km nhy cm vi s kch thch ca nh sng, nhng c kh nng phn bit mu sc. Theo thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu ca mt ngi, trong vng mc tn ti 3 loi t bo hnh nn, cc t bo ny c phn ng khc nhau i vi cc mu khc nhau. C th, qua th nghim ta thy rng ba loi t bo hnh nn nhy cm vi ba mu khc nhau l , Lc, v Lam. S cm th mu ca mt s ph thuc vo t l mc kch thch ca mi loi t bo ni trn.

Hnh 2.1.20

T bo hnh que v hnh nn trong vng mc

Cc t bo cm quang bin i nng lng nh sng thnh cc xung in truyn n b phn x l hnh nh trong no qua h thng dy thn kinh th gic (khong 800000 dy). Mt vng nh trn vng mc khng nhy cm vi nh sng l ni tp hp cc dy thn kinh th gic. Vng ny gi l im m ca mt. S d s dy thn kinh t hn s t bo cm quang v mi dy c ni vi hng trm t bo hnh que v hng chc t bo hnh nn. Ring cc t bo hnh nn trong vng hong im c ni trc tip vi t bo hch, do , phn gii ca mt ti vng ny l cao nht. Theo mt s cng trnh nghin cu v mt, ngi ta thy rng cc t bo cm nhn nh sng trong mt bin i nng lng nh sng thnh cc xung in, nng lng nhit v nng lng ho hc. c bit, nng lng cc xung in i vo dy thn kinh th gic ln hn nhiu so vi nng lng ng sng ri vo mt, do c th kt lun l vng mc tn hiu hnh nh khng ch c tip nhn m cn c bin i v nh sng l tn hiu iu khin qu trnh bin i . Qu trnh bin i quan trng nht trong mt l qu trnh bin i quang-ha hc. Di tc ng ca nh sng, cht cm quang rodopxin c trong nhng t bo que tch ra thnh retinen v opxin t do. Retinen l mt dng vitamin A. ni nh sng cng mnh th rodopxin b phn hu cng nhiu. Phn ng phn hu ny kch thch cc t bo th gic lm cho cc t bo th gic pht ra lung xung ng truyn vo trung ng thn kinh. Khi nh sng tt, retinen li kt hp vi opxin ti to rodopxin. Phn ng phc hi i hi mt thi gian ngn; sau thi gian , t bo th gic s hng phn tr li. Trong khong thi gian ny hnh nh c lu li trn vng mc (thi gian lu nh ko di khong 0.1-0.3s). Kh 80

nng nhn ph thuc vo lng rodopxin, nn khi mi ni sng vo ch ti, chng ta hu nh khng nhn thy g. Sau vi pht, lng rodopxin tng ln, kh nng nhn c th tng ln hng trm ln. Phm vi cc mc sng m mt c th cm nhn c rt rng. Cc t bo que bt u cm nhn c hnh nh c chi t 10-4-10-5 cd/m2, cc t bo nn t 1 cd/m2. Khi chi xp x 10 cd/m2 cc t bo que b lo dn v lc ny, tc phn hy rodopxin ln hn tc ti to, do lng rodopxin trong cc t bo hnh que gim i nhanh chng. chi t 10-104 cd/m2, ch cn cc t bo nn lm vic. Phn ng quang - ho hc ni trn v c ch t iu chnh lng nh sng i vo vng mc l nguyn nhn mt c phm vi cm nhn nh sng rng nh vy (~109). Tuy nhin mt khng th cm nhn c cng mt lc tt c mc sng trong phm vi rng nh ni trn. Trn thc t, mt ngi ch c th cm nhn mt khong nh gii hn t

Lmin Lmax xung quanh mc chi trung bnh ca nh, khong ny ta gi l phm vi ng
ca mt. i vi hnh nh c mc chi trung bnh no , tt c mc chi ln hn Lmax s cm nhn nh mc trng, tt c mc chi nh hn Lmin s c cm nhn nh mc en. Khi mc chi trung bnh thay i, mt ngi s t ng iu tit di chuyn phm vi ng theo mc chi trung bnh. y chnh l tnh cht thch nghi vi sng ca mt ngi. Th nghim cho thy, khi mc sng tng ln, thi gian mt iu tit thch nghi vi mc mi rt nhanh (khong vi giy). Ngc li, khi mc chiu sng gim th mt iu tit thch nghi tng i chm (vi pht). Nh ni trn, mt c nhy khc nhau vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau ( th 1, Hnh 2.1.21). Nhng khi cng nh sng nh (vng scotopic) th nhy ca mt di chuyn v pha nh sng c bc sng ngn hn ( th 2, Hnh 2.1.21).

Hnh 2.1.21 p ng ph ( nhy) ca mt ngi. Kh nng mt ngi cm nhn s thay i chi l khng lin tc.

Ln+ L

81

Hnh 2.1.22 Kho st kh nng cm nhn chi ca mt ngi Nu tng dn chi ca chi tit trong mt nh t mc chi nn (Hnh 2.1.22), lc u mc d c s khc bit v c chi gia chi tit v nn, nhng ngi quan st khng pht hin ra chi tit ny. Khi s chnh lch t ti mc ngng, ngi quan st bt u nhn dng c chi tit nh. Ngi ta nh ngha ngng cm nhn nh sng tuyt i ca mt l i lng ngc vi gi tr chi nh nht ca im sng trn nn en m mt pht hin c trong bng ti:

= 1 / Lmin . Trn thc t ta thng gp hnh nh c khong chi ng l

Lmin Lmax v c chi ca nn l Ln . tng phn ca nh l t l k = Lmax / Lmin .

Cc chi tit nh c chi khc vi chi nn L = ( L Ln ) , nu Lmin l mc khc bit nh nht m mt cn nhn bit c, th t l Lmin / Ln = ( L / Ln ) mi n = gi l ngng tng phn. Gi tr ca nn

ph thuc vo kch thc ca chi tit hnh nh v chi

Kt lun quan trng rt ra c dy l gi tr ngng tng phn ca mt ngi > 0 , hay ni cch khc, kh nng cm nhn tng phn ca mt mang tnh ri rc (tng t nh phn gii ca mt). Chnh v vy, s lng cc mc xm cn c l hu hn trong di ng cc mc chi Lmin Lmax ca nh s. S lng mc xm m mt ngi cm nhn c cng mt lc ph thuc vo gi tr ngng tng phn v tng phn ca nh:

m=

ln k +1 ln (1 + )

(2.1.15)

Thay vo cng thc (2.1.15) gi tr tng phn trung bnh ca hnh nh trn display k = 100 , gi tr ngng tng phn = 0.03...0.04 , ta nhn c s sc xm cc i mt cm nhn c s l m = 100 150 . Trn thc t, tng phn k v s lng mc xm m b hn ch bi: thng s k thut ca mn hnh hin th: kch thc, chi cc i, c tuyn gamma v.v. ch lm vic ca mn hnh: chi, tng phn; iu kin quan st: khong cch t ni quan st n mn hnh, nh sng bn ngoi. Ngun nh sng bn ngoi Lng chiu vo mn hnh s lm gim tng phn ca nh gc, v tng phn trong trng hp ny l:

k =
82

Lmax + Lng

L < k = max , Lmin + Lng Lmin

do s mc xm tnh theo (2.1.15) cng s gim i.

2.1.6.5 Biu din tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian v thi gian 2.1.5.6.1 Hnh nh tng t

Nh cp ti phn trn, hnh nh c th biu din bng hm 2 chiu f ( x , y ) . Gi tr hm f ti im c ta khng gian (x,y) l chi ca im nh (x,y). a s nh s dng trong sch ny l nh en trng, chi ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi nht nh t L min ti Lmax . Nu nh c to ra bi qu trnh vt l th gi tr cc im nh s t l thun vi nng lng ca ngun bc x, v d nng lng sng in t, khi hm

f ( x , y ) khc khng v hu hn: 0 < f ( x , y ) < .

Hm f ( x , y ) c th c c trng bi hai thnh phn l lng nh sng ri ln cnh vt v s lng nh sng phn x li t cnh vt :

f ( x, y ) = i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )
vi 0 < i ( x , y ) < , 0 < r ( x , y ) < 1

i ( x , y ) - Hm biu din ri sng ca ngun ln b mt cnh vt. r ( x , y ) - Hm m t tnh phn x (hay hp th) nh sng ca cc vt th trong cnh vt.
Gi tr ln ca im nh en-trng c ta ( x0 , y0 ) c gi l mc xm hay chi ca nh ti im ny: l = ( x0 , y0 ) ; chi nm trong khong L min < l < Lmax - c gi l thang xm. Thng mc xm nh nht c quy v mc 0 (mc en) , cn mc trng s tng ng vi gi tr chi ln nht l = L 1 .
2.1.5.6.2 Qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha tn hiu hnh nh

Tn hiu hnh nh nhn c t cm bin quang in thng c dng tng t, v d tn hiu in p c bin thay i lin tc theo chi ca nh ngun. c th a tn hiu hnh nh vo x l bng my tnh cn thc hin qu trnh s ha thng qua hai giai an: ly mu v lng t ha. Ly mu tn hiu: Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu c m t trn Hnh 2.1.23. Tn hiu video ng vi mt dng nh AB l tn hiu mt chiu lin tc theo thi gian v c bin bin i lin tc (Hnh 2.1.23). Khi ly mu, thi gian truyn dng AB c chia ra thnh nhiu on bng nhau. Gi tr tn hiu ti cc im ly mu c nh du vung trn th. Theo nh l ly mu Nyquist, nu tn s ly mu ln hn (hoc bng) hai ln tn s ln nht trong ph tn hiu tng t, th tp hp cc mu ri rc nhn c hon ton xc nh tn hiu . bin i tip tn hiu thnh dng s, chng ta phi thc hin giai on lng t ha cc mu va nhn c. y l qu trnh ri rc tn hiu theo bin . Trn Hnh 2.1.23 thang xm c chia thnh 8 mc ri rc t mc trng ti mc en. Lng t ha c thc 83

hin n gin bng cch tm gi tr mc lng t gn ging nht vi gi tr thc ca mu v gn gi tr ny cho mu nh. Kt qu nhn c sau khi ly mu v lng t ha l chui s ri rc m t bin i chi trong mt dng nh. Nu thc hin qu trnh s ha cho tt c cc dng nh t trn xung di, chng ta s nhn c nh s trong khng gian hai chiu.

Hnh 2.1.23 Qu trnh s ha tn hiu video Khi s dng chip cm bin CCD, tn hiu hnh nh c ri rc trong khng gian hai chiu. Vng nh c ly mu ph thuc vo s lng cc im cm quang phn b theo chiu ngang v chiu dc trn b mt CCD (Hnh 2.1.24). Cht lng hnh nh s nhn c ph thuc vo s lng im nh cng nh s mc lng t c s dng trong qu trnh m ha.

84

a)

b)

Hnh 2.1.24 Qu trnh hnh thnh nh ri rc trong chip CCD a - nh tng t b - nh ri rc trn b mt CCD
2.1.6.6 Tn hiu video Thng tin th gic v mt vt th c truyn i bao gm tin tc v chi, mu sc v v tr ca vt trong khng gian. Khi vt th chuyn ng hay khi ngun nh sng chiu ln vt th thay i, cc tin tc trn u thay i. Nh vy, m hnh ton hc ca tn hiu hnh nh l cc hm phn b chi L, sc mu v bo ho mu p trong khng gian v thi gian:

L = f L ( x , y, z , t ) ; = f ( x, y, z, t ) ; p = f p ( x , y, z , t ) .
x , y, z - ta trong khng gian 3 chiu,
t - thi gian.

(2.1.16 )

Nhng phng trnh trong (2.1.16) xc nh chi (L) v mu sc ( , p ) cho tng im di chuyn trong khng gian v thi gian. H thng truyn hnh hin nay l h thng truyn hnh phng, do khi truyn i cc nh en trng, phn b chi s l hm ba chiu:

L = f L ( x , y, t ) .

iu ny cho ta thy, ngoi gi tr chi tc thi L cn phi xc nh chnh xc v tr ca im sng trong khng gian (hai chiu) mn hnh. Khi bin i tn hiu hnh nh 3 chiu thnh tn hiu in 1 chiu ngi ta da trn 2 nguyn tc chnh l ri rc hnh nh (trong khng gian v thi gian) v qut hnh. Ri rc hnh nh trong khng gian l phng php chia nh hnh nh ra thnh mt s hu hn cc thnh phn ri rc. Mt phn t ca hnh nh l chi tit nh nht ca nh c chi v sc mu khng thay i trn din tch chi tit . V mt l thuyt, s lng phn t nh cng nhiu th nt ca nh cng cao. Nhng trn thc t, do s hn ch v phn gii ca mt ngi, 85

cc hnh nh ch cn phn chia ra thnh cc phn t c kch thc nht nh mt ngi khng nhn ra cu trc ri rc ca hnh nh (Hnh 2.1.25). Chia nh thm nhng phn t ny khng lm cho hnh nh r nt thm (theo cm nhn ca mt), trong khi , lng thng tin s tng ln nhiu ln.

Hnh 2.1.25

Ma trn cc im nh ri rc nh v "phn t" nh

Sau khi hnh nh c ri rc, cc phn t c th c m ho v truyn i ring r sang bn thu. Nhng chng ta khng th truyn song song tt c cc phn t v khi cn n rt nhiu knh truyn. gii quyt vn ny, trong h thng truyn hnh ngi ta s dng nguyn tc qut hnh: nguyn tc truyn ln lt theo thi gian tng phn t hnh nh. Nguyn tc ny da trn c im lu nh ca mt ngi. S lu nh l kh nng m ngi xem nh li n tng v nh trong mt thi gian no (~0.1- 0.3 giy) sau khi tc ng ca nh chm dt. Chnh v vy, truyn i mt hnh nh tnh, ta chiu ln lt tt c cc phn t ca mt nh tnh ln mn hnh, vo ng v tr tng ng ca cc phn t nh trong hnh nh c truyn i. Nu tc chiu mt hnh nhanh hn thi gian lu nh th mt ngi xem s thu nhn v lu li tt c cc phn t truyn i ti to ra mt nh tnh hai chiu. Qu trnh truyn ln lt cc phn t ca nh gi l qu trnh qut (scanning) nh. Tip theo, khi "chiu" nhiu nh tnh nhn c bng phng php trn vi tn s tng i ln (trn 10 hnh/giy), trong mi nh l mt pha ca hnh nh chuyn ng, th ngi xem s c cm gic nh ang quan st chuyn ng lin tc. Tn s nh c la chn p ng hai yu cu: 1- To cm gic v qu trnh chuyn ng lin tc ca nh; 2- nh ng ti to trn mn hnh khng b chp. Trong cc h truyn hnh i chng, tn s c chn l 25 (hoc 30) nh/giy. Khi qut theo phng php xen k, ngi ta chia nh thnh 2 mnh, trong mnh u tin s c truyn i cc dng l 1, 3, 5 , trong mnh tip theo truyn i cc dng chn 2, 4, 6 (hnh 3.1.26). Nh vy ton b nh s c chia ra lm 2 mnh. Tn s nh s l 25 (30) Hz, tn s mnh l 50 (60) Hz.

86

Hnh 2.1.26 Qu trnh qut hnh xen k Tn hiu video l tn hiu c phn tch (ri rc) c trong min tn s v min thi gian:

Hnh 2.1.27 Tn hiu hnh nh ri rc trong khng gian (theo dng) v thi gian (theo mnh) Tn hiu video c to ra ti ng ghi hnh bng phng php qut xen k, tuyn tnh t tri sang phi, trn xung di l hm ca thi gian, gi tr hm t l thun vi chi ca cc phn t nh truyn hnh. Tn hiu video y (Hnh 2.1.28) s bao gm cc thnh phn sau: tn hiu video, tn hiu ng b dng v mnh, tn hiu xo. Trong tn hiu video mu cn c thm thnh phn mang tin tc v mu sc ca cc dng nh.

Hnh 2.1.28 Hnh dng tn hiu video Tn hiu video c cc c im sau:

87

- Tn hiu video l tn hiu mang tnh cht xung: ngoi cc xung ng b v xung xa, trong tn hiu video thng c s thay i bin t ngt, to ra bin trc v bin sau ca cc "xung hnh"; - Tn hiu video l tn hiu n cc, c thnh phn mt chiu; - Tn hiu video c th c coi l tn hiu tun hon vi tn s lp li l

f H = 1/ T H ; fV = 1/ TV ;
Tn hiu video tng t cng nh tn hiu nh tnh phi c s ha trc khi a vo h thng x l s.Cng nh trong cc h thng x l tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu hnh nh cng chia thnh 3 giai an: 1- Ri rc tn hiu trong min khng gian 2 chiu, y l qu trnh ly mu 2- S lng v hn cc mc xm trong tn hiu hnh nh tng t c thay bng s lng hu hn cc mc lng t y l qu trnh lng t ha tn hiu 3- Mi mc lng t c biu din bng mt s nh phn - m ha tn hiu So vi tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian hai chiu c th c thc hin vi nhiu cu trc ly mu khc nhau v cc bc lng t khc nhau nhm gim dung lng tn hiu s nhn c. Tuy nhin, trn thc t cu trc ly mu trong a s trng hp c dng truc giao (hnh ch nht) vi gi tr bc lng t khng thay i, v khi qu trnh s ha s n gin nht. Khi s dng cu trc ly mu trc giao, nh s nhn c di dng ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct. Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu video phi tha mn nh l ly mu Nyquist. V d: Tn hiu video h PAL c b rng ph B PAL = 5.0 MHz do tn s ly mu theo Nyquits phi

10MHz .
Trn thc t, tn s ly mu thng c la chn cao hn tng khong cch gia di ph chnh v ph ph ca tn hiu video ri rc, khi thnh phn ph chnh c th c tch ra (trong qu trnh khi phc nh gc) bng cc mch lc thng thp n gin. Ngoi ra, tn hiu video tng hp (bao gm thnh phn mu) c ly mu vi tn s l bi s ca tn s sng mang ph fs (sng mang mu). Vi h PAL, tn s ly mu s l 3 fs (13,3 MHz) hoc 4 fs (17,7 MHz). Trong h thng s ha tn hiu video theo thnh phn, ba tn hiu R, G, B hoc thnh phn chi Y v hai tn hiu hiu mu R-Y, B-Y s c ly mu vi tn s p ng nh l Nyquist v l bi s ca tn s dng theo c 2 tiu chun 525 v 625 dng/ nh. Tiu chun CCIR-601 cho php s dng tn s ly mu l 13,5 MHz. S bt m ha tn hiu video l 8 hoc 10 bt. Cc tiu chun ly mu video thnh phn: c nhiu tiu chun ly mu theo thnh phn, imkhc nhau ch yu t l gia tn s ly mu v phng php ly mu tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu (hoc hiu mu): l cc tiu chun 4:4:4, 4:2:2, 4:2:0, 4:1:1.

88

- Tiu chun 4:4:4: Tn hiu chi v mu c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Cu trc ly mu trc giao (hnh 3.1.29)

Hnh 2.1.29 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:4:4 Tiu chun ly mu 4:4:4 cho cht lng hhnh nh tt nht, rthun tin cho vic x l tn hiu video s. Tuy nhin, vi phng php ly mu ny, tc dng d liu video s s tng i cao, v d khi s ha tn hiu video c phn gii 720x576 (h PAL), 8 bt lng t /im nh, 25 nh/s lung d liu s nhn c s c tc : 3x720x576x8x25= 249Mbits/s -Tiu chun 4:2:2: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng na tn s ly mu tn hiu chi (Hnh 2.1.30)

Hnh 2.1.30 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:2 -Tiu chun 4:2:0: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Cch mt im ly mu mt tn hiu mu. Ti dng chn ch ly mu tn hiu mu CR, ti dng chn ly mu tn hiu CB. Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi l fD, Th tn s ly mu tn hiu mu s l fD/2.

89

Hnh 2.1.31 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:0 -Tiu chun 4:1:1: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng mt phn t tn s ly mu tn hiu chi (Hnh 2.1.32) Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi l fD, th tn s ly mu tn hiu mu CR v CB s l fD/4.
Tiu chun 4:1:1
im ly mu tn hiu chi im ly mu tn hiu CR im ly mu tn hiu CB

Hnh 2.1.32 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:1:1

2.1.6.7 Biu din tn hiu nh s Sau khi s ha tn hiu hnh nh theo cc phng php nu trn, chng ta nhn c ma trn gi tr mc xm ca cc im nh. Chng ta s s dng 2 cch biu din tn hiu nh s. Cch th nht, cc im nh ri rc c sp xp theo ct v hng nh trn hnh 2.1.33. Ta ca cc im nh (x,y) l ri rc. Gc ta nm ti gc trn bn tri ca nh

( x, y ) = (1,1) .

90

Hnh 2.1.33 H ta biu din nh s Nh vy, chng ta c th biu din nh s ni trn nh ma trn kch thc MxN:

f ( 0,0 ) f ( 0,1) ... f ( 0, N 1) f (1,1) ... f (1, N 1) f (1,0 ) f ( x, y ) = f ( M 1,0 ) f ( M 1,1) ... f ( M 1, N 1)

(2.1.17)

Mi phn t ca ma trn c gi l 1 im nh (image element hay pixel). Trong mt s trng hp, chng ta c th s dng phng php m t nh s nh mt ma trn thng thng:

a0,0 a0,1 ... a1,0 a1,1 ... A= aM 1,0 aM 1,1 ...

a0,N 1 a1, N 1 aM 1,N 1

(2.1.18)

Vi cch biu din trn, a i, j = f ( x = i, y = j) = f ( i, j) , do hai ma trn trn hon ton ging nhau. i vi nh s, gi tr M v N phi l s nguyn dng. S lng mc xm c th gn cho 1 im nh L thng c la chn sao cho L = 2 , k l s nguyn dng.
k

Nh vy, s lng bits c s dng biu din 1 nh s s c xc nh theo cng thc: b = M N k .

91

V d: nh s hin th trn mn hnh VGA c kch thc 640x480 im, s lng cc mc xm l 256 (8 bits/mu) c th c lu li trong b nh c kch thc bng: b = 640 480 8 = 2 457600 bits .
L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s Tn hiu hnh nh tnh sau khi c s ha c th c lu tr di dng ma trn 2 chiu cc bt. Cc dng v ct ca ma trn s tng ng vi dng v ct cc phn t nh (pixel). i vi nh ng (video), kt qu qu trnh s ha s l ma trn 3 chiu cho thy phn b cc im nh trong khng gian theo hng v ct cng nh qu trnh bin i hnh nh trong min thi gian. 2.1.7

Qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong h thng x l nh s c th c m t bng cc thut ton trong min khng gian v thi gian hoc cc thut ton trong khng gian tn hiu khc da trn php bin i nh x khng gian, v d bin i Fourier, bin i Karhumen Loeve v.v. Trong phn ny chng ta s lm quen vi cng c ton hc thng dng m t qu trnh x l nh trong khng gian v cc php bin i khng gian mt v hai chiu (c s dng rng ri trong cc h thng lc v nn nh). Song song vi vic trnh by l thuyt ton, trong phn ny s a ra cc v d minh ha mt s php bin i hnh nh c th. Nhiu v d s c thc hin da trn phn mm Matlab. y l mt cng c tnh ton c xy dng trn c s cc php x l ma trn rt thch hp cho vic m t cc gii thut x l nh s. Trong ti liu ny, tc gi s dng Matlab 7.04 SP2. Du >> l k hiu khi u 1 hm trong mi trng Matlab.
2.1.7.1 Cc ton t khng gian a) H thng tuyn tnh

H thng x l tn hiu s ni chung v x l nh ni ring u c th c m t thng qua phng trnh sau:

y ( m, n ) = T x ( m, n )
x ( m, n ) - nh s a vo h thng (l tn hiu 2 chiu); y ( m, n ) - nh s ti u ra h thng;
T ton t c trng ca h thng.

(2.1.19)

Trong gio trnh ny, chng ta s quan tm ch yu n cc h thng tuyn tnh. H thng biu din bi (2.1) c gi l tuyn tnh khi v ch khi:

T ax1 ( m, n ) + bx2 ( m, n ) = aT x1 ( m, n ) + bT x2 ( m, n ) = = ay1 ( m, n ) + by2 ( m, n )

(2.1.20)

a v b l cc hng s bt k. Cc ton t thc hin vi nh 2 chiu thng c tnh cht tuyn tnh, v d cc php dch chuyn trong khng gian, php chp, cc php bin i cng nh nhiu qu trnh lc tuyn tnh m chng ta s xt cc chng sau. 92

b) Xung n v trong khng gian 2 chiu Xung n v c s dng rng ri m t cc tc ng trc tip ln im nh trong khng gian.

( m, n ) =

1 0

khi m = n khi m n

(2.1.21)

( m A, n B ) l im nh c mc chi ti a (1) ti v tr (A,B) trong khng gian.

p ng xung ca h thng l tn hiu nhn c khi xung n v c a vo h thng:

h [ m, n ] = T ( m, n )
c) M t qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong khng gian 2 chiu

(2.1.22)

Cho nh s gc l ma trn cc im nh c kch thc NxN. Trong trng hp tng qut, p ng ca h thng tuyn tnh i vi tn hiu vo c th tm c thng qua p ng xung nh sau:

y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m, l ; n, k )
l =0 k =0

N 1 N 1

(2.1.23)

Khi h thng x l s l tuyn tnh v bt bin, ta c th tm c nh ra thng qua nh gc ni trn v p ng xung ca h thng s dng tch chp:

y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0

N 1 N 1

(2.1.24a) (2.1.24b)

hay

y ( m , n ) = x ( m, n ) h ( m , n )

2.1.7.2 Cc php tnh vi vector v ma trn i vi tn hiu hnh nh, cc thut ton ni trn thng c thc hin trn ma trn cc im nh hai chiu, do phn ny s gii thiu s lc v ma trn v cc php ton thc hin trn ma trn.

a) Vector Vector ct (ma trn ct) f , kch thc Nx1 l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ..., N sp xp theo ct dc:

93

f f . f = f . f

(1) (2)
( j) ( N )
(2.1.25)

Vector dng (ma trn dng) h, kch thc 1xN l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ...,N sp xp theo dng ngang: h = h (1) , h ( 2 ) ..h ( j ) ..h ( N ) b) Ma trn Ma trn F, kch thc MxN l tp hp cc phn t F(m,n) vi m=1,2,..,M, n=1,2,...,N c sp xp thnh M hng v N ct nh sau: (2.1.26)

F (1,1) F (1,2 ) ..... F (1, N ) F ( 2, N ) F ( 2,1) F ( 2,2 ) ..... F= ............................................... F ( M ,1) F ( M ,2 ) ..... F ( M , N )

(2.1.27)

Lu rng, trong Matlab, a ch ca mi im nh c xc nh theo v tr hng v ct trong ma trn ca im nh , v d F(2,1) l im nh nm hng th 2, ct th 1 trong ma trn F. Cc biu din ny khc vi phng php biu din nh s c xt phn . Ma trn NxN c gi l ma trn vung cp N. Trong ma trn vung, tp hp cc phn t F(1,1), F(2,2),..F(NN) c gi l ng cho chnh, ng cho cn li gi l ng cho ph. Ma trn vung c cc phn t ngoi ng cho chnh bng 0 gi l ma trn cho. Ma trn cho vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1 gi l ma trn n v, k hiu l In. c) Cng ma trn Tng ma trn C=A+B ch xc c nh khi A v B c cng kch thc MxN. C cng c kch thc MxN, cc phn t ca C l: C(m,n)= A(m,n)+B(m,n). d) Nhn ma trn Tch hai ma trn C=AB ch xc nh khi s lng ct ca A bng s dng ca B. Khi nhn ma trn A c kch thc MxP vi B - PxN ta nhn c C c kch thc MxN:

94

C ( m, n ) = A ( m, p )B ( p, n )
p =1

(2.1.28)

Tnh ca hai ma trn khng c tnh giao hon. V d 1. S dng Matlab to ma trn v nhn ma trn >> A=ones(2,3) A= 1 1 1 1 1 1 >> B= magic(3) B= 8 3 4 >> A= magic(3) A= 8 3 4 1 5 9 6 7 2 1 5 9 6 7 2 >> A*B ans = 0 1 0 0 0 1 8 3 4 1 5 9 6 7 2 >> A*B ans = 15 15 15 15 15 15

>> B=eye(3,3) B= 1 0 0

Tnh ca ma trn vung A v ma trn n v cng cp B chnh l ma trn A. e) Ma trn nghch o Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn vung A l ma trn A1 nu: AA1 = I v A1 A = I . Nu tn ti ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A cp n th A c gi l kh nghch. >> A=[1 2;3 4] A= 1 3 2 4 >> inv(A) ans = -2 1 >> A*inv(A) ans = 1 0 0 1

1.5 -0.5

Ma trn n v I c nghch o l chnh n. f) Ma trn chuyn v Ma trn chuyn v ca A thu c bng cch i ch hng thnh ct v ct thnh hng v gi nguyn th t cc phn t trn hng. Ma trn chuyn v ca A k hiu l AT . 95

Nu A = AT , ma trn A c gi l ma trn i xng. Ma trn nhn c khi cng

A + AT v nhn AAT l ma trn i xng.

Cho ma trn bt k: >> A=[1 2 3;4 5 6] A= 1 4 2 5 3 6

Ma trn chuyn v AT >> A' ans = 1 2 3 4 5 6 xng:

Tch AAT l ma trn i >> A*A' ans = 14 32 32 77

g) Tch v hng (scalar product) hai vector f v g kch thc Nx1:

k = g Tf = f Tg , k = g(n)f (n)
n =1 N

(2.1.29)

1 1 1 2 . 3 =[1 2 3] 3 = 22 V d: [ ] 3 5 5
h) Tch ma trn ca hai vector f kch thc Mx1 v g kch thc Nx1 l ma trn:

A=gf T , A(m, n) = g ( m ) f ( n ) 1 1 1 1 3 4 2 X 3 = 2 [1 3 4] = 2 6 8 V d: 3 5 3 3 9 12
i) Tch chp hai ma trn

(2.1.30)

Nh chng ta bit, i vi cc h thng x l tn hiu ri rc tuyn tnh v bt bin quan h gia p ng (dy ra) v kch thch (dy vo) ca h thng c m t theo (2.1.23):

y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0

N 1 N 1

(2.1.31)

i vi h thng x l nh, tn hiu vo v p ng xung thng c biu din di dng ma trn hai chiu, do m t tc ng ca h thng ln tn hiu ta cn tm tch chp hai ma trn. Tch chp hai ma trn kch thc M 1 N1 v M 2 N 2 s l ma trn c kch thc ( M 1 + M 2 1) ( N1 + N 2 1) . V d: 96

x(n,m) 1 2 h(-n,-m) 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 n 1 1 m n 2 4 1 3

h(1-n,1-m) 1 1 2 4 x(n,m) 1 3 m

1 -1 1 2 y(1,1)= -1x1= -1 n

h(1-n,2-m) 1 1 1 1 -1 2 1 3 m

h(n,m)

y(1,2)= (1x1)+(-1x2)= -1

2 n

Hnh 2.1.23 Tch chp hai ma trn x= 1 2 2 4 1 3 h= -1 1 1 1 >> y = convn(x,h) y= -1 -1 -1 2 1 6 1 4 7 1 4 3

Khi tm gi tr tch chp cho cc im nm ti bin ca nh v d im y(1,1) (Hnh 2.1.23), cc im nh khng tn ti trong x(m,n) phi c gn cc gi tr nht nh. C nhiu quy tc chn gi tr mc xm nh: mc nh bng 0, lp li cc gi tr mc xm trn ng bin ca nh v.v. Ta s xt cc trng hp ny khi ni v cc phng php lc nh. k) Bin i ma trn thnh mt vector (stacking operator) Trong mt s trng hp, vic phn tch hnh nh 2 chiu s n gin hn khi ma trn F cc im nh 2 chiu ( N1 N 2 ) c bin i thnh vector ct c kch thc ( N1 N 2 ,1), lm c nh vy, chng ta sp xp ln lt cc ct (hay hng) ca F thnh 1 vector di. Thao tc trn c th c m t thng qua vector vn ( N 2 1 ) v ma trn N n ( N1 N 2 N1 ):

97

0 1 0 n 1 vn = 1 n 0 n + 1 0 N 2 [0 ] ( n 1) zeros matrix (N1 N1 ) [0 ] 1 0 0 th n unit matrix 0 1 0 Nn = 0 0 1 [0 ] ( N 2 n ) zeros matrix (N1 N1 ) [0 ]

Ma trn F s c bin i thnh vector f nh sau:

(2.1.32)

(2.1.33)

f = N n Fv n
n =1

N2

(2.1.34)

Bin i nghch t f thnh F l:

F= NT f v T n n
n=1

N2

(2.1.35)

S dng cng thc (2.1.34) v (2.1.35) c th d dng xc nh quan h gia hai phng php biu din hnh nh 2 chiu thng qua ma trn v vector. Phng php biu din di dng vector gip thu gn ng k cc cng thc m t qu trnh x l nh v cho php chng ta p dng nhng phng php x l tn hiu 1 chiu trong x l nh. V d: Bin i ma trn F (3x3) thnh vector f

98

1 0 0 1 4 7 2 5 8 , v = 0 ; v = 1 ; v = 0 , F= 1 2 3 0 0 1 3 6 9
1 0 0 0 N1 = 0 0 0 0 0
N2

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; N 2 = 0 1 0 ; N 3 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

f= N n Fv n = N1 Fv1 + N 2 Fv 2 + N 3 Fv 3
n=1

1 0 0 0 N1 Fv1 = 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 7 1 0 0 0 2 5 8 0 = 0 0 0 3 6 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 2 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 = 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 Tng t ta c: N 2 Fv 2 = 5 ; N 3Fv 3 = 0 6 0 0 7 0 8 0 9

1 2 3 4 f = 5 6 7 8 9

2.1.7.3 Biu din h thng tuyn tnh bng ma trn Vic phn tch cc ton t tuyn tnh trong x l nh s thun tin hn khi chng ta s dng phng php biu din bng ma trn cp ti trn.

99

Khi tm p ng h thng, bit hm p ng xung, chng ta s dng (2.1.23):

y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0

N 1 N 1

Cho tn hiu vo x ( m, n ) v p ng xung h ( m, n ) l cc ma trn vung 3x3, ta c:

y ( m, n ) = x ( 0,0 ) h ( m 0, n 0 ) + x (1,0 ) h ( m 1, n 0 ) + x ( 2,0 ) h ( m 2, n 0 ) + x ( 0,1) h ( m 0, n 1) + x (1,1) h ( m 1, n 1) + x ( 2,1) h ( m 2, n 1) + x ( 0,2 ) h ( m 0, n 2 ) + x (1,2 ) h ( m 1, n 2 ) + x ( 2,2 ) h ( m 2, n 2 )

(2.1.36) C th thy rng, v phi ca (2.1.36) l tch v hng ca hai vector ct x v hm ,n :

x ( 0,0 ) h ( m 0, n 0 ) x (1,0 ) h ( m 1, n 0 ) x 2,0 h m 2, n 0 ) ( ) ( x ( 0,1) h ( m 0, n 1) x = x (1,1) hm ,n = h ( m 1, n 1) x ( 2,1) h ( m 2, n 1) x 0,2 h m 0, n 2 ) ( ) ( x (1,2 ) h ( m 1, n 2 ) x ( 2,2 ) h ( m 2, n 2 )

C th thy rng, ma trn cc im nh X ng vi hm 2 chiu x ( m, n ) - c bin i theo (2.1.34) nhn c vector x. Nu ma trn nh Y ng vi y ( m, n ) cng c biu din tng t th vector hm ,n s bin i thnh ma trn H:
h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) H = h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 2,1) h (1,1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 2,0 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h ( 1,0 ) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 2,1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 1,1) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 0,1) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) h ( 2,1) h ( 1, 2 ) h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 2,1) h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 )

(2.1.37) Khi , phng trnh (2.1.23) c rt ngn nh sau:

y = Hx
100

(2.1.38)

y l phng trnh c bn trong lnh vc x l nh tuyn tnh. Ma trn H c th c chia thnh 9 ma trn kch thc 3 3 nh sau:

H 00 H = H10 H 20

H 01 H11 H 21

H 02 H12 H 22

(2.1.39)

Khi x ( m, n ) v y ( m, n ) c kch thc N N , Ma trn H c kch thc N 2 N 2 , cc ma trn nh H m,n s c kch thc N N . Trong trng hp tng qut, H l ma trn circulant khi, c to ra bi N N ma trn circulant theo cch sau:

l m k = 0 n = 0 l m k = 0 H= n = 1 l m k = 0 n = N 1

l m k = 1 n = 0 l m k = 1 n = 1 l m k = 1 n = N 1

l m k = N 1 n = 0 l m k = N 1 (2.1.40) n =1 l m k = N 1 n = N 1

Theo (2.1.34) vector y tng ng ma trn nh Y c th tm c thng qua ma trn X nh sau:

y = HN n Xv n
n =1

(2.1.41)

Ngoi ra, s dng (2.1.35) chng ta c th biu din ma trn Y thng qua vector y ca nh:
N

Y= M T y u T m m
m=1

(2.1.42)

T (2.1.41) v (2.1.42) chng ta c th tm ra quan h gia ma trn nh vo v ra ca h thng tuyn tnh:

Y= M T HN n X v n u T m m
m=1 n =1

) (

(2.1.43)

C th chng minh c rng vic nhn H vi ma trn M T v N n s tch ra cc ma m trn circulant H m,n , nh vy ta c: 101

Y= H m,n X v n u T m
m=1 n =1

(2.1.44)

i vi h thng tuyn tnh tch c (separable), qu trnh tm tng chp (2.1.23) c th c thc hin ln lt bng cch tnh tng theo m, sau theo n. Ta c th vit:

h ( m, l ; n, k ) = hc ( m, l ) hr ( n, k ) y ( m, n ) = hc ( m, l ) x ( l , k ) hr ( n, k )
l =0 k =0 N 1 N 1

(2.1.45) (2.1.46)

Theo (2.1.45) ta thy trong cc ma trn circulant (2.1.40) thnh phn hr ( n, k ) l constant v c th a ra ngoi ma trn. Do ma trn circulant khi H c th bin i nh sau ( rt gn, chng ta vit tt hn , k = h ( n, k ) ):

hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hr 0,0 h 0, 1 ... h 1, 1 cN N c N hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hr 0,1 H = hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hr 0, N 1 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1

hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hrN 1,1 = h T hT r c hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hrN 1, N 1 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hrN 1,0 h 0, 1 ... h 1, 1 cN N c N

(2.1.47)

Ma trn H c gi l tch Kronecker ca hai ma trn hrT v hcT .

2.1.7.4 Bin i khng gian tn hiu Ngoi phng php phn tch tn hiu trong khng gian thc, trong nhiu trng hp

2.1.7.4.1 Bin i Fourier lin tc Cp bin i Fourie lin tc mt chiu c nh ngha nh sau:

F (u) = f (x) =

f (x)e

j 2 ux

dx

(2.1.48)

F (u) e

j 2 ux

du

(2.1.49)

f ( x ) l hm lin tc, c bin thc x, j = 1 .

102

Cng thc (2.1.48) c gi l khai trin thun Fourier cn (2.1.49) khai trin nghch Fourier. Khai trin Fuorier 2 chiu (2D) c s dng tng i rng ri trong cc qu trnh x l nh nh lc, xc nh bin nh, nn nh v.v. Cp bin i Fourier lin tc 2 chiu thun v nghch s l:

F ( u, v ) = f ( x, y ) =

f ( x, y ) e F ( u, v ) e

j 2 ( ux+vy )

dxdy

(2.1.50)

j 2 ( ux+vy )

dudv

(2.1.51)

V d: Bin i Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu (hnh 3.1.24a) c dng nh trn (Hnh 2.1.24b).

a)

b)

Hnh 2.1.24 Ph Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu. i vi tn hiu ri rc, mt bin, cp khai trin Fourier thun v nghch c dng nh sau:

1 F (u) = M
M 1 u =0

M 1 x =0

f ( x)e
j 2

j 2

ux M

vi u = 0,1,2...M 1 ,

(2.1.52)

f ( x ) = F (u)e

ux M

vi x = 0,1,2...M 1

(2.1.53)

Cng nh tn hiu ri rc f ( x ) , khai trin Fourier ca n cho kt qu l M cc thnh phn ri rc. D dng nhn thy rng, mi thnh phn ri rc trong F(u) l tng ca tch tt c cc gi tr ca hm f ( x ) nhn vi cc hm cosin v sin c M tn s khc nhau. Nh vy c th ni F(u) l biu din tn hiu f(x) trong min tn s v bin u xc nh cc tn s to nn tn hiu ri rc f(x). C th ni, khai trin Fourier cho php chng ta m t mt hm thng qua cc thnh phn tn s cha trong hm . Chnh v vy khai trin Fourie c th c s dng nh 1 cng c quan trng m t v phn tch cc phng php lc tuyn tnh. 103

thc hin khai trin Fourier, chng ta phi s dng M2 php nhn v php cng.

Trong trng hp tng qut, hm F(u) l hm phc, do n c th c biu din di dng:

F (u) = F (u) e

j ( u )

(2.1.54)
1/ 2

Modul F ( u ) = R 2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )

c gi l ph bin , cn hm

I (u) ( u ) = arctg gi l ph pha ca hm f(u). I(u) v R(u) l thnh phn thc v R (u)
o ca F(u). Mt i lng khc c th suy ra t ph Fourier l ph cng sut ca tn hiu P(u):

P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2

(2.1.55)

Ph nng lng cho chng ta thy phn b cng sut ca tn hiu trong min tn s. Bin i Fourier c th c m rng cho hm f ( x , y ) c 2 bin. Khi f ( x , y ) lin tc v ly tch phn c th cp bin i Fourier 2 chiu thun v nghch s l:

F ( u, v ) = f ( x, y ) =

f ( x, y ) e F ( u, v ) e

j 2 ( ux+vy )

dxdy

(2.1.56)

j 2 ( ux+vy )

dudv

(2.1.57)

u, v l bin tn s. Cng nh trng hp bin i Fourier 1 chiu, ta c ph bin , ph pha v ph cng sut cho trng hp 2 chiu:

F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v ) I ( u,v ) ( u, v ) = arctg R ( u, v )

1/ 2

(2.1.58)

(2.1.59)

P ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
2

(2.1.69)

2.1.7.4.2 Bin i Fourier ri rc 2 chiu Bin i Fourier thun 2 chiu ca hm ri rc f(x,y) (m t nh s kch thc MxN) c biu din nh sau:

1 F ( u, v ) = MN

M 1 N 1 x =0 y =0

f ( x, y ) e

ux vy j 2 + M N

(2.1.70)

104

Nu c F(u,v) chng ta c th tm ra f(x,y) bng khai trin Fourier thun:

f ( x, y ) =

M 1 N 1 u =0 v =0

F ( u, v ) e
1/ 2

ux vy j 2 + M N

(2.1.71)

Ph bin , ph pha v ph cng sut cng c xc nh nh sau:

F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v ) I ( u, v ) ( u, v ) = arctg R ( u, v )

(2.1.72)

(2.1.73)

P ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
2

(2.1.74)

Gi tr ca ph Fourier ti im u=v=0 bng:

F ( 0,0 ) =

1 MN

M 1 N 1 x =0 y =0

f ( x, y )

(2.1.75)

Nu f(x,y) hm biu din chi ca nh s th F(0,0) chnh l gi tr trung bnh ca chi nh. V (0,0) l im gc ta khng gian tn s, ni tn s bng 0, nn thnh phn F0,0) cn c gi l thnh phn mt chiu (DC) ca ph tn hiu. V d: Trn Hnh 2.1.25a l nh chi tit hnh ch nht mu trng, kch thc 20x40 nm trn nh phng mu en. Ph 2 chiu ca nh trn nhn c bng khai trin Fourie ( 3.1.70) biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25b. Trong trng hp ny, cc thnh phn ph ca tn hiu s c nh s theo th t t u=1 ti u=M, v=1 ti v=N. thnh phn mt chiu ca ph nm ti trung tm ca nh, chng ta phi thc hin dch ph trong khng gian hai chiu, bng cch nhn hm f(x,y) vi ( 1)
x +y

, khi theo

tnh cht ca khai trin Fourier, ph Fuorier phc s dch chuyn n v tr u = ( M / 2 ) v

v = ( N / 2) : f ( x, y )( 1)
x +y

M N F u ;v 2 2

(2.1.76)

Ph 2 chiu ca nh sau khi dch chuyn c biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25c Phm vi di ng (khong bin thin) ca gi tr cc h s khai trin Fourier c th cao hn nhiu so vi gi tr ca thnh phn chi. V vy, nh ph hin th r hn trn mn hnh, i khi ngi ta bin i cc gi tr ph theo hm logarit nh sau:

D ( u,v ) = c log 1 + F ( u,v )

c- hng s.

(2.1.77)

nh ph sau khi bin i bng ( 3.1.77 ) biu din trn Hnh 2.1.25d. 105

Hnh 2.1.25 Ph Fourier ca hnh nh 2D

2.2

PHN TCH CC K THUT X L NH V VIDEO

2.2.1 Khi nim v quan h gia cc im nh 2.2.1.1 Cc im nh ln cn Mi im nh p ti ta (x,y) s c 4 im nh c gi l ln cn theo chiu ngang

v dc, l cc im ( x + 1, y ) , ( x 1, y ) , ( x, y + 1)( x, y 1) . Tp hp 4 im ln cn

trn c k hiu l N 4 ( p ) . Mi im ln cn nm cch im (x,y) 1 n v. 4 im nh ln cn vi im (x,y) theo ng cho k hiu l

N D ( p ) , l cc im:

( x + 1, y + 1) , ( x + 1, y 1) , ( x 1, y + 1)( x 1, y 1) . Tp hp 8 im N 4 ( p ) v N D ( p ) c gi l 8 im ln cn: N 8 ( p ) . Trong trng hp khi im p nm bin ca

nh, cc im ln cn c th nm bn ngoi nh.
2.2.1.2 Mi lin kt (connectivity) Mi lin kt gia cc im nh l khi nim quan trng, cho php xc nh cc gii hn ca chi tit hay cc vng trong mt nh. Hai im nh c s lin kt vi nhau nu chng l cc im ln cn v gi tr mc xm ca chng p ng 1 tiu chun no (th d nu chng ging nhau). V d, i vi nh nh phn, 2 im nh c lin kt, khi chng nm trong b 4 ln cn v c gi tr ging nhau.

Cho V l tp cc mc xm dng nh ngha mi lin kt, v d trong nh en-trng, gi tr cc mc xm thay i t 0-255, th V c th l 1 tp bt k trong s 255 gi tr ny. Chhng ta c 3 loi lin kt: 106

N4 ( p ) . N8 ( p ) .

1) Lin kt 4: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt 4 nu q nm trong tp

2) Lin kt 8: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt 8 nu q nm trong tp

3) Lin kt m (hn hp): hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt m nu: - q nm trong tp N 4 ( p ) , hoc - q nm trong tp N D ( p ) v tp N 4 ( p ) N 4 ( q ) khng cha cc gi tr trong V. Lin kt m l bin th ca lin kt 8 dng loi tr cc mi lin kt a hng (khng r rng) c th gp khi dng lin kt 8. iu ny minh ha trn Hnh 2.2.1b. Lin kt 8 trn Hnh 2.2.1 c biu din bng ng t nt l lin kt a hng, trong khi nu s dng khi nim lin kt m, ta s xc nh 1 ng lin kt duy nht gia cc im nh c gi tr bng 1 (Hnh 2.2.1c).

Hnh 2.2.1

Minh ha lin kt 8 v lin kt m.

chui cc pixel khc nhau vi cc ta : ( x 0 , y 0 ) , ( x1 , y1 ) ,..., ( x n , y n ) , trong :

ng kt ni (ri rc) gia hai im nh p c ta (x,y) v q c ta l (s,t) l

( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x, y ) ( x n , y n ) = ( s, t ) ( x i , y i ) v ( x i1 , y i1 ) l cc im lin kt vi 1 i n . n c gi l chiu di ca ng kt ni. Khi ( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x n , y n ) , ng ni c gi l khp kn.

Ty theo phng php xc nh lin kt,chng ta c ng kt ni 4, 8 hoc ng kt ni m. Trn Hnh 2.2.1 m t 2 loi ng kt ni m v 8. Cho S l mt tp cc im nh, hai pixel p v q c gi l lin kt trong S, nu tn ti ng kt ni gia hai im p v q c to ra ch bi cc im trong tp S. Vi bt c im p no t S, tt c cc pixel lin kt vi p trong S s c gi l thnh phn lin kt ca S. Nu S trong ch tn ti mt thnh phn lin kt, th tp S gi l tp lin kt. Cho R l tp con cc im nh, R c gi l 1 vng nh nu R l tp lin kt. ng bin ca vng R c to ra t tp nh cc im nh. Cc im ny c 1 hoc nhiu hn cc im ln cn khng nm trong tp R. 107

2.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh Trong cc phn sau, chng ta s ni n cc php tnh thc hin vi hnh nh, th d chia mt nh cho nh khc. Nh gii thiu trn, ta c th biu din nh s nh ma trn cc im nh,tuy nhin trong trng hp tng qut, hai ma trn khng chia c cho nhau. V vy, trn thc t, khi thc hin ton t chia 2 nh cho nhau, ngi ta chia cc pixel tng ng ca 1 nh cho nh khc (vi iu kin cc im nh ca anh chia khc 0). V d, khi chia nh f cho nh g, im nh th nht nhn c s l gi tr im nh th nht ca nh f chia cho gi tr im nh th nht ca nh g. Tng t nh vy, cc ton t s hc v logic s c thc hin cho cc pixel tng ng gia 2 nh.

2.2.1.3.1 Khong cch gia cc im nh

i vi cc pixels p,q,z vi cc ta (x,y), (s,t), (u,v), D l hm khong cch hoc metric, nu:

D ( p,q ) 0 , D ( p,q ) = 0 nu p=q D ( p,q ) = D ( q, p ) D ( p, z ) D ( p,q ) + D ( q, z )

2.2.1.3.2 Khong cch Euclide gia p va q c nh ngha:
2 2 De ( p,q ) = ( x s ) + ( y t ) 1/ 2

(2.2.1)

2.2.1.3.3 Khong cch D4 gia p va q c nh ngha:

D4 ( p,q ) = x s + y t

(2.2.2)

Cc pixels nm cch im (x,y) mt khong D4 nh hn hoc bng gi tr r s to ra hnh thoi c tm im ti (x,y).V d: pixels nm cch (x,y) mt khong D4 2 to ra hnh thoi sau:

2.2.1.3.4 Khong cch D8 gia p va q c nh ngha nh sau:

D8 ( p,q ) = max ( x s , y t )
im (x,y):

(2.2.3)

V d: pixels nm cch (x,y) mt khong D8 2 to ra hnh vung c tm im ti

108

Pixels vi khong cch D8 = 1 l 8 im ln cn ca pixel (x,y).

2.2.2 Cc phng php xc nh v d an bin nh 2.2.2.1 C s pht hin ng bin nh Lm ni, pht hin v d on bin nh l vn quan trng trong phn tch nh. Nh c nh ngha phn trc, ng bin ca mt vng nh R c to ra bi cc im nh c mt hoc nhiu im ln cn khng nm trong tp lin kt R. Ni cch khc, mt im nh c coi l nm trn ng bin nu ti v tr im nh c s thay i t ngt ca mc xm. Nh vy, ng bin l ng ni cc im nh nm trong khu vc nh c thay i t ngt v chi, ng bin thng ngn cch hai vng nh c cc mc xm gn nh khng i.

Hnh 2.2.2 Minh ha khi nim ng bin ca nh ng bin gia hai vng nh (c chi khc nhau) trong khng gian 2 chiu v s thay oori chi trn ng bin. Trong trng hp l tng, chi gia 2 vng nh thay i t ngt hoc tng dn u. Tuy nhin, trn thc t, mc xm gia cc vng nh thay i tng i ngu nhin. Chnh v vy qu trnh pht hin ng bin thng khng n gin v kt qu thng khng han ton chnh xc. C nhiu phng php pht hin ng bin khc nhau: 1- Phng php pht hin ng bin trc tip da trn cc phn tch v s thay i chi ca nh. K thut ch yu dng pht hin bin l dng o hm. Khi ly o hm bc nht ca nh ta c phng php gradient, khi ly o hm bc hai ta c k thut Laplace. 109

2- Phng php pht hin ng bin trong nh mu: phn tch nh mu thnh cc nh n sc (R,G,B) v xc nh ng bin trn c s s thay i mu sc trong cc nh n sc ni trn. 3- Phn tch nh thnh vng theo cc c im c trng (th d kt cu b mt (texture)), ranh gii gia cc vng chnh l ng bin ca nh.
2.2.2.2 Phng php Gradient

Hnh 2.2.3 S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin biu din trn Hnh 2.2.3. nh gc f(x,y) c a vo khi lm ni ng bin. y, bng phng php x l tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn nh F(x,y) c lm tng mc chnh lch chi gia cc vng nh. nh G(x,y) l nh gc c tng cng bin ng bin gia cc vng nh. Sau , ti khi so snh, ngi ta so snh gi tr cc im nh G(x,y) vi mc ngng T xc nh v tr cc im c muc thay i chi ln. Nu:

G ( x, y ) < TL - c s thay i mc chi t cao xung thp G ( x, y ) > TH - c s thay i mc chi t thp ln cao. TL v TH l gi tr mc ngng thp v cao.
Vic la chn gi tr ngng rt quan trng trong qu trnh xc nh ng bin. Khi gi tr T qu cao, cc ng bin c tng phn thp s b mt i, ngc li, khi T qu thp, d xy ra hin tng xc nh bin sai di tc ng ca nhiu. Phng php gradient l phng php d bin cc b da vo gi tr cc i ca o hm. Gradient l vector cho thy tc thay i gi tr chi ca cc im nh theo hng nht nh. Cc thnh phn ca gradient c tnh bi:

f ( x, y ) f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y ) = x dx

(2.2.4)

f ( x, y ) f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y ) = y dy

(2.2.5)

dx v dy l khong cch gia cc im theo hng ly x v y. Trn thc t thng dng dx=1, dy=1. Khi nh s c biu din nh ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct, gradient ri rc theo hng x s bng:

G x ( x, y ) = f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y )
Gradient theo hng y s l: 110

(2.2.6)

G y ( x, y ) = f ( x, y + 1) f ( x, y )

(2.2.7)

a)

b)

Hnh 2.2.4 Lm ni ng bin s dng phng php gradient, a- nh gc; b- ly o hm ring theo chiu y; c- ly o hm ring theo chiu x;

c)

lm ni nhng ng bin dc, ta phi ly o hm ri rc theo chiu ngang v ngc li. Kt qu qu trnh lm ni ng bin theo phng php gradient th hin trn hnh 2.2.4.
2.2.2.3 Lm ni bin bng ton t la bn o hm ri rc hai chiu c th c thc hin bng cch ly tng chp gia nh gc v mt n gradient. Mt s mt n c s dng lm ni cc ng bin theo hng nht nh [ ]. Tn mt n c t theo hng thay i chi m mt n c p ng ln nht.

111

nh c lm ni bin bng cc mt n trn biu din cc hnh sau:

Bc

ng Bc

ng

ng Nam

C th thy rng, cc mt n trn c tng gi tr cc h s bng 0, do p ng ca mt n ti vng nh c chi khng i s bng 0.

2.2.2.4 K thut Laplace Phng php gradient lm vic tt khi sng thay i tng i r nt. Khi mc xm thay i chm, cc ng bin khng r nt, min chuyn tip tng i rng, phng php hiu qu hn l dng o hm bc hai m chng ta gi l phng php Laplace. Ton t Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:

112

2 f =

2 f 2 f + dx 2 dy 2

(2.2.8)

Vic xp x o hm bc hai cho tn hiu ri rc (tm thi xt tn hiu mt chiu) c thc hin nh sau:

2 f = f ( x + 1) + f ( x 1) 2 f ( x ) x 2
hiu:

(2.2.9)

thy s khc bit, chng ta quan st tc ng ca o hm bc mt v bc hai ti tn

Hnh 2.2.5 Minh ha ng dng o hm bc mt v bc hai trong qu trnh tch bin Nhn trn th kt qu o hm bc mt v hai (hnh 2.2.5 v 2.2.6) ta thy o hm bc mt ly trong min mc xm gim dn khc khng, trong khi o hm bc hai ch khc khng on u v on cui. ng bin gia cc vng trn nh thc thng c s thay i chi nh trn, do c th thy o hm bc hai cho php xc nh v tr ng bin tt hn o hm bc mt. Ti v tr im nh ring r, o hm bc 2 cho p ng mnh hn, do cc chi tit nh (v c nhiu) s c lm ni r nt hn. ng nt tng i mnh trn hnh nh cng s c lm ni nhiu hn khi s dng o hm bc hai. Cui cng, i vi tnh hiu dng bc sng ln p ng ca c o hm bc mt v hai gn ging nhau. Tuy nhin o hm bc 2 cho kt qu m v dng. Do trn hnh nh s c hiu ng ng bin i.

113

Hnh 2.2.6 Dng tn hiu nhn c sau khi ly o hm bc 1 v bc 2 i vi tn hiu 2 chiu, o hm ring theo trc x v y bng:

2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x , y ) x 2 2 f = f ( x , y + 1) + f ( x , y 1) 2 f ( x , y ) y 2
Tan t Laplace hai chiu ri rc tnh theo (2.2.8) c dng:

(2.2.10)

(2.2.11)

2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x , y + 1) + f ( x , y 1) 4 f ( x , y ) (2.2.12)
Tan t trn c th c thc hin bi cc mt n sau:

Hnh 2.2.7 Mt n thc hin ton t Laplace v nh nhn c u ra 114

2.3
2.3.1

CC K THUT NN NH

Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh Cc h truyn hnh (tng t) NTSC, PAL, SECAM s dng nn thng tin video bng cch gim rng bng tn thnh phn mu xung 1,2 MHz do nhy ca mt ngi c gii hn i vi tn hiu mu tn s cao. Tiu chun nh dng video thnh phn 4:2:2 ( CCIR-601) dng rng bng tn tn hiu chi v mu l 5,75 MHz v 2,75 MHz ( 0,1 dB). Sau khi s ha, tc bit tng cng ca tn hiu chi v mu l 270 Mbps. Gi tr ny rt cao, khng th thc hin c vic truyn tn hiu video s qua v tinh vi rng di tn mt knh 27 MHz hoc qua h thng truyn hnh qung b trn mt t vi tiu chun 78 MHz cho mt knh truyn hnh tiu chun. Do vy, nn tn hiu video l cng on khng th thiu khc phc c nhng kh khn trn.

Nn video trong nhng nm 1950 c thc hin bng cng ngh tng t vi t s nn thp. S pht trin ca k thut s v vic s dng cng ngh s vo k thut truyn hnh lm cho khi nim nn video tr thnh ti nng hi trong nhng nm gn y. T nhng nm 1980, cc nh khoa hc t c nhng thnh tu quan trng trong vic nn tn hiu video v audio. C rt nhiu hng sn xut thit b nn, nhng u da trn hai nh dng nn rt ph bin l JPEG v MPEG. Trong lnh vc truyn thng video, k thut x l tn hiu ch yu tp trung vo mc ch nn. Ngi ta thng s dng 3 phng php nn i vi hnh nh da vo cc loi d: d tha khng gian, d tha ph v d tha tm sinh l nhn. Nn v c bn l mt qu trnh trong s lng s liu (data) biu din lng thng tin ca mt nh hoc nhiu nh c gim bt bng cch loi b nhng s liu d tha trong tn hiu video. Cc chui nh truyn hnh c nhiu phn nh ging nhau. Vy tn hiu truyn hnh c cha nhiu d liu d tha, ta c th b qua m khng lm mt thng tin hnh nh. l cc phn xa dng, xa mnh, vng nh tnh hoc chuyn ng rt chm,vng nh nn ging nhau, m cc phn t lin tip hoc khc nhau rt t. Ngoi ra, tng h s nn nh ng, chuyn ng trong nh truyn hnh phi c d bo, khi , ta ch cn truyn cc thng tin v hng v mc (vector) chuyn ng ca cc vng nh khc nhau. Cc phn t ln cn trong nh thng ging nhau, do ch cn truyn cc thng tin bin i. Cc h thng nn s dng c tnh ny ca tn hiu video v cc c trng ca mt ngi (l km nhy vi sai s trong hnh nh c nhiu chi tit v cc phn t chuyn ng). Qu trnh gii nn nh l qu trnh xp x khi phc nh gc (thng thc hin pha thu). Mt h thng nn video tiu biu (hay b m ho ngun) bao gm: b chuyn i, b lng t ho, b m ho (Hnh 2.4.1)
Tn hiu gc B chuyn i B lng t ha B m ha Tn hiu nn

Hnh 2.3.1: S khi h thng nn nh tiu biu

115

B chuyn i: thng dng php bin i Cosin ri rc tp trung nng lng tn hiu vo mt s lng nh cc h s khai trin thc hin php nn hiu qu hn l dng tn hiu nguyn thy. B lng t ho: to ra mt lng k hiu gii hn cho nh nn vi hai k thut: lng t v hng (thc hin lng t ho cho tng phn d liu) v lng t vect (thc hin lng t ho mt ln mt khi d liu). Qu trnh ny khng thun nghch. B m ho: gn mt t m, mt dng bit nh phn cho mi k hiu.

Cc h thng nn c phn bit da trn s kt hp khc nhau gia 3 b x l trn v c phn loi nh sau: H thng nn khng mt thng tin (lossless data reduction): thc hin ti thiu tc bit m khng lm mo nh, h thng cn gi l nn ton bit hay c tnh cht thun nghch. H thng nn c mt thng tin (loss data reduction): t c trung thc tt nht i vi tc bit cho trc, h thng ph hp p dng cho tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh v c h s nn cao. Trong s Hnh 2.3.1, tng chuyn i v tng m ho l ni tn hiu x l khng b tn tht, tng lng t l c tn tht. Ngoi ra, da trn quan im v tn tht chng ta c th phn bit hai loi m ho nh sau: m ho entropy (m ho khng tn tht) v m ho ngun (m ho c tn tht).
2.3.1.1 Cc k thut m ho entropy K thut ny ch quan tm n o tin trong d liu m khng quan tm n ng ngha ca tin. Sau y l mt s k thut m ho entropy hay dng trong h thng x l video:

M ho chiu di di lin tc (RLC - Run Length Coding): cc chui im nh c cng chi (mc mu) s c m ho bng cp thng tin ( chi, chiu di chui). M ho bng cc loi b trng lp: cc chui c bit c thay th bng c v s m lp. M ho dng mu thay th: y l dng m ho thng k m n thay th cc mu hay lp li bng mt m. M ha vi di (ca t m) thay i (VLC- Variable-Length Coding)

Phng php ny cn c gi l m ha Huffman. Nguyn l ca n da trn xc sut xut hin ca cc gi tr bin trng hp trong mt bc nh v vic gn mt t m ngn cho cc gi tr c tn sut xut hin cao nht v t m di hn cho cc gi tr cn li. Khi thc hin gii nn, cc thit lp m trng hp s c s dng to li gi tr tn hiu ban u. M ha v gii m Huffman c th thc hin mt cch d dng bng cch s dng cc bng tm kim. Nh vy, m Huffman da trn nguyn tc k t c tn s sut hin cng cao th s bit m ho cng ngn.

116

2.3.1.2 Phng php m d on Phng php m d on hay cn gi l iu xung m vi sai (DPCM Differential Pulse Code Modulation) khng m ha thng tin c bin mi mu, m m ha thng tin c bin vi sai (bin chnh lch) gia mu cho v tr d bo ( c to t cc mu trc ). Phn tch thng k v phn b bin tn hiu video, ta thy phn b bin cc mu tng ng vi cc im nh (pixel) v nguyn tc l phn b u, ngc li phn b v chnh lch bin cc im nh c th hnh chung xung quanh im 0. Nu da trn cc c trng thng k nh, th s khc nhau ny l khng ln lm v m ha n ch cn gim s bit l (so vi vic m ha ton b bin cc mu).

Phng php DPCM cn s dng c im ca mt ngi (km nhy vi mc lng t c chnh lch v chi gia im nh gn nhau, so vi mc lng t ha chnh lch nh) v cho php dng c trng phi tuyn v lng t ha. Hnh 2.3.2 minh ha s khi b m ha v gii m DPCM.

a) m ha DPCM

b) gii m DPCM Hnh 2.3.2 S khi b m ha v gii m DPCM Nhm trnh cc li c th xut hin trong khi truyn, mt mu y c gi i theo chu k nht nh, cho php cp nht c cc gi tr chnh xc. M ha DPCM cng s dng thm cc k thut d on v lng t ha thch nghi hon thin thm k thut ny.
2.3.1.3 Cc k thut m ho ngun Cc k thut ny da trn ng ngha ca nh nn cn gi l k thut m ho hng ng ngha. C 3 loi c bn l m ho chuyn i, m ho sai phn v lng t ho vect.

M ho chuyn i: dng php bin i Fourier hay Cosin chuyn t min thi gian hay min khng gian sang min tn s. y, chng ta quan tm n php chuyn 117

i Cosin ri rc (DCT - Discrete Cosine Transform). c im ca php bin i ny l tn hiu nh trong min khng gian chuyn sang min tn s th cc thnh phn DC v cc thnh phn AC mang hu ht cc thng tin cha trong nh gc. Trong , DC l thnh phn quan trng nht mang chi trung bnh ca nh, cc thnh phn AC cha cc thng tin v chi tit ca nh. Sau , khi qua tng lng t ho, cc h s t quan trng s b loi b bt v ch gi li mt s h s h s u tin gi l h s DCT. M ho sai phn: cng c gi l m ho c on do ch m ho s khc bit gia gi tr mu thc v gi tr c on, m ho sai phn thng dng cho video hnh nh ng. Lp k thut ny bao gm: iu m xung sai phn, iu ch delta, iu m xung thch nghi. Lng t ho vect: m ho tng khi hai chiu kch thc c nh (gi l vect) v tra bng tm m ph hp nht. K thut ch thch hp cho d liu c cu trc bit trc.
2.3.1.4 Cc phng php nn nh trong h thng video thi gian thc Vic la chn k thut nn ph thuc vo cht lng nh v gii hn thi gian tr. Cc tiu chun v cc h thng nn nh da trn tu chn ny a ra cc chun ph hp. Trong h thng truyn nh ng (video), ngi ta thng s dng phng php nn theo tiu chun MPEG (nh MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4). Trong , im nh l thnh phn c bn nht v c nhm thnh tng khi 8 8 im nh (block), mt nhm 4 4 block ny hnh thnh mt khi 16 16 im nh gi l Macroblock(MB). Mt slice l mt dy cc MB lin tip gia hai k hiu nh du ti ng b (sync.marker). Cc thnh phn cu trc cao hn ca chui video l khung nh (frame), y chnh l cc nh thc s ca chui video. C 3 khung nh tiu biu: khung I, khung P, v khung B. cui cng l nhm cc khung (GOP) bt u vi khung I v kt thc vi khung P hoc B. 2.3.1.5 Cc tiu chun nn nh Cc tiu chun quan trng bao gm:

JPEG: dng cho nn nh tnh, pht trin bi s kt hp gia ITU-TS v ISO.

MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPEG-7: do y ban ISO IEC/JTC1/SC29/WG11 pht trin cho m ho kt hp gia video v audio. H.261: do Nhm nghin cu XI pht trin v c bit rng ri nh tiu chun m ho video cho cc dch v nghe nhn tc n 64Kbps. ITU-TS H.263 cho cc ng dng in thoi thy hnh di tc di 64Kbps.

Mc d cc tiu chun c gii thiu trn ph hp cho tng loi ng dng ring bit. Tuy nhin, chng cng c chung cc nguyn tc c bn. S khc bit gia cc chun ph thuc ch yu vo yu cu c bit ca tng ng dng. Trong , tiu chun MPEG-4 c xem nh mt chun tng qut ho ca chun H.263, v vy, vic kho st da trn chun ny s c tnh cht p dng chung cho c hai chun.
2.3.1.6 Xc nh hiu qu ca qu trnh nn tn hiu s Hiu qu nn c xc nh bng t l nn, ngha l t s gia s lng d liu ca nh gc trn s liu ca nh nn.

118

 phc tp ca thut ton nn, c xc nh bng s bc tnh ton trong c hai qu trnh m ha v gii m. Thng thng th thut ton nn cng phc tp bao nhiu th hiu qu nn cng cao nhng ngc li gi thnh v thi gian thc hin li tng. i vi thut ton nn c tn tht th sai lch c xc nh bng s thng tin b mt i khi ta ti to li hnh nh t d liu nn. Vi nn khng tn tht th chng ta c th c nhng thut ton m ha cng gn vi entropy ca thng tin ngun bi v lng entropy ca ngun chnh l tc nh nht m bt c mt thut ton nn khng tn tht no cng c th t c. Ngc li, trong nn c tn tht th mi quan h gia t l nn v sai lch thng tin c Shannon nghin cu v biu din di dng hm R(D) ( hm v sai lch thng tin). L thuyt ca ng cng ch ra rng vi thut ton nn c tn tht th chng ta s c hiu qu nn cao nht nhng ngc li ta li b mt thng tin trong qu trnh ti to li n t d liu nn. Trong khi nn khng tn tht, mc d t c hiu qu thp, nhng ta li khng b mt thng tin trong qu trnh ti to li n. V vy ta phi tm ra mt gii php nhm trung ha gia hai thut ton nn ny tm ra mt thut ton nn ti u sao cho hiu qu cao m li khng b mt mt thng tin.
2.3.1.7 d tha s liu Nn s liu l qu trnh gim lng s liu cn thit biu din cng mt lng thng tin cho trc. Cn phi phn bit gia s liu v thng tin. Thc t s liu v thng tin khng ng ngha vi nhau. S liu (v do tn hiu) ch l phng tin dng truyn ti thng tin. Cng mt lng thng tin cho trc c th biu din bng cc lng s liu khc nhau. V d, nu hai ngi khc nhau dng s t khc nhau k cng mt cu truyn, s c hai version khc nhau ca cu truyn v mt c cha s liu khng ch yu; n bao gm s liu hoc t khng cho thng tin thch hp ln xc nh bit. l do n cha d tha s liu.

d tha s liu l vn trung tm trong nn nh s. nh gi cho qu trnh thc hin gii thut nn l t l nn (CN) c xc nh nh sau: Nu N1 v N2 l lng s liu trong hai tp hp s liu cng c dng biu din lng thng tin cho trc th d tha s liu tng i RD ca tp s liu th nht so vi tp s liu th hai c th c nh ngha nh sau: RD = 1- 1/CN trong : CN = N1/N2 Trong trng hp N1 = N2 th CN = 1 v c ngha l so vi tp s liu th hai th tp s liu th nht khng cha s liu d tha. Khi N2 << N1 th CN tin ti v cng v RD tin ti mt, c ngha l d tha s liu tng i ca tp s liu th nht l kh ln hay tp s liu th hai c nn kh nh. y c s kt hp gia t l nn v cht lng hnh nh. T l nn cng cao s lm gim cht lng hnh nh v ngc li. Cht lng v qu trnh nn c th thay i ty theo c im ca hnh nh ngun v ni dung nh. nh gi cht lng nh c ngh tnh s

119

bit cho mt im trong nh nn (Nb). N c xc nh l tng s bit nh nn chia cho tng s im: Nb = S bit nn/S im Trong nn nh s, ba loi d tha s liu c th c nhn dng v phn bit. D tha m ( Coding Redundancy)

Nu cc mc ca tn hiu video c m ha bng cc symbol nhiu hn cn thit (tuyt i) th kt qu l c d tha m. gim d tha m, trong nn nh thng s dng cc m VLC nh m Huffman, m RLC v.v...Lng thng tin v hnh nh c xc sut thp hn. D tha trong pixel (Interpixel Redundancy)

V gi tr ca bt k mt pixel no , cng c th c d bo t gi tr ca cc ln cn ca n, nn thng tin t cc pixels ring l tng i nh. S tham gia ca mt pixel ring vo mt nh l d tha. Nhiu tn (bao gm: d tha khng gian, d tha hnh hc, d tha trong nh) c t ra phn bit s ph thuc ny ca cc pixels. Ta dng d tha trong pixel ch tt c cc tn trn. gim d tha trong pixel ca mt nh, dy pixel hai chiu dng cho vic nhn v ni suy, phi c bin i thnh mt dng c hiu qu hn. Trong cc phng php nn nh s trnh by trong chng ny, ta dng php bin i cosin ri rc (DCT) bin i pixel t min khng gian sang min tn s, bng cch ny s gim c d tha s liu trong pixel min tn s cao. D tha tm sinh l

Bng trc quan ta thy, s thu nhn cng sng thay i ch gii trong mt phm vi nht nh. Hin tng ny xut pht t s tht l mt khng p ng vi cng nhy ca tt c cc thng tin nhn thy. Thng tin n gin c tm quan trng t hn thng tin khc trong vng nhn thy. Thng tin ny c gi l d tha tm l nhn. N c th c loi b m khng nh hng ng k n cht lng thu nhn nh. Khc vi d tha m v d tha trong pixel, d tha tm sinh l c lin quan n thng tin theo nh lng, n c quan h ti vic lng t ha. iu c ngha l nh x mt khong rng cc gi tr u vo ln mt s hu hn cc gi tr u ra. l ton t khng o ngc (mt thng tin) cho kt qu nn s liu c tn hao.
2.3.1.8 Sai lch bnh phng trung bnh Phng php nh gi cht lng nh nn thng dng nht l da trn mc sai lch bnh phng trung bnh so vi nh gc - RMS (Root Mean Square) c tnh bi biu thc:

RMS =
trong :

1 n

(X
i =1

X 'i )

RMS- sai lch bnh phng trung bnh

X i - gi tr im nh gc

120

X 'i - gi tr im nh sau khi nn

n - tng s im nh trong mt nh Thng thng, khi gi tr RMS thp, cht lng nh nn s tt. Tuy nhin, trong mt s trng hp cht lng hnh nh nn khng nht thit phi t l thun vi gi tr RMS.
Phng php nn nh JPEG JPEG ( Joint Photographic Expert Group ) l tn ca mt t chc nghin cu v cc chun nn nh (trc y l ISO) c thnh lp vo nm 1982. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc c thit lp nh s kt hp gia nhm ISO/IEC v ITV. Tiu chun ny c th c ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc : lu tr nh, Fax mu, truyn nh bo ch, nh cho y hc, camera s v.v... 2.3.2

Tiu chun JPEG c nh ra cho nn nh tnh n sc v mu. Tuy nhin cng c s dng cho nhiu ng dng vi nh ng bi v n cho cht lng nh khi phc kh tt v t tnh ton hn so vi nn MPEG. Nn JPEG c th thc hin bi bn mode m ha l: a) M tun t (sequential DCT-based) : nh c m ha theo kiu qut t tri qua phi, t trn xung di da trn khi DCT. b) M ha ly tin (progressive DCT-based) : nh c m ha bng kiu qut phc hp theo ch phn gii khng gian cho cc ng dng trn kiu bng hp v do thi gian truyn dn c di. c) M ha khng tn tht (lossless) : nh c m bo khi phc chnh xc cho mi gi tr mu ca ngun. Thng tin khng cn thit s mi ct b cho nn hiu qu nn thp hn so vi phng php c tn tht. d) M ha phn cp (hierarchical) : nh c m ha ch phn gii khng gian phc hp, cho nhng nh c phn gii thp c th c truy xut v hin th m khng cn gii nn nh nhng nh c phn gii trong khng gian cao hn. M ha khng tn tht khng s dng cho video ng bi v n cung cp mt t l nn khng cao. T l nn nh tnh c th t t 1/10 n 1/50 m khng lm nh hng n cht lng hin th ca nh. Khai trin DCT c chn l k thut then cht trong JPEG v n cho nh nn cht lng tt nht ti tc bit thp v gii thut chuyn i nhanh v d dng thc hin bng phn cng. Trn Hnh 2.4.3 l s m ho tiu biu ca JPEG. K thut nn nh JPEG cho php s dng hoc mnh (field) hoc nh (frame) nh mt nh gc. Nu k thut nn dng mnh th nn trong nh s to ra hai nh trong mi nh truyn hnh. V vy, khi bn v nn, thut ng nh khng lun lun ng ngha vi thut ng nh trong lnh vc truyn hnh. Trc khi a vo chuyn i DCT, nh gc phi c x l nn di tn tn hiu hiu mu v chia nh thnh cc block. Vic nn ph tn hiu hiu mu lm gim d tha tm sinh l. K thut ny da vo c trng h thng th gic ca con ngi (HVS: human visual system). Mt ngi km nhy vi s thay i tn hiu mu hn s thay i tn hiu

121

chi. V vy, ta khng cn thit truyn i thng tin ca tn hiu mu vi tn s nh truyn thng tin tn hiu chi. Nh gii thiu trn, theo khuyn co CCIR 601-2, c rt nhiu phng php ly mu thng tin tn hiu hiu mu. T l ly mu thng dng l 4:2:2 v 4:1:1. nh dng 4:2:2 ngha l c 4 mu tn hiu chi th c 2 mu cho mi loi tn hiu hiu mu. Ni cch khc, c 2 mu tn hiu chi c 1 mu tn hiu hiu mu. nh dng 4:1:1 ngha l c 4 mu tn hiu chi th c 1 mu cho mi loi tn hiu hiu mu. Gi s tn hiu hiu mu ch c ly mu theo chiu dc v mi mu c 8 bit, s bit trung bnh trn mt pixel theo t l ly mu 4:2:2 l 84/2, hay 16 bit/pixel. Theo t l 4:1:1 l 86/4, 12bit/pixel. K thut ly mu tn hiu hiu mu c p dng c hai chiu ngang v dc. D nhin, iu ny lm gim hn na lng thng tin v tn hiu hiu mu. Trc khi thc hin bin i DCT, c nh c chia thnh cc khi ln ring bit khng chng nhau (MB-Marco Block). Mi MB bao gm 4 block cc tn hiu chi (Y) v 2,4 hoc 8 block cc mu tn hiu hiu mu (Cr,Cb). S cc block ca tn hiu hiu mu ph thuc vo tiu chun ly mu ca tn hiu video: 4:2:2, 4:1:1 hay 4:2:0 v.v.

Hnh 2.3.3 S m ha v gii m theo JPEG

122

Tt c cc block c cng kch thc v mi block l mt ma trn im nh 88 pixel c ly t mt nh mn hnh theo chiu t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. Kch thc block l 88 c chn bi hai l do sau: a) Th nht, qua vic nghin cu cho thy hm tng quan suy gim rt nhanh khi khong cch gia cc pixel vt qu 8. b) Th hai, l s tin li cho vic tnh ton v thit k phn cng. Ni chung, phc tp v tnh ton s tng nu kch thc block tng. V d v vic chia thnh cc block ca hnh nh i vi h PAL. Phn tch cc ca tn hiu video vi phn gii 576720 s c chia lm 7290 block tn hiu chi. V nh vy s c 3645 MB. Cu trc ca MB cng ph thuc vo loi nh qut. Nu qut lin tc th cc block bao gm cc mu t cc dng lin tc (lc ny nn nh theo-frame). Ngc li, trong trng hp qut xen k, trong mt block ch c cc mu ca mt na nh (nn nh theo-mnh). Tm li, vic chia hnh nh thnh cc nh con (block, MB) s thc s c ngha cho bc chuyn v tip theo.
2.3.2.1 Bin i cosin ri rc DCT Cng on u tin ca hu ht cc qu trnh nn l xc nh thng tin d tha trong min khng gian ca mt mnh hoc mt nh ca tn hiu video. Nn khng gian c thc hin bi php bin i cosin ri rc DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform). DCT bin i d liu di dng bin thnh d liu di dng tn s. Mc ch ca qu trnh bin i l thay i d liu biu din thng tin: d liu ca nh con tp trung vo mt phn nh cc h s hm truyn. Vic m ha v truyn ch thc hin i vi cc h s nng lng ny, v c th cho kt qu tt khi to li tn hiu video c cht lng cao. DCT tr thnh tiu chun quc t cho cc h thng m chuyn v bi n c c tnh gi nng lng tt, cho kt qu l s thc v c cc thut ton nhanh th hin chng.

Cc php tnh DCT c thc hin trong phm vi cc khi 88 mu tn hiu chi Y v cc khi tng ng ca tn hiu hiu mu. Vic chia hnh nh thnh cc block c thc hin khi tin x l. Hiu qu ca vic chia ny rt d thy. Nu ta tnh ton DCT trn ton b frame th ta xem nh ton b frame c d tha nh nhau. i vi mt hnh nh thng thng, mt vi vng c mt s lng ln cc chi tit v cc vng khc c t chi tit . Nh c tnh thay i ca cc nh khc nhau v cc phn khc nhau ca cng mt nh, ta c th ci thin mt cch ng k vic m ha nu bit tn dng n. a) DCT mt chiu

DCT mt chiu bin i bin tn hiu ti cc im ri rc theo thi gian hoc khng gian thnh chui cc h s ri rc, mi h s biu din bin ca mt thnh phn tn s nht nh c trong tn hiu gc. H s u tin biu din mc DC trung bnh ca tn hiu. T tri sang phi, cc h s th hin cc thnh phn tn s khng gian cao hn ca tn hiu v c gi l cc h s AC. Thng thng, nhiu h s AC c gi tr s gn hoc bng 0.

123

Qu trnh bin i DCT thun (FDCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha nh sau:

X (k ) =

N 1 2 (2m + 1)k C ( k ) x ( m)cos 2N N m =0

(2.3.1)

Hm bin i DCT ngc (mt chiu):

x (m) =
trong :

2 N 1 (2m + 1)k X (k )C (k )cos 2 N N k =0

X(k) l chui kt qu. x(m) l gi tr ca mu m. k-ch s ca h s khai trin. m-ch s ca mu. N- s mu c trong tn hiu

(2.3.2)

1/ 2 C (k ) = 1
b) DCT hai chiu

k =0 k 0

tch tng quan ni dung nh cao hn, m ha DCT hai chiu (2-D) c dng cho cc khi 88 gi tr cc im chi. Qu trnh bin i DCT tin FDCT (forward DCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha nh sau: 7 7 C (u )C (v) (2k + 1)v (2 j + 1)u F(u,v)= (2.3.3) f ( j, k ) cos 16 cos 16 4 j =0 k =0

trong : f(j,k)- cc mu gc trong khi 88 pixel. F(u,v)-cc h s ca khi DCT 88.

1/ 2 C (u),C ( v ) = 1

u, v = 0 u, v 0

Phng trnh trn l mt lin kt ca hai phng trnh DCT mt chiu, mt cho tn s ngang v mt cho tn s ng. Gi tr trung bnh ca block 8x8 chnh l h s th nht (khi u,v= 0)

17 7 F( 0,0) = f ( j, k) 8 j=0 k=0

(2.3.4)

Phng trnh ny cng tt c cc gi tr pixel trong khi 88 v chia kt qu cho 8. Kt qu php tnh bng 8 ln gi tr pixel trung bnh trong khi. Do h s th nht c gi l
124

h s DC. Cc h s khc, di gi tr thnh phn mt chiu, biu din cc tn s cao hn theo chiu dc. Cc h s v pha bn phi ca thnh phn mt chiu biu th cc tn s cao hn theo chiu ngang. H s trn cng cn phi (0,7) s c trng cho tn hiu c tn s cao nht theo phng nm ngang ca ma trn 88, v h s hng cui bn tri (7,0) s c trng cho tn hiu c tn s cao nht theo phng thng ng. Cn cc h s khc ng vi nhng phi hp khc nhau ca cc tn s theo chiu dc v chiu ngang. Php bin i DCT hai chiu l bin i i xng v bin i nghch c th to li cc gi tr mu f(j,k) trn c s cc h s F(u,v) theo cng thc sau:

f ( j, k ) =

C ( u) C ( v ) (2 j + 1)u (2k + 1)v cos F(u, v)cos 4 16 16 u=0 v=0

7 7

(2.3.5)

Nh vy, bin i DCT ging nh bin i Fourier v cc h s F(u,v) cng ging nhau v ngha. N biu din ph tn tn hiu c biu din bng cc mu f(j,k). Bn thn php bin i DCT khng nn c s liu, t 64 mu ta nhn c 64 h s. Tuy nhin, php bin i DCT thay i phn b gi tr cc h s so vi phn b cc gi tr mu. Do bn cht ca tn hiu video, php bin i DCT cho ta gi tr DC tc F(0,0) thng ln nht v cc h s trc tip k n ng vi tn s thp c gi tr nh hn, cc h s cn li ng vi tn s cao c gi tr rt nh. Hnh v 2.3.4 l mt v d minh ha qu trnh DCT hai chiu ca mt khi 88 im nh (chi) c trch ra t mt nh thc. Nu dng qu trnh DCT cho cc tn hiu s thnh phn Y, CR,CB th cc tn hiu CB,CR c bin cc i 128 ( gi tr nh phn trong h thng ly mu 8 bit), cn tn hiu Y c mt khong cc i t 0 n 255 gi tr nh phn. n gin vic thit k b m ha DCT, tn hiu Y c dch mc xung di bng cch tr 128 t tng gi tr pixel trong khi c khong cc i ca tn hiu ging nh i vi cc tn hiu CR v CB. phn gii m DCT, gi tr ny (128) c cng vo cc gi tr pixel chi. Gi tr h s DC ca khi DCT c mt khong t 1024 n 1016.

125

Hnh 2.3.4 M ha khi 8x8 bng DCT 2 chiu i vi h s AC ( vi u,v=1,2,...,7), C(u) v C(v)=1 v cc gi tr cc i ca n nm trong khong 1020 theo phng trnh FDCT. Khi 88 cc gi tr ca h s DCT a ra 1 gi tr DC ln (v d =591), biu din sng trung bnh ca khi 88 v cc gi tr rt nh ca cc thnh phn tn s cao theo chiu ngang v chiu ng. 126

Nguyn tc chung l nu c s thay i nhiu gi tr pixel-n-pixel theo 1 chiu ca khi pixel (ngang, ng, cho) s to ra cc gi tr h s cao theo cc chiu tng ng ca khi h s DCT. Khi nn nh theo JPEG, ma trn cc h s khai trin sau DCT phi c nhn vi bng trng s Q(u,v) loi b mt phn cc h s c bin nh (thng l cc thnh phn cao tn). Trn Hnh 2.3.5 m t qu trnh bin i DCT t nh gc (a) v ma trn h s DCT trc (b) v sau (d) khi nhn vi Q(u,v) (c).

Hnh 2.3.5 Khai trin DCT v bng trng s Q(u,v). V d c trnh by trong hnh v 2.3.6, qu trnh bin i DCT mt khi pixel c cc gi tr pixels en ( gi tr=0) v trng (gi tr=255) xen k. Sau khi gim vi 128 thu c cc gi tr pixels trong di ng +127 v 128. y l khi nh c s bin i ln nht v gi tr bin cc im nh v cc h s DCT kt qu xc nh nhn xt ny. Mc d c nhiu h s tn s bng 0, gi tr ca cc h s c tn s cao ng vai tr quan trng trong vic ti to li hnh nh khi bin i DCT ngc.

127

Hnh 2.3.6 Khai trin DCT cho khi nh c chi dng bn c. Tm li, DCT lm gim tng quan khng gian ca thng tin trong block. iu cho php biu din thch hp min DCT do cc h s DCT c xu hng c phn d tha t hn. iu ny c ngha l DCT gi mt phn ln nng lng tn hiu vo cc thnh phn bin i c tn s tng i thp lu tr hoc truyn dn, to 0 v cc gi tr rt thp i vi thnh phn tn s cao. Nh c tnh ca h thng nhn ca mt ngi, cc h s DCT c th c m ha ph hp, ch cc h s DCT quan trng nht mi c m ha v truyn i. DCT thun kt hp vi DCT nghch s khng cho tn tht nu di t m ca h s l 13 n 14 bits cho tn hiu video u vo c s ha bng cc mu di 8 bit. Nu h s c lng t ha bng 11 bit (hoc ngn hn), th nn bng DCT s c tn hao.
2.3.2.2 Lng t ha Bc tip theo ca qu trnh nn trong nh l lng t ha cc h s F(u,v) sao cho lm gim c s lng bit cn thit. Cc h s tng ng vi tn s thp c cc gi tr ln hn, v nh vy n cha phn nng lng chnh ca tn hiu, do phi lng t ha vi chnh xc cao. Ring h s mt chiu i hi chnh xc cao nht, bi l n biu th gi tr chi trung bnh ca tng khi phn t nh.

128

Bt k mt sai st no trong qu trnh lng t h s mt chiu u c kh nng nhn bit d dng bi n lm thay i mc chi trung bnh ca khi. Ngc li, vi cc h s tng ng vi tn s cao v c cc gi tr nh, th c th biu din li bng tp gi tr nh hn hn cc gi tr cho php. Chc nng c bn ca b lng t ha l chia cc h s F(u,v) cho cc h s v tr tng ng trong bng lng t Q(u,v) biu din s ln nh hn cc gi tr cho php ca h s DCT. Cc h s c tn s thp c chia cho cc gi tr nh, cc h s ng vi tn s cao c chia cho cc gi tr ln hn. Sau , cc h s c lm trn (b i cc phn thp phn). Kt qu ta nhn c bng Fq(u,v) mi, trong phn ln cc h s c tn s cao s bng 0. H s lng t ha thun c xc nh theo biu thc:
Q(u, v) F (u, v) + 2 F (u, v) Fq(u,v)= =s nguyn t gn nht Q(u, v) Q(u, v)

(2.3.6)

Cc gi tr Fq(u,v) s c m ha trong cc cng on tip theo. Cn phi xc nh l trong qu trnh lng t ha c trng s c xy ra mt thng tin, gy tn hao. y l bc tn hao duy nht trong thut ton nn. Mc tn hao ph thuc vo gi tr cc h s trn bng lng t. Sau khi nhn cc h s lng t ha Fq(u,v) vi Q(u,v) v bin i ngc DCT s khng nhn c block s cp cc mu f(j,k). Tuy nhin, trong trng hp nh t nhin v la chn cc gi tr Q(u,v) thch hp, s khc nhau s nh n mc m mt ngi khng phn bit c gia nh gc v nh biu din. Cc thnh phn DC v tn s thp l cc thng s nhy cm nht ca khi pixel gc. H s DC s c lng t vi chnh xc 12 bit nhm trnh cc nhiu xut hin gia cc khi im nh. Ngc li, cc h s tn s cao c th lng t ha th vi chnh xc 2 bit-do kh nng cm nhn ca mt ngi gim tn s cao. Theo , h s chia trong bng lng t ha l nh i vi cc h s c tn s thp v tng t t i vi cc h s c tn s cao hn. Trong hnh v di y, gi tr khi xc nh cho php cc gi tr tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu c lng t khc nhau. Nhiu lng t i vi tn hiu mu kh nhn thy hn i vi tn hiu chi, cho nn c th thc hin lng t ha th tn hiu mu. Nh vy, khi DCT ng vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh lng t ha khi thit k h thng nn video v n nh hng trc tip n vic cho li cht lng nh khi phc tt hay xu.

129

Hnh 2.3.7 Cc bng lng t cho tn hiu chi v mu theo chun JPEG Vic bin i sao cho cht lng hnh nh do mt ngi cm nhn tt, ph thuc vo cc thnh phn tn s v s bin i chi tit nh tng vng trong min khng gian. Cc nh cng chi tit th h s thnh phn tn s cao cng ln.
2.3.2.3 Qut zig-zag m ha entropy cc h s c lng t ha Fq(u,v), trc ht, cn bin i mng hai chiu ca cc h s Fq(u,v) thnh chui s mt chiu bng cch qut zig-zag.

Vic x l 64 h s ca khi 8x8 pixel bng cch qut zig-zag lm tng ti a chui cc gi tr 0 v do vy lm tng hiu qu nn khi dng RLC.

Hnh 2.3.8 Qut zig-zag cc h s lng t ha DCT

2.3.2.4 M ha di chy (RLC)

Cc gi tr lng t ha c th ch biu din nh cc t m c di c nh hay ng u, tc l cc gi tr lng t ha biu din bng cng mt s bit. Tuy nhin hiu qu ca vic m ha khng cao. ci tin hiu qu ngi ta dng m ha entropy. M ha entropy dng nhng c tnh thng k ca tn hiu c m ha. Mt tn hiu, y l gi tr pixel hoc cc h s chuyn v, c cha mt lng thng tin (entropy) ty theo nhng xc sut ca nhng gi tr hay s kin khc nhau xut hin. V d nhng t m no t xy ra hn s c nhiu thng tin hn t m hay xy ra. Khi dng m ha entropy c hai vn t ra: th nht, m ha entropy lm tng phc tp v yu cu b nh ln hn so vi m di c nh. Th hai, m ha entropy gn 130

lin vi tnh khng n nh ca tn hiu video s lm tc bit thay i theo thi gian. Do , cn mt c cu iu khin b m khi m ha ngun tc bit bin i c ghp vi knh tc bit hng. B m ha entropy lm gim d tha thng k trong cc phn t c m ha truyn. S d tha chnh l phn b xc sut khng ng u trn gi tr ca mi phn t. Phn b xc sut cng lch khi phn b u th hiu sut m ha entropy cng tng. M Huffman l mt trong nhng s m c s dng ph bin. Ngoi ra, trong m ha entropy cn s dng m RLC s cho hiu sut nn rt cao. K thut RLC c dng m ha c hiu qu cc h s DCT lng t ha hn l dng trc tip cho s liu nh. Sau qu trnh qut zig-zag trn, RLC s c thc thi. Mt h s khc 0 sau gi tr DC c m ha bng 1 t m bao gm 2 thng s: s lng 0 chy trc 1 h s ring khc 0 v mc ca n sau khi lng t ha. RLC thc cht l vic thay th cc h s c gi tr 0 bng s lng cc ch s 0 xut hin. Hnh v 2.3.9 l mt v d v m ha entropy. Trong v d ny, chui mt chiu cc h s DCT sau khi qut zig-zag vi cc gi tr ging nhau c gom li vi nhau bng m RLC. Lc ny, chui mt chiu c cc on chui di c cng gi tr l cc symbol c dng:< chiu di chui 0, gi tr>. y, gi tr 10 khng c gi tr 0 no trc c biu din bng <0,10>; gi tr 2 c hai gi tr 0 ng trc c biu din bng <2,-2>v.v... Ring mt du c bit l End of Block (EOB) c dng cho bit tt c cc h s tip theo trong khi bng 0. Trong v d ny, ta c mt chui 49 t m vi gi tr 0. Nh vy ch xt ring 49 t m gi tr 0 c nn xung ch cn 3 t m. iu ny chng t hiu sut nn rt cao ca m ha RLC. Nn bng m RLC l qu trnh nn khng tn hao.

131

Hnh 2.3.9 Qu trnh m ha RLC

2.3.2.5 M ha di thay i VLC Cc t m RLC tip tc c m ha bng cch t cc t m ngn cho cc mc c xc sut xut hin cao v cc t m di cho cc mc c xc sut xut hin thp. Bng 2.3.1 minh ha cc phn nhm cc h s AC.

Bng 2.3.2 l mt v d v bng m Huffman tng ng cho cc nhm. T m ngn bo hiu kt thc khi (EOB) cho bit tt c cc h s cn li trong khi mang gi tr 0. Trong v d khi h s DCT, h s DCT (40) c m ha DPCM bng cch dng gi tr DC (25) ca khi DCT trc. M ha DPCM m rng thang biu din tn hiu Y t ( -1024 n 1016) n (-2048 n 2032).

132

Bng 2.3.1 Phm vi gi tr cc h s trong cc nhm (category).

Bng 2.3.2 V d bng Huffman cho h s AC

Gi tr chnh lch h s DC c m ha VLC nh mt bng tm kim (lookup table). u ra ca n l mt s nh phn Huffman da trn gi tr chnh lch cc h s DC ny. Cc h s AC biu din bi cc t m RLC c m ha Huffman bng cc bng tm kim. u ra kt hp vi gi tr chy (s lng s 0 trc h s AC) to mt s nh phn Huffman

133

biu din gi tr h s AC tng ng. Trong c hai trng hp m ha gi tr sai lch h s DC v ln cc h s AC u s dng t m nh phn ngn nht biu din chng. Ti u ra VLC, tt c cc t m ca cng mt khi DCT c kt hp to thnh mt dng tn hiu ra. Trong v d trn, s liu tng ng vi khi DCT ban u (8x8x8 bit =512 bit) c gim thnh 48 bits sau khi m ha VLC. H s nn trong trng hp ny bng 512/48=10,6. H s nn cng thng c tnh bng s bit biu din im nh. Trong v d trn, 48 bit biu din cho 64 im nh, theo thu c h s nn tng ng l 48/64=0,75 (bit/im nh). M ha VLC t n l mt k thut m ha khng tn tht, n cho php gim thm tc dng bit ( c gii tng quan, lm trn, v gim qua qu trnh lng t ha DCT). Qu trnh m ha VLC cho h s DC v cc h s AC c m t trong s khi Hnh 2.3.10.

Hnh 2.3.10 S khi h thng m VLC cho h s DC (a) v AC (b)

2.3.2.6 B nh m Sau khi m ha entropy, ta nhn c chui bit c tc thay i, ph thuc vo phc tp ca nh. Nu phi truyn qua knh c tc c nh th ta cn phi c b nh m. C ch iu khin b nh l m bo b nh khng trng (underflow) hoc khng trn (overflow) bng c cu hi tip. B m ha kim tra trng thi y ca b nh m. Khi s liu trong b nh m gn bng dung lng cc i, th cc h s bin i DCT c lng t ha t chnh xc hn (tng t s nn). Trong trng hp ngc li, c ngha l b nh m

134

cha s liu qu t, th chnh xc ca vic lng t ha cc h s s tng ln. Qu trnh ny c thc hin mt cch t ng.
2.3.2.7 Qu trnh gii nn Qu trnh gii nn trong nh da trn c s thc hin thut ton ngc vi qu trnh nn.

Hnh v 2.3.11 minh ha s khi ca qu trnh gii nn DCT. Cc bng Huffman v lng t ha ging nh cc bng ca b m ha DCT c dng to li cc gi tr h s DCT ca mt khi 8x8 pixel. Qu trnh lng t ha ngc R(u,v) c tin hnh theo biu thc : R(u,v)=Fq(u,v)Q(u,v) (2.3.7)

Hnh 2.3.11 S khi h thng gii m JPEG Qu trnh bin i DCT ngc (IDCT) to li khi gi tr cc im ban u theo biu thc:

( j, k ) =

C ( u) C ( v ) (2 j + 1)u (2k + 1)v F(u, v)cos cos 4 16 16 u=0 v=0

7 7

(2.3.8)

Qu trnh tnh ton IDCT cng tng t nh qu trnh tnh ton FDCT. nh c khi phc f * ( j , k ) (ma trn trn Hnh 2.3.12d) khc vi nh gc (trn Hnh 2.3.5a). Sai s gia cc gi tr khi phc v gi tr gc c tnh nh sau: e(j,k)=f(j,k)-f*(j,k) (2.3.9)

nh gi cht lng nh khi phc, ta s dng cc i lng o l gi tr sai s trung bnh bnh phng (RMSE) v h s bin nh tn hiu trn nhiu (PSNR: peak signal-tonoise ration):

1 7 7 RMSE= e( j, k)e( j, k) 64 k =0 j=0

(2.3.10)

135

 255 PSNR=20 lg RMSE

(2.3.11)

Gi tr sai s tuyt i ca nh gii nn v nh gc cho hai hnh nh c chi tit khc nhau c biu din trn Hnh 2.3.13a v 3.3.13b. Nh vy c th thy rng nh c phn b chi dng bn c "kh nn" hn do cc thnh phn DCT tn s cao c bin ln.

Hnh 2.3.12 Khi phc cc im nh trong khi 8x8

Hnh 2.3.13 Sai s ca cc im nh c khi phc so vi gi tr ban u a) nh (2.3.5a) c mc chi tit thp b) nh hnh bn c

136

2.3.2.8 M ha v gii m JPEG tun t Thut ton nn v gii nn theo tng block 8x8 theo JPEG c phn tch trn c gi l phng php nn tun t. S khi thut ton m ha v gii m tiu chun JPEG tun t m t trn Hnh 2.3.14.

DCT Block 8x8 a)

Lng t hoa

Ma hoa Entropy

So lieu anh nen

Bang lng t

Bang ma hoa

So lieu anh nen

Giai ma Entropy

Giai lng t

IDCT

b)

Block 8x8 Bang ma hoa Bang lng t

Hnh 2.3.14 S o khoi ma hoa (a) va giai ma (b) JPEG m ha JPEG, cc mu pixels u vo c nhm thnh 88 blocks. Mi block c bin i FDCT thnh mt tp 64 gi tr, gi l cc h s DCT. Sau , 64 h s ny c lng t ha. iu ny c ngha l cc h s khng cn chnh xc v mt s h s s bng 0. Cc h s c qut zig-zag trc khi m ha entropy. Hiu qu ca qut zig-zag l bin i ma trn 2 chiu thnh ma trn 1 chiu. H s u tin trong chui zig-zag l h s DC. Tt c cc h s cn li l h s AC. i vi h s DC, sai lch gia gi tr hin ti v gi tr DC trc c m ha. M ha entropy s dng m ha Huffman. Qu trnh gii m ngc li vi qu trnh m ha. Cc tin trnh ging nhau nhng ngc th t. Bng tham s s dng cho qu trnh m ha c mang i cng vi lung d liu sau khi nn v c s dng cho gii m. Cc h s DCT c nhn vi cc h s gii lng t v chuyn n khi bin i DCT ngc. u ra ca qu trnh l 88 block ca pixels. D nhin, khi 88 block pixels ny khng ging hon ton khi pixels ban u bi v c mt mt thng tin trong qu trnh m ha. Do qu trnh ny c coi l nn c tn tht. Trn quan im coi hnh nh ng l mt chui lin tip cc hnh nh tnh. Khi , tiu chun JPEG c p dng cho vic nn nh ng v n c tn gi M JPEG. 137

2.3.2.9 Nn JPEG ly tin Trong mt s ng dng, mt nh c th c s lng im nh ln v vic gii m, bao gm truyn nh nn qua mng, c th mt nhiu pht. Trong nhng ng dng nh vy, cn thit c tin trnh to nh th nhanh chng v sau ci thin cht lng ca n bng nhiu ln qut. Kiu m ha JPEG ly tin thc hin nhiu ln qut, mi ln qut m ha mt tp con cc h s DCT. V vy, m ha JPEG ly tin phi c b m ph ti u ra ca b lng t v trc b m ha entropy. Kch thc b m phi ln cha tt c cc h s DCT ca nh.

Hnh 2.3.15 Qu trnh gii m JPEG ly tin v tun t Hnh v 2.3.15 m t s khc nhau trong qu trnh gii nn JPEG ly tin v JPEG tun t. Nn JPEG ly tin c th thc hin 3 gii thut sau: 1) 2) 3) Gii thut la chn ph (progressive spectral selection algorithm). Gii thut xp x thnh cng (progressive successive approximation algorithm). Gii thut kt hp (combined progresssive algorithm).

Trong gii thut la chn ph, cc h s DCT c nhm li theo nhiu nhm bng tn. Nhn chung, h s DCT tn s thp c gi trc, v sau l cc h s DCT tn s cao. V d, mt chui 4 nhm nh sau: Band 1: ch c h s DC. Band 2: h s AC1 v AC2. Band 3: h s AC3,AC4,AC5,AC6. Band 4: h s AC7,, AC63. Trong gii thut xp x, tt c cc h s DCT c gi i trc vi chnh xc thp hn, v sau c ci tin li trong cc ln qut sau. V d, mt chui ba band nh sau: Band 1: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 4). Band 2: tt c cc h s DCT (chia 2). 138

Band 3: tt c cc h s DCT . Gii thut kt hp kt hp c hai gii thut chia ph v xp x. H thng JPEG ly tin hiu qu cho vic truyn cc nh phc tp. H thng ny hng n nhng ng dng yu cu truyn nhanh cc nh c phn gii cao, cht lng cao v phc tp qua mng c bng thng gii hn. Nhng ng dng bao gm truyn nh y hc, ng dng khm ph tri t v v tr cng nh cc ng dng trn Internet.
2.3.2.10 Cc tham s tiu chun ca JPEG Tiu chun JPEG xc nh cc tham s trong bng 2.3.3.

Bng 2.3.3. Tham s theo tiu chun JPEG. Tham s Tn hiu m ha Cu trc ly mu Kch thc nh ti a (im nh x im nh) Biu din mu c im RGB hoc Y v CR, CB 4:4:4, 4:2:2 v 4:2:0 65 536 x 65 536 8 bit cho h thng c bn 812 bit cho h thng m rng DCT chnh xc ca qu trnh lng t ha v bin i DCT Phng php lng t ha h s DC Cu trc khi trong qu trnh lng t ha thch nghi chnh xc cc i ca h s DC Bng lng t Bin i RLC H s cn bng cc khi B chuyn ng Qut Knh truyn 9 bit

DPCM 16x16 bit

11 bit Sai lch gia cc gi tr Y v CR ,CB M Huffman C th bin i Khng Tun t hay xen k c qun l li

139

2.3.2.11 Phng php nn nh ng M JPEG M JPEG l s m rng ca JPEG. V nn M JPEG ch thc hin trong mi nh, iu dn n hiu qu (t s nn) thp hn so vi cc phng php nn nh ng MPEG s c xt sau y.

Nn nh ng theo phng php M JPEG c dc im nh sau: Tn hiu 48 Mbit/s ( h s nn 3,5 ) cho kt qu nh rt tt.

Tn hiu 36 Mbit/s ( h s nn 4,7 ) cho kt qu nh c nhiu vi mc cht lng nht nh. Tn hiu 24 Mbit/s cho kt qu nh c nhiu nhn thy, cht lng nh khi phc khng dng cho mc ch chuyn dng. Trong trng hp nn vi t s cao s xut hin cc vung ( Artifacts ) trn nh khi phc, l cc c trng ca cc h s DC. Nu m ha nhiu ln th hiu ng trn s tng ln. Vi nhng c im trn, chun M JPEG c u im khi s dng trong cng ngh sn xut chng trnh truyn hnh. V cc nh c m ha c lp vi nhau nn vic thc hin dng chnh xc ti tng nh l hon ton c th thc hin c. y chnh l im mnh ca M JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn xut chng trnh tin dng cho studio v dng hu k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h thng ph hp, khng gy tn hao trong qu trnh dng. Tuy nhin, i vi cc thit b s dng nh dng nn M JPEG c cc nhc im : Mc d s dng cng mt phng php nn M JPEG trong cc thit b ca mnh, cc sn phm ca cc nh my khc nhau cng khng hon ton ging nhau v mt biu din cng nh phng php x l i vi tn hiu video c nn. Chnh v vy cc thit b ny rt kh c th trao i trc tip s liu cho nhau. Cc thit b s dng phng php nn theo nh dng M JPEG khng th s dng cho truyn dn, pht sng v tc dng bit sau khi c nn cn cao.
2.3.3 Chun nn MPEG 2.3.3.1 Gii thiu chung v MPEG Nn tn hiu video theo chun MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) l phng php nn nh ng khng nhng lm gim d tha khng gian (nh JPEG) m cn lm gim d tha thi gian gia cc khung nh, y l khc bit so vi JPEG l chun nn nh tnh ch lm gim d tha thng gian trong mt khung nh.

Chun MPEG nh ngha mt khi nim mi l nhm cc khung nh (GOP) gii quyt d tha thi gian v cho php truy xut ngu nhin khi m ho MPEG dng lu tr. Trong chun MPEG, ngi ta quy nh 3 loi khung nh ph thuc vo phng php nn: nn trong khung nh (khung I), nn c on (khung P) v nn ni suy hai chiu theo thi gian (khung B). Khung I lun lun l khung nh u tin trong nhm GOP, to im truy xut ngu nhin chun. 140

Chun nn MPEG bao gm cc tiu chun nn video c tc lung bt (tng ng cht lng nh video) khc nhau: MPEG 1: (chun ISO/IEC 11172) c t thng 11-1992. MPEG 1 dng cho a) nn ng c kch thc 320x240 v tc bit cn t 1 Mbit/s n 1,5 Mbit/s dng cho ghi hnh trn bng t v a quang (CD), ng thi truyn dn trong cc mng (v d nh mng my tnh). i vi m ha audio stereo, tc khong 250 Kbps. MPEG 1 c cc thnh phn chnh sau y : 1. Phn 2 : ISO/IEC 11172 2 : Nn video MPEG 1. Phn 3 : ISO/IEC 11172 3 : Nn audio MPEG 1. Phn 4 : ISO/IEC 11172 4 : Conformance. Phn 5 : ISO/IEC 11172 5 : Software. Phn 1 : ISO/IEC 11172 1 : H thng ghp knh Video, Audio MPEG

MPEG 2 : l d n giai on hai ca ISO/IEC, c s dng cho cc ng dng b) cao hn vi tc cn 10 Mbit/s cho vin thng, truyn hnh thng thng. MPEG 3 : tiu chun nn tn hiu s xung cn 50 Mbps truyn tn hiu c) truyn hnh c phn gii cao (HDTV). Sau , nhp chung vo MPEG 2 v thnh tiu chun quc t MPEG 2 vo thng 11 nm 1994 (ISO/IEC 13818). Tiu chun MPEG 2 ny dng cho truyn hnh thng thng v truyn hnh c phn gii cao. d) MPEG 4 : c thit k m ha Video/Audio vi tc thp (khong 914 Kbps) ch yu ng dng trong in thoi video, multimedia. MPEG 4 hon thin vo thng 10 1998. e) MPEG 7 : chun ny c ngh vo thng 10 1998 v thnh chun quc t vo thng 9 2001. MPEG 7 s l chun m t thng tin ca rt nhiu loi a phng tin. M t ny s kt hp vi chnh ni dung ca n cho php kh nng tm kim nhanh v hiu qu theo yu cu ngi dng. MPEG-7 c trng cho mt tp tiu chun biu din nhiu loi thng tin multimedia khc nhau. Chnh v vy, MPEG-7 cn c gi l Giao thc m t ni dung a phng tin. Tiu chun MPEG l s kt hp gia nn trong nh v nn lin nh. Tc l phng php nn c tn hao da trn s bin i DCT v b chuyn ng. MPEG dng biu din mu bng YCrCb.

141

Hnh 2.3.16

H thng cc chun MPEG

2.3.3.2 B chuyn ng trong chun nn MPEG Trong tt c cc trng hp, khi mt nh m ho dng khung tham kho th lun dng k thut b chuyn ng nng cao hiu sut nn. Sau y, chng ta s cp n phng php b chuyn ng.

Cc phng php b chuyn ng: c hai cch l b chuyn ng c on v ni suy. Phng php c on b chuyn ng gi thit nh hin ti l mt php bin i t nh trc , ngha l bin v hng dch chuyn khng cn thit phi ging nh trc . Phng php ni suy b chuyn ng l k thut nhiu phn gii: ch m ho mt tn hiu ph vi phn gii thp (khong 1/2 n 1/3 tc khung). nh c phn gii y s c xy dng li qua ni suy nh c phn gii thp cng thm thnh phn sa sai. n v x l nh m MPEG s dng l macroblock (MB) 16 16 im nh. Trong nh m ho ni suy, cc MB c th l loi nn trong khung hay nn lin khung. Trong k thut c on chuyn ng, nu s dng k thut so snh khi (BMA - Block Matching Algorithm) th s thu c cc vect chuyn ng theo tiu ch ti thiu ho sai s gia khi cn tm vect chuyn ng v mi khi ng c.

Hnh 2.3.17

Minh ha qu trinh b chuyn ng theo gii thut BMA

2.3.3.3 Cc cu trc nh MPEG nh ngha cc loi nh khc nhau cho php s linh hot cn nhc gia hiu qu m ha v truy cp ngu nhin. Cc loi nh nh sau:

2.3.3.3.1 nh loi I (Intra-picture) 142

L nh c m ha ring, tng t nh vic m ha nh tnh trong JPEG. nh I cha ng d liu ti to li ton b hnh nh v chng c to thnh bng thng tin ca ch mt nh v d bo cho nh B,P. nh I cho php truy cp ngu nhin, tuy nhin cho t l nn thp nht. 2.3.3.3.2 nh loi P (Predicted-picture)

L nh c m ha c b chuyn ng t nh I hoc nh P pha trc. nh P cung cp cho h s nn cao hn nh I v c th s dng lm mt nh so snh cho vic b chuyn ng cho cc nh P v B khc. 2.3.3.3.3 nh loi B ( Bi-directional predicted picture) L nh c m ha s dng b chuyn ng t cc nh I hoc P pha trc v pha sau. nh B cho t l nn cao nht. 2.3.3.3.4 nh loi D ( Dc-coded picture) L nh c s dng trong MPEG-1 v MPEG-4 nhng khng c s dng trong MPEG-2. N ging nh nh I, tuy nhin ch c thnh phn mt chiu u ra DCT c th hin. N cho php d tm nhanh nhng cht lng nh thp.
2.3.3.4 Nhm nh (GOP) i vi chun MPEG, cht lng nh khng nhng ph thuc vo t l nn trong tng khun hnh m cn ph thuc vo di ca nhm nh. Nhm nh (GOP-Group of picture) l khi nim c bn ca MPEG. Nhm nh l n v mang thng tin c lp ca MPEG.

MPEG s dng ba loi nh I, B, P. Trong , nh P, B khng phi l mt nh hon chnh m ch cha s khc bit gia nh v nh xut hin trc n (i vi nh P) hay s khc bit i vi c khun hnh xut hin trc v sau n (i vi nh B). c mt khun hnh hon chnh nh P v B cn c d liu t cc nh ln cn, chnh v vy i vi MPEG mt khi nim mi l GOP (nhm nh) c s dng. Mi GOP bt buc phi bt u bng mt nh hon chnh I v tip sau n l mt loi cc nh P v B. Nhm nh c th m (Open) hoc ng (Closed). Nhm nh m lun bt u t mt nh I v kt thc mt nh trc nh trc nh I tip theo, tc l nh cui cng ca GOP dng nh u tin ca GOP tip theo lm nh chun, Hnh 2.3.18.

Hnh 2.3.18 Cu trc GOB m 143

Trong Hnh 2.4.18, nh P ( nh 4) c d bo trc trn c s nh I (nh 1). nh B c d on t hai hng, nh B (nh 2) v nh B ( nh 3) c d on t hai nh I ( nh 1) v nh P (nh 4). nh B (nh 5,6) c d on t nh P (nh 4) v nh I tip theo (nh 6). Mt iu ch l th t truyn nh v hin nh trn mn hnh l khng ging nhau. i vi cu trc khp kn (ng), vic d on nh khng s dng thng tin ca GOP khc. Trong trng hp ny, theo quy nh, nh cui cng ca mt GOP bao gi cng l nh P (Hnh 2.3.19).

Hnh 3.3.19 Cu trc GOB ng Nhm nh c xc nh bi hai thng s m v n. Thng s m xc nh s khung hnh P v khung hnh B xut hin gia hai khung hnh I gn nhau nht. S n xc nh s khung hnh B gia hai khung hnh P. T l nn video ca MPEG ph thuc rt nhiu vo di ca GOP. Tuy nhin, GOP di thng gy kh khn cho qu trnh tua, nh v, sa li... Do ty thuc vo tng khu (sn xut, dng hnh, truyn dn, pht sng v..v) m ta chn di GOP thch hp. Trong sn xut hu k, nu c yu cu truy cp ngu nhin vo bt c nh no, iu cng c ngha l yu cu dng chnh xc n tng nh, GOP ng nhin s phi ch c duy nht nh I. Trong trng hp ny, t l nn s t rt thp. tng t l nn cho truyn dn v pht sng, trong GOP s lng nh P, B s phi tng ln. Lc ny khng cho php vic dng hnh cng nh lm cc k xo trn chui hnh nh . Trong trng hp ny ta c th c GOP gm 12 nh.
2.3.3.5 Cu trc dng bit MPEG to kh nng chng li khi truyn tn hiu qua knh c nhiu, b c on phi c xc lp li (reset) thng xuyn v mi nh nn trong khung hay nn c on c phn on thnh nhiu lt nh (slice) cho vic ti ng b ti b gii m pha thu. Cu trc dng MPEG gm 6 lp: lp dy nh (sequence), lp nhm nh (GOP), lp nh (pictrue), lp ct lt dng bit (slice), lp macroblock, lp khi (Block). Mi lp ny h tr mt chc nng nht nh: mt l chc nng x l tn hiu (DCT, b chuyn ng) hai l chc nng logic (ti ng b, im truy xut ngu nhin). Qu trnh to ra dng bit MPEG l ghp knh: kt hp cc dng d liu vo, dng d liu ra, iu chnh ng b v qun l b m. C php dng MPEG bao gm: lp dng bit (stream), lp gi (pack) v lp gi tin (packet) nh trong Hnh 2.3.20:

144

1. Khi. Khi 8x8 cc im nh tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu dng cho phng php nn DCT. 2. T hp cu trc khi (macroblock): mt cu trc khi l mt nhm cc khi tng ng vi lng thng tin cha ng trong kch thc 16x16 im trn bc nh. Cu trc khi ny cng xc nh lng thng tin cha trong s thay i ty theo cu trc mu c s dng. Thng tin u tin trong cu trc khi mang dng ca n (l cu trc khi Y hay Cr, Cb) v cc vector b chuyn ng tng ng. 3. Mng (Slice): mng bao gm mt vi cu trc khi k nhau. Kch thc ln nht ca mng c th bao gm ton b bc nh v kch thc nh nht ca mng l mt cu trc khi. Thng tin u ca mng cha ng v tr ca mng trong ton b nh, v h s cn bng lng t. 4. nh (Picture): lp nh cho php b gii m xc nh loi ca nh c m ha l nh P, I hay nh B. Thng tin u dng ch th t truyn khung b gii m c th sp xp cc nh li theo mt th t ng. Trong thng tin u ca nh cn cha cc thng tin v ng b, phn gii v phm vi ca vector chuyn ng. 5. Nhm nh (GOP): nhm nh l t hp ca nhiu cc khung I, P v B. Cu trc nhm nh c xc nh bng hai tham s m v n. Mi mt nhm nh bt u bng mt khung I cho php xc nh im bt u tm kim v bin tp. Thng tin u gm 25 bit cha m nh thi v iu khin. 6. on (chng trnh) video: on video bao gm thng tin u, mt s nhm nh v thng tin kt thc on. Thng tin u ca on video cha ng kch thc mi chiu ca nh, kch thc ca im nh, tc bit ca dng video s, tn s nh v b m ti thiu cn c. on video v thng tin u to thnh mt dng bit c m ha gi l dng c bn (Elementary Stream).

145

Hnh 2.3.20 Kin trc dng d liu MPEG

2.3.3.6 S khi b m ha MPEG Qu trnh nn theo chun MPEG l s kt hp gia nn trong nh v nn lin nh. Tn heu u vo c dng 4:2:2 hoc 4:2:0 c nn lin nh nhm to ra nh khc bit u ra b cng. nh khc bit ny sau c nn trong nh qua cc bc: bin i DCT, lng t ha, m ha. Cui cng nh ny c trn cng vi vector chuyn ng a n b khuych i m s thu c nh nn. Ta xt v d b nn theo phng php trn, dng nh I v P trong cu trc GOP (Hnh 2.3.21).

nh th nht trong nhm phi c m ha nh nh loi I. Trong trng hp ny, sau khi ly mu ln u, tn hiu video c truyn n khi bin i DCT cho cc MB ring, sau b lng t v m ha entropy. Tn hiu ra t b lng t ha c a n b lng t ha ngc v bin i DCT ngc, sau c lu vo b nh nh. Trong trng hp m ha nh loi P, mch nn chuyn ng lm vic. Trn c s so snh nh ang xt v nh trong b nh, s xc nh c cc vector chuyn ng, sau d bo nh. S chnh lch gia nh ang xt v d bo nh ca n c bin i DCT, lng t ha v m ha entropy. Cng nh trong trng hp cc nh loi I, tn hiu ra t b lng t ha c gii lng t ha v bin i DCT ngc ri cng vi nh d bo ang xt v lu vo b nh.

146

Tc bit ca tn hiu video c nn khng c nh, ph thuc vo ni dung nh ang xt. Ngc li, ti u ra b m ha, dng bit phi c nh xc nh tc cho dung lng knh truyn. Do , ti u ra b m ha phi c b nh m ln. B m ha phi kim tra trng thi y ca b nh m. Khi s liu trong b nh m gn bng dung lng cc i, th cc h s bin i DCT ngc c lng t ha t chnh xc hn. Trong trng hp ngc li, c ngha l b nh m cha s liu qu t, th vic lng t ha cc h s s tng ln.

Hnh 2.3.21 B m ha MPEG tiu biu

2.3.3.7 Qu trnh gii m Qu trnh gii m, theo l thuyt, l ngc li vi qu trnh m ha v c minh ha trn Hnh 2.3.22.

Hnh 2.3.22

B gii m MPEG tiu biu

147

Chui tn hiu vo c gii m entropy ti VLD (Variable-Length Decoder). Sau tch s liu nh (h s bin i DCT) ra khi cc vector chuyn ng. S liu s c gii lng t ha v bin i DCT ngc. Trong trng hp nh loi I bt u mi nhm nh trong chui, s nhn c nh u ra hon chnh bng cch trn. N c lu trong b nh nh v c s dng gii m cc nh tip theo. Trong trng hp nh loi P s thc hin gii lng t v bin i DCT ngc vi vic s dng cc vector chuyn ng v nh lu vo b nh nh. Trn c s xc nh c d bo n ang xt. Ta nhn c nh ra sau khi cng d bo nh v kt qu bin i DCT ngc. nh ny cng c lu vo b nh c th s dng nh l chun khi gii m cc nh tip theo.
2.3.3.8 Tiu chun MPEG-1 Chun MPEG-1 cho php vn dng nh ng linh hot nh mt dng d liu ca my tnh. Do , ta c th truyn v nhn nh ng thng qua my tnh v mng vin thng. MPEG-1 chn cc khi (MB-Macro Block) 16x16 thc hin qu trnh b chuyn ng. Kch thc ny l s hi ha gia hiu qu nn bng cch b chuyn ng v vic lu tr cc khi MB. Cc khi MB ny li c th chia ra lm nhiu loi khc nhau nh : Intra coded, Forward prediction coded, Backward prediction coded v Bi-directional prediction coded. Da trn cc khi MB, thng tin cc vector chuyn ng c lu tr cng vi tn hiu khc bit (gia nh nn v nh d bo). S khc nhau gia vector ng hin ti v vector ng truyn i trc c m ha bng m entropy.

Tn hiu video s MPEG-1 vo bao gm 1 tn hiu chi Y v 2 tn hiu hiu mu Cb v Cr. T s tn s ly mu tn hiu chi so vi tn s ly mu hai tn hiu hiu mu Cb v Cr l 2:1 theo c hai chiu dng v mnh nh mt tn hiu khng chn. Trc khi m ha cc nh c th c sp xp li theo trt t gii m bi v b gii m ch c th gii m c nh B sau khi gii m nh I v P. Sau qu trnh gii m th trt t ca cc nh s c sp xp li nh c. Sau khi chn kiu nh cho mt nh vo, b m ha s nh gi chuyn ng cho mi khi MB ca nh. Vi mi khi MB ny b m ha s to ra mt vector chuyn ng cho 1 nh P v 2 vector chuyn ng cho 1 nh B. Ty thuc vo tng kiu nh m tn hiu sai lch (gia nh nn v nh d bo) c nhn dng bng cch tm ra s khc nhau gia d on b chuyn ng v d liu thc s ca MB hin ti. Tn hiu sai lch ny c chuyn n khi DCT 8x8 v lng t ha khi i qua b lng t ha. Cc h s lng t ha DCT c qut theo trt t zig-zag v m ha bng m entropy. Mt b iu khin cng vi b m c nhim v iu chnh tc d liu a ra thng qua iu chnh bc lng t. c th to ra c nh I v nh P trong b m trong qu trnh m ha, th b gii m lng t v b chuyn i ngc DCT 8x8 c a vo nhm to ra tn hiu sai lch.
2.3.3.9 Cu trc dng bit v cc tham s chnh ca chun nn MPEG-1 MPEG-1 l thut ton ch nh ngha c php (syntax) biu din dng bit m ha v gii m. C php dng bit c cu to bng 6 lp : Sequence (chui nh), GOP = Group of

148

Picture (nhm nh), Picture (nh), Slice, macro block (MB), block (khi). Cu to v chc nng ca mi lp c ch ra trong bng 2.3.4. Cc tham s chnh ca tiu chun MPEG-1 c minh ha trong bng 2.3.5. Bng 2.3.4 Cc thng s MPEG-1. Lp Sequence GOP Cu to Gm nhiu GOP Gm t (1n) nh bt u bng nh I Gm nhiu Slice Gm nhiu MB Vi 4:2:2 gm : 4 block Y, 1 block Cr v 1 block Cb Gm 8x8 pixel Chc nng Dng bit video n v truy xut

Picture I, B, P Slice Macro Block (MB) Block

n v m ha c bn n v ti ng b phc hi li n v b chuyn ng

n v tnh DCT

Bng 2.3.5. Tham s theo tiu chun nn MPEG-1. Tham s Tn hiu m ha Cu trc ly mu Kch thc nh ti a(im nh x im nh) Biu din mu chnh xc ca qu trnh lng t ha v bin i DCT Phng php lng t ha h s DC Cu trc khi trong qu trnh lng t ha thch nghi chnh xc cc i ca h s DC Bin i VLC Bng VLC H s cn bng cc khi c im Y v Cr, Cb 4:2:0 4095x4095 8 bit 9 bit

DPCM tuyn tnh 16x16 bit

8 bit M Huffman Khng th truyn ti C th bin i 149

B chuyn ng

Trong khung hnh v gia cc khung hnh Tun t im nh 1,85 Mbps cho nn tham s 100 Mbps cho dng y tham s

Qut chnh xc d on chuyn ng Tc khi nn

Phng php nn MPEG-1 cho php truy cp ngu nhin cc khung hnh video, tm kim thun v nghch trn dng tn hiu nn, bin tp v pht li trn dng tn hiu nn. MPEG-1 l tp con ca MPEG-2, nn tt c cc b gii m MPEG-2 u c th gii m c dng tn hiu MPEG-1.
2.3.3.10 Tiu chun MPEG-2 2.3.3.10.1 Gii thiu v chun MPEG-2

MPEG-2 l d n giai on 2 ca y ban ISO/PEC MPEG. MPEG-2 hng ti cc ng dng rng ri hn v c tc bit cao hn MPEG-1, bao gm in t vin thng v truyn hnh s th h k tip. Ni dung k thut c c kt vo 11/1993 thnh d tho ISO/IEC 13818 tn gi M ha chung nh ng v audio i km gm ba phn chnh: H thng; Video; Th nghim. MPEG-2 c tin hnh ngay sau MPEG-1, nhm h tr vic truyn video s tc bit ln hn 4 Mbps, bao gm cc ng dng DSM (phng tin lu tr s), cc h thng TV hin i (PAL, NTSC, SECAM), cp, thu lm tin tc in t, truyn hnh trc tip t v tinh, EDTV (truyn hnh m rng), HDTV (truyn hnh c phn gii cao) v...v. MPEG-2 l chun nn video c tn tht. Cng ty Netholds Multichoice truyn 20 knh truyn hnh s cho B, H Lan, Luxembourge, Scandinavia, Trung ng, Chu Phi, ... qua v tinh Pan Amsat vo thng 10/1995. H thng s dng trn mt triu b gii m MPEG-2 set-top ca Phillips, Panasonic, Pace. Mng truyn hnh Dish ca Echostar c k hoch truyn 150 knh truyn hnh s. C chu u (DVB), M (ATV), v nhiu hng khc trn th gii (Galaxy, Shinawatra Satellite, ...) dng MPEG-2 trong cc h truyn hnh c phn gii cao c th pht sng truyn hnh s trn mt t. Chun MPEG-2 bao gm 4 phn chnh :

Cc h thng (ISO/IEC 13818-1). Video (ISO/IEC 13818-2). Audio (ISO/IEC 13818-3). Cc h thng kim tra (ISO/IEC 13818-4).

Phn 1 a ra cu trc kt ni phc tp gia d liu audio v video v ng b thi gian thc. Phn 2 a ra cch m ha tn hiu video v cng ch ra qu trnh gii m ti to li

150

cc khung nh. Phn 3 l cu trc m ha ca tn hiu audio v phn 4 l cc h thng kim tra cc yu cu t ra ca MPEG-2. MPEG-2 hot ng hon ton da trn cc c s MPEG-1, tuy nhin c thm mt vi yu cu to thnh mt h thng y cho cc dch v nghe nhn:

H tr x l file hoc frame.

p dng vo nhiu lnh vc t tc bit rt thp n rt cao (t cht lng nh rt thp n rt cao). MPEG-2 a ra cc dng thc c bn ng vi 6 profiles v mt s level. MPEG-2 c tnh tng hp (compatibility) v tnh co dn (scalability) cao theo khng gian v thi gian.
2.3.3.10.2 Cu trc dng bit video MPEG-2 Mt trong nhng khc bit chnh gia hai tiu chun MPEG-2 v MPEG-1 l ch MPEG-2 c kh nng x l chui video xen k, v d nh dng thc ITU-R601. S m ha c th thch nghi vi s la chn field hoc frame, trong MPEG-1 ch c mt mode c nh. Hnh 2.3.23 ch ra cu trc dng bit video MPEG-2.

Chui Header

Lp slice

GOP Header

Lp MB

Header nh

Lp block

Hnh 2.3.23 Cu trc dng bit vdeo MPEG-2

Chui video c m ha bt u bng Sequence Header, sau l chui m rng (nu c) v cc nhm nh. Nu phn chui m rng (Sequence extension) khng c xc nh (khng c m bo c thnh phn m rng), cc lp tip theo khi s thc hin mt quy trnh ging nh MPEG-1 v l tng hp thun. Khi c thm phn m rng th phi c thm cc c tnh m rng m ha hu hiu hn. Header ca nhm nh (GOP) c chc nng tng t nh header ca MPEG-1. Cc thng s quan trng dng m ha nh m rng c nh ngha trong extension header ca nh. V c hai loi nh, lin tc v xen k nn cu trc nh cn phi c xc nh r field trn hay field di hoc frame.
151

2.3.3.10.3 c tnh v cc mc trong MPEG-2 Nn MPEG-2 c mt chui cc mc (Level) v c tnh (Profile), c dng cho nhiu ng dng khc nhau. Cu trc tn hiu s trong tiu chun MPEG-2 rt phc tp. Vic s dng tiu chun MPEG-2 khng phi lc no cng cn thit hoc c ngha. V th dn n vic phn chia cu trc thnh cc tp con gi l profiles. C 6 nh ngha v profile:

Simple profile (profile n gin): c s cng c thp nht v s dng tc bit thp v khng dng B frame. N tng ng vi c im k thut MPEG-1, ph hp vi cc ng dng low-delay bi khng cn thit sp xp li cc frame. Main profile (profile chnh): c tm ng dng kh rng. N rt quan trng v p ng c phn gii i vi truyn hnh quy c. N cho cht lng nh tt hn vi cng mt tc bit so vi low profile nhng thi gian tr hon khi m v gii m tng ln. SNR profile scalable (profile phn cp theo SNR): c cc cng c ca main profile v cho php phn cp theo t s tn hiu trn tp m. Tnh phn cp theo t s tn hiu trn tp m c ngha l cht lng hnh nh v t s tn hiu trn tp m c tnh tha hip. Chui nh c th chia thnh hai phn lp phn bit nhau v cht lng. Cc lp thp bao gm nh c cht lng c s, lp cao bao gm cc lp hon thin hn i vi lp thp hn, cho php khi phc cng nh nhng cht lng tt hn. Lp thp hn, v d cha tn hiu video theo chun 4:2:0, cn lp cao hn vi tn hiu video trong chun 4:2:2. C th m ha knh khc nhau cho cc lp ring. Trong trng hp ny, lp di c tn hiu video cht lng thp hn ( v d lng t ha vi chnh xc thp). Cn lp cao hn th lp bo v cho php khi phc li tn hiu video vi chnh xc y thng s knh truyn hoc b m ha. Spatially Scalable profile (phn cp theo khng gian): tng t vi SNR profile nhng thm vo lp c bn lp nng cao cht lng phn gii nh (Picture Resolution Enhancement layer). Tnh phn cp theo khng gian c ngha l c s tha hip i vi phn gii. Chui nh c chia ra thnh hai lp tng ng vi cc phn gii khc nhau ca nh. Lp thp hn bao gm nh c phn gii thp v d nh truyn hnh tiu chun, lp cao hn bao gm nh c phn gii cao hn v d nh truyn hnh phn gii cao (HDTV). High profile (profile cao): gm cc c im ca spatial profile thm vo cu trc ly mu 4:2:2. N bao gm ton b cc cng c ca spatially scalable profile cng thm kh nng m ha cc tn hiu mu khc nhau cng mt lc. N c d nh dng cho HDTV, cho php cc b thu HDTV gii m c hai lp hin th mt nh HDTV. High profile l mt h thng hon ho c thit k cho ton b cc ng dng m khng hn ch tc bit. 4:2:2 profile: tng t MP, nhng cho php mt tc bit cao hn. N gia tng kch thc nh dc ln 576 lines vi chun qut 625/50 v 512 lines vi chun qut 525/60.
152

Vn hn ch cc mc c lin quan n phn gii cc i ca nh. C 4 mc hn ch sau :

Low level (mc thp): ng vi phn gii ca MPEG-1, c ngha l bng phn gii truyn hnh tiu chun.
Main level (mc chnh): phn gii ca truyn hnh tiu chun. High 1440 level (mc cao 1440): phn gii ca HDTV vi 1440 mu/dng. High level (mc cao): phn gii HDTV vi 1920 mu/dng.

Bng 2.3.6. Bng thng s chnh profile v level ca tn hiu chun MPEG-2. Profile n gin (Simple) Level Thp (Low) 4:2:0 352x288 4 Mbps 4:2:0 352x288 4Mbps I, P, B Chnh (Main) 4:2:0 720x576 15 Mbps I, P Cao 1440 (High 1440) 4:2:0 720x576 15 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0 1440x1152 60 Mbps I, P, B Cao (High) 4:2:0 1920x1152 80 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0 720x576 15 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0 1440x1152 60 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0 720x576 20 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0,4:2:2 1440x1152 80 Mbps I, P, B 4:2:0,4:2:2 1920x1152 100 Mbps I, P, B Chnh (Main) Phn cp Phn cp theo SNR theo khng gian Cao (High)

Kt hp 4 level v 5 profile ta c t hp 20 kh nng v hin nay c 11 kh nng c ng dng nh Bng 2.3.6 (theo ti liu ca Tektrronic). Trong cc ca Bng 2.4.6, ln lt t trn xung l: t l ly mu (4:2:0 hoc 4:2:2); dng di ghi im nh theo chiu

153

ngang x theo chiu dc; dng di na l vn tc cao nht ca dng d liu sau khi nn; dng cui cng l cc loi nh s dng nn. 2.3.3.10.4 ng dng MPEG-2 trong nn tn hiu video Cc tnh cht nn tn hiu video Tnh cht nn tn hiu video (hoc gim tc bit ca video BRR Bit rate reduction) l s kt hp nhiu yu t khc nhau :

T l nn : t l nn t 2:1 n 150:1, ty thuc vo cht lng nh yu cu cho tng ng dng. Cht lng nh : cht lng nh cao thng dng cho khu x l nh, trong khu hu k (dng hnh); gim hn trong khu ly tin (news), truyn dn pht sng. Kh nng to nhiu ln : Trong qu trnh sn xut hu k, truyn dn pht sng; tn hiu video gc phi i qua nhiu cng on, nn v gii nn. i xng/ khng i xng : vi s nn i xng, s lng x l phn m ha v gii m ging nhau. S MPEG-2 l khng i xng v cc cng on gii m t hn so vi m ha. Tr gia m ha v gii m : tr ny ph thuc vo cu trc v phc tp ca b m ha, kch thc GOP v chui GOP. Trong truyn hnh, tr tng cng c th chp nhn c l <1ms cho trng hp phng vn trc tip. Trong truyn dn pht sng th vn ny t khc khe hn. Kh nng dng hnh : dng hnh vi chnh xc 1 frame l yu cu cao trong khu hu k. Hin ti, trong khu hu k phi gii m nhiu frames (I, B, P) v m ha li sau khi cy mt on mi vo. Do c th thay i chiu di GOP xung cn nh I, cho nn MPEG-2 cho php dng hnh vi chnh xc tng frame. phc tp v gi thnh : c mt s tha hip gia k thut xp x chuyn ng c hiu qu (nng cao hiu qu nn cao) v gim phc tp v gi thnh ca cc chip x l.
2.3.3.11 Tiu chun MPEG-4 MPEG-4 bao gm 2 phn l version 1 v version 2. Bt u t nm 1993 v hnh thnh cc ngh vo thng 7 nm 1995. Cc ngh v audio v video c nh gi bi cc chuyn gia v a ra bn tho vo thng 11 nm 1997 v tr thnh tiu chun quc t ISO/IEC vo nm 1999. Nm 2000 MPEG-4 c b xung v nng cp ln thnh cc version 3 v 4.

c im chnh ca MPEG-4 l m ha video v audio vi tc bit rt thp. Thc t tiu chun a ra vi 3 dy tc bit 154 di 64 kbps 64 n 384 kbps 384 Kbps n 4 Mbps

c im quan trng ca chun MPEG-4 l cho php khi phc li ti pha thu, v vy chun nn ny c bit thch hp i vi mi trng d xy ra li nh truyn d liu qua cc thit b cm tay. Nhng profile v level khc trong MPEG-4 cho php s dng tc bit ln n 38.4 Mbps v vic x l cht lng studio cn cc profile v level ln n 1.2Gbps. MPEG-4 l chun quc t u tin dnh cho m ho cc i tng (object) video. Vi linh ng v hiu qu do m ho tng i tng video, MPEG-4 t yu cu ng dng cho cc dch v ni dung video c tnh tng tc v cc dch v truyn thng video trc tip hay lu tr. Trong MPEG-4, khung nh ca mt i tng video (hay cn gi l phng i tng video) c m ho ring l. S cch ly cc i tng video nh vy mang n mm do hn cho vic thc hin m ho thch nghi lm tng hiu qu nn tnh hiu. Mc d tp trung vo nhng ng dng tc bit thp nhng MPEG-4 cng bao gm c studio cht lng cao v HDTV Cc i tng khc nhau trong mt cnh gc c th c m ha v truyn i ring bit nh l video object v audio object v c kt hp tr li ti b gii m. Cc loi object khc nhau s c m ha vi nhng k thut khc nhau v vi cc cng c ph hp nht. Nhng object khc nhau c th c to ra mt cch c lp v trong mt vi trng hp mt cnh c th phn tch ring thnh object nn (background) v object cn cnh. V d: on video quay trn bng c x l tch ring qu bng ra khi cnh sn c. Background (cnh khng c qu bng ) s c truyn i v ai cng c th thy game thu ht khan gi nhng ch nhng ngi c tr tin mi thy qu bng. Hnh 2.3.24 cho thy cc khi nim chung v qu trnh m ha v gii m cc i tng c lp trong chun nn MPEG-4.
B tch cc object trong nh M ha object M ha object M ha object Mul tip lex De mul tip lex Gii m object Gii m object Gii m object Tng hp i tng Mn hnh

My quay video

Hnh 2.3.24 Nguyn l m ha tn hiu hnh nh trong MPEG-4 Nh bit khng c phng php m ha no c th gi l ti u hon ton. DCT v php lng t ch ti u i vi cc nh c bng thng gii hn v cc nh c mc chi thay i chm nhng s khng ti u vi nhiu chi tit nh c kch thc nh thng xut hin trn on video. Mt v d n gin nu mt cnh c xen cc dng ch (text) th h thng thng thng s xem cc ch nh l cc chi tit nh thng, do sau khi m ha bng MPEG-1 hay MPEG2,cc chi tit nh c thm vo vi cch thc nh trn s to ra tn hiu nng lng c tn s cao v cc cnh ca dng ch s khng c m ha tt bi DCT Do vic thm ch vo nh hng rt ln n hiu sut m ha video. Tuy nhin c th m ha cc ch theo mt cch n gin nh cc k t thuc m ASCII, v tr, font, kch thc, mu, thng tin v khng gian c th c thm vo vi s bit tng i nh. Nhng lm iu ny b gii m cn phi c kh nng to ra cc title t nhng thng tin c cung 155

cp v kha cc title ny khi qua b gii m video trc khi hin th. Vic gii m lung bit video MPEG-4 yu cu b gii m c nhiu c ch gii m v kh nng thc hin cc hot ng a hp. Trong MPEG-4 c th truyn nhiu lung text v vic chn b gii m lung no trong s nhng lung trn kt hp vi video. Vic la chn ny c th do ngi xem quyt nh hoc do cc thng tin khc c truyn trong lung bit. Ba c tnh rt quan trng ca MPEG-4 l: gii m Nhiu object c th c m ha vi cc k thut khc nhau v kt hp li b Cc object c th l cc cnh c c t camera hay t to nh text

Cc thng tin trong lung bit c th hin th nhiu dng khc nhau t cng mt lung bit (ty theo la chn ngi xem chng hn nh ngn ng) MPEG-4 cho kh nng m ha video v audio hn hn MPEG-2 cng nh kh nng khi phc li. Tuy nhin sc mnh tht s ca MPEG-4 l cc ng dng mi m c th xy dng da vo vic m ha c lp cc object cho hiu sut m cao hn, v vic tch ring cc object cho php tng tc cc object vi nhau c bit l cc chng trnh gio dc v cc tr chi. V cng do kh nng tch bit cc object m c th thay i t l tm thi chng hn nh vn duy tr phn gii ca cc object cn cnh quan trng nhng gim nh phong xung tc thp hn nu h thng s dng c bng thng b hn ch hoc thiu ti nguyn (b nh, tc tnh) Tuy nhin cng c mt s nhc im l b gii m phi c kh nng gii m ht tt c cc lung bit m n h tr v c kh nng kt hp. Do phn cng ca b gii m MPEG-4 phc tp hn so vi b gii m MPEG-2. V ngy nay th cng c nhiu b m thc hin gii m bng phn mm nhng b gii m bng phn cng c th b hn ch v kh nng linh hot 2.3.3.11.1 Video trong MPEG-4 Trc khi tm hiu k thut nn video trong MPEG-4 cn tm hiu cu trc ca mt cnh video c MPEG-4 nh ngha. Mt cnh tiu biu bao gm phong nh (background) mt hoc nhiu i tng cn nh (foreground) chng hn nh vt, mt hoc nhiu ngi v mt vi phn t ha. Trong MPEG-1 v 2 mt cnh c ly mu mt ln cho mt khung v to ra cc bitmap s c m ha. MPEG-4 cng lm vic ging nh vy nhng n c th gii quyt tng i tng ring r. n gin hn c th khng xt n cc vt nh vy ngoi cc thnh phn ha cnh bao gm background, mt ngi c xem l foreground. V d: ngi d bo thi tit ng trc nn mu xanh bin hay xanh l cy v mt nn (background) khc chng hn nh bn thi tit gi l chroma keyed. Trong studio nh mt ngi ng trc nn mu s c x l loi b nn mu v to thnh key signal hay alpha channel din t hnh dng ca ngi cn cnh. Thng tin v hnh dng ngi s c kt hp vi thnh phn cnh. Ni ngi ng th cnh nn c thay th bng nh ngi v nhng ni khc ca nh nn th khng thay i. Trong thut ng ca MPEG-4 th ngi cn nh c xem l i tng video (video object) c tng trng bi hai phn t l nh video ca ngi gi l texture v key signal hay alpha channel c xem l shape.

156

2.3.3.11.2 Cp ca video MPEG-4 Trc tin object phi c ly mu. Hu ht cc object c ly mu trong khong thi gian khng i (gi l frame) v mi thi gian ly mu c gi l video object plane (VOP). Nh vy mi object trong mt cnh c tng trng bi 1 chui cc VOP ngoi tr cc object tnh c th dng mt VOP. VOP bao gm d liu texture v thng tin v ng nt (shape) c dng ch nht hoc d liu ng nt phc tp kt hp vi object. VOP cng ging nh cc frame ca cc version trc ca MPEG c th c m ha vi intradata hoc s dng b chuyn ng. Tip theo l nhm cc VOP vi nhau thnh GOV (Group of video object planes). GOV tng t nh GOP (group of pictures) ca MEPG trc v cung cp im trong lung bit m VOP c m ha c lp vi cc VOP khc v nh th n cung cp cc im truy xut ngu nhin trong lung bit VOL (Video object layer) cho php thay i t l m ha chui cc VOP hoc GOV. Nhiu VOL tng ng vi nhiu t l ca chui (VOP hoc GOV) v mi t l ph hp vi mt tp cc ti nguyn c th thng thng gii hn bng thng hoc gii hn kh nng tnh ton. Mc video object (VO) bao gm mi thnh phn trong lung bit m t i tng video c bit. Cui cng l Video session (VS) l mc video cao nht ca cnh MPEG-4 bao gm tt c i tng video c t nhin v t to trong mt cnh. 2.3.3.11.3 M ha ng nt (shape) C hai loi ng nt vi i tng video trong MPEG-4 l ch nht v ty . Dng ch nht ch n thun l ch phm vi ca nh nn t quan trng. Tuy nhin n vn c dng tng tnh linh hot trong cc chun trc. Chng hn trong MPEG-2 phm v ca nh c m ha trong phn header ca lung bit. Trong MPEG-4 kch thc ch nht ca i tng video nn n gin l c th so snh nhng cng c th c cc i tng ch nht khc trong cng mt session nh nh trong nh (picture in picture). ng nt cng tng trng cho i tng video v bt k im no trong mt phng nh n xc nh c i tng no c kt hp vi n th c th nhn thy c. ng nt dng ch nht c gi l mask v c kch thc c th thay i theo kch thc ngang v dc ln nht ca i tng. C hai kch thc ngang v dc ca mask l bi s ca 16 pixel. ng nt ty c th c m ha nh d liu nh phn hoc d liu xm. ng nt nh phn l dng n gin nht ch ra i tng l r rng hay khng r rng (thy c hoc khng thy) bt k im cho. 2.3.3.11.4 M ha texture M ha texture, l thut ng trong MPEG-4 tng ng vi vic m ha d liu nh chuyn ng, da vo m ha MPEG-2 c m rng v ci tin. Cc i tng video c th c m ha vi I-VOP, P-VOP, B-VOP. Hu ht cc profile MPEG-4 u s dng tiu chun 4:2:0 v YUV m t i tng video texture.

157

Trong MPEG-4 khng phi tt c cc i tng video c cng kch thc v vic m ha texture ch cn thit nhng khu vc l mt phn ca i tng. i vi nhng i tng ch nht th n gin chn kch thc l bi s ca 16 pixel (mt macroblock) theo mi hng v tt c cc macroblock s c x l. i vi cc i tng c ng nt phc tp th ng bin (boundary) c nh ngha l tn hiu ng nt (shape signal). Phm vi ca i tng cng c nh ngha bi dy hnh ch nht cc macroblock nhng m ha texture c thc hin i vi ton b cc macroblock trn ng bin hoc phn bn trong ng bin i tng I-VOP c m ha nh khung I trong MPEG-2. MPEG-4 s dng b d on thch ng i vi cc gi tr DC. B d on cng xc nh gradient sng ngang v dc v d on gi tr DC t cc khi trn v bn tri theo hng ca gradient nh hn S tng quan ca cc nh ngoi vic c li cho d on h s DC cn gip vic m ha cc h s AC. Nhng vng texture ging nhau s to ra mt dy cc h s AC ging nhau sau khi bin i DCT. Cc h s AC quan trng nht tng trng cho nng lng ln nht ca texture ging nhau rt nhiu (c li cho qu trnh m ha). Cc h s ny thng thng l cc h s khc zero trong hng u tin hoc ct u tin, chng thng c lng t ha vi mc chnh xc cao nht. Trong MPEG-4 cc h s AC ca hng u tin hoc ct u tin c d on t cc khi ngay trn v bn tri. Vic lng t cc h s cng tng t nh phng php s dng trong MPEG-2 nhng c ch qut cc h s v m ha vi chiu di t m thay i th c ci tin hn. Cc phng php c chn c h s ra c xc nh da vo qu trnh d on DC. Khi khng c d on DC th qut zigzag nh trong MPEG-2 c s dng. Nu h s DC c d on t khi pha bn tri th s dng qut dc lun phin (Alternate-vertical scanning) l h thng qut s c theo chiu dc trc tin. Tuy nhin nu h s DC c d an t cc khi trn th chn qut ngang lun phin (Altrenate Horziontal scan). ci thin hiu qu ca b m ha c chiu di thay i (VLC) trong MPEG-4 dng hai bng VLC khc nhau. 2.3.3.11.5 M ha ng bin Kh nng m ha nhng i tng c ng nt ty thng gp nhng tnh hung c bit ng bin ca i tng. Khi , cc khi nm bn ngoi ng bin th khng cn m ha texture. Nhng tt c nhng khi bn trong ng bin c m ha theo cc k thut trnh by. M ha texture cn cho cc khi ng bin nhng trong cc khi ch c mt phn thuc i tng. Trc khi m ha ng bin, ngi ta thc hin bin php "m" (padding) cc khi ny. Nhng pixel khng phi l thnh phn ca i tng c gn cho nhng gi tr bng nhau v bng vi gi tr trung bnh ca tt c cc pixel trong phn i tng. Gi tr ca cc pixel bn trong i tng khng thay i. Vic thay i gi tr bn ngoi i tng khng nh hng n kt qu sau cng bi v cc pixel ny khng c hin th. Qu trnh trn c xem l lm gim thiu nng lng ca cc h s khi bin i DCT

158

2.3.3.11.6 Sprites MPEG-4 c mt lai i tng khc thng c dng lm cnh nn l sprite. Sprite l i tng video thng c kch thc ln hn mn hnh hin th. Sprite l i tng c s dng lin tc trong mt cnh (tng t nh cnh nn tnh). Thng thng mt cnh ca game bao gm cnh nn v mt s i tng nhn to di chuyn theo kch bn ca game v hnh ng ca ngi chi. Trong qu trnh hnh ng cnh c nhn thy ch l mt vng nh trong cnh nn, vng ny l thnh phn ca cng mt nh tnh (Hnh 2.3.25). MPEG-4 cung cp kh nng truyn ton b cnh nn nh sprite v kh nng to cnh khc nhau bng cch truyn cc thng tin cropping v wraping xc nh phn sprite s c hin th mt thi im nht nh. Sau khi sprite c truyn i th ch c thng tin cropping/wraping cho sprite v cc i tng cn nh (foreground) cn c truyn. Trong game in hnh mi phn ca sprite c th c s dng nhiu ln v th lng d liu cn truyn s gim ng k.

Hnh 2.3.25 Cnh nn (sprite) c truyn i c kch thc ln hn kh nng hin th ca mn hnh Vic truyn ton b sprite ngay khi bt u chng trnh c th rt hiu qu nhng s lm tng bng thng v thi gian truyn trc khi hot ng c th bt u. MPEG-4 s dng phng php sau trnh vn ny. Sprite c th truyn tng phn khi cn. Mt phn sprite cn thit ti thi im tc thi s c truyn i. Tt c cc cnh sprite s c lu tr b gii m nh l mt phn ca sprite. Theo phng php khc, sprite c th c m ha lin tip v truyn i ton b vi phn gii thp v phn gii cao hn s c truyn sau. Sprite c m ha nh tn hiu chi vi hai thnh phn mu nh trong MPEG trc v lun c m Intra bi v bn cht ca nh l tnh. 2.3.3.11.7 Animations Nh bit mt trong s nhng im mnh ca MPEG-4 l kh nng truyn c i tng t nhin cng nh cc i tng c t to ra (v d hnh animation) v kt hp chng b gii m. Mt trong nhiu kh nng th v s dng i tng nhn to l mt ngi hot hnh (facial animation). y cng l mt v d khc ca vic nh x texture thnh ng nt chuyn ng nhng trong trng hp ny ng nt c ch nh bi m hnh li hay m hnh 3D c hnh thnh bi cc node. V tr ca mi node c m ha s dng m ha d on trc tng hiu sut m khi ng nt ca khun mt thay i.

159

Version 2 ca MPEG-4 c th thm vo thn hnh (body) ng. Thn hnh l mt i tng c th to ra cc m hnh thn hnh o v ng di dng tp hp li 3D nhiu cnh. Hai tp hp cc thng s nh ngha cho body: Tp hp cc tham s nh ngha body (BDPbody definition parameter) v tp hp cc thng s ng body (BAP - body animation parameter). Tp BDP nh ngha tp cc thng s bin i body mc nh thnh cc body theo yu cu khch hng vi b mt body, kch thc body v texture. Cc tham s ng body (BAP) cho php to ra chuyn ng vi cc m hnh body khc nhau. Nh vy, c th ngay lp tc nhn BAP t lung bit thu m to ra s linh hot ca body. Khi thu c, BDP c dng bin i body chung (body mt ngi chun chng hn) thnh cc body ring bit da vo gi tr ca cc thng s. Bt c thnh phn no cng c th trng. Mt thnh phn trng c th c thay th bng thnh phn mc nh tng ng khi body c biu hin. Cc c im mc nh c xem nh cc c im chun. Cc c im ny c nh ngha nh sau: bn chn ch n hng pha trc, hai cnh tay t hai bn ca body vi lng bn tay hng vo trong body. Cc c im ny cng ngm nh trong tt c BAP c gi tr mc nh. M hnh body ngi c th h tr nhng ng dng khc nhau t m phng chuyn ng thc ca ngi n cng ngh game s dng m hnh ging nh ngi. 2.3.3.11.8 Scalability MPEG-4 cung cp ch phn cp cht lng tc thi v c nh mc i tng. Trong c hai trng hp, k thut ny c s dng to ra lp c s (base layer) tng trng cho cht lng thp nht t lung bit v mt hoc nhiu lp tng cng (enhancement layer). Nhng lp ny c th c to ra bng vic m ha n gin. Cht lng hnh nh c th c iu chnh th bng hai cch khc nhau. Nu bng thng b gii hn th lung bit truyn i s ch bao gm ch lp c s hoc lp c s v mt vi lp tng cng bc thp. Mt cch khc tt c cc lp c th c truyn i n b gii m, ti y s quyt nh nhng lp no s c s dng gii m. Nu thit b hin th c phn gii thp hoc ti nguyn tnh ton khng th lp tng cng c th b qua.
VOPs In Enhancement Layer Encoder

Subtract

Down Converter

Up Converter

Enhancement

VOL

Base Layer Encoder

Base Layer Decoder

Multiplexer Multiplexer

output
Base layer VOL

Hnh 2.3.26 B m ha phn cp cht lng MPEG-4 160

Hnh 2.3.26 m t s khi ca b m ha thc hin qu trnh phn cp cht lng vi 2 mc c nh. Cc VOP ng vo c bin i xung cn phn gii thp v m ha to ra lp c s. Lp c s c a ti ng ra v ti b tng hp Multiplexer. Lp c s cn c gii m ti ch v a ti b up-converted c cng phn gii nh ng vo. Tn hiu c phn gii cao ny s c so snh vi tn hiu ng vo ti b tr (Subtract), nh sai bit u ra b tr c m ha ring b m ha lp tng cng. Ch rng mi lung VOP sau khi m ha to thnh lp i tng video. Lp c s s dng c m ha Intra v Inter trong khi lp tng cng ch s dng m ha d on. Vic phn cp cht lng tm thi th n gin hn. Lung bit n ca VOP c chia thnh cc lung nh. S VOP c yu cu s c gi n b m ha lp c s, phn cn li c gi n mt hoc nhiu b m ha tng cng. QUa strnh phn cp trong MPEG-4 c th c p dng ring r i vi mi i tng c s. iu ny lm cho qu trnh m ha v gii m tro nn linh ng hn. Chng hn mt b gii m trong h thng game khng c kh nng gii m tt c cc i tng tc cao nht c th nn n ch chn gii m i vi cnh nn tc thp v chp nhn mc chuyn ng nn b git, ng thi gii m vi tc cao i vi cc i tng cn nh lm cho chuyn ng ca chng mn hn 2.3.3.11.9 M ha m rng (ACE: Advanced Coding Extension) Version 2 ca MPEG-4 a ra ba cng c mi ci thin hiu sut m ha i vi i tng video. Bao gm: B chuyn ng ton cc (GMC: global motion compensation), b chuyn ng phn t (quarter pel motion compensation) v DCT hnh dng thch ng (shapeadative DCT). Cc cng c ny ci thin hiu sut m n hn 50% so vi version 1 ty theo lai nh v tc bit. GMC cho php m ha ton b chuyn ng ca i tng vi mt vi thng s v ci thin phn gii ca vector chuyn ng bng cch gim sai s do d on v s dng d Shape-adaptive DCT c th c dng ci thin hiu sut m ca nhng khi ng bin khi khng phi tt c cc pixel u l phn t ca nh. Thay v s dng DCT hai chiu 8x8 th dng khi DCT mt chiu i vi hng dc c trc sau n hng ngang v ch xt nhng pixel thuc i tng, gi l cc active pixel.
2.3.3.12 Chun H.261 Khuyn co H.261 ca CCITT l chun nn cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v in thoi truyn hnh qua mng s dch v tch hp ISDN tc n 64Kbps. Chun ny c 2 c tnh quan trng l ngng tr m ho ti a l 150ms v tr ny ph hp vi truyn thng video hai chiu da vo cm nhn ca ngi xem v hnh nh phn hi trc tip v d dng thc hin mch tch hp VLSI chi ph thp cho vic thng mi ho sn phm rng ri. 2.3.3.13 Chun H.263 H.263 l chun dnh cho video tc thp 46 Kbps dng trong cc ng dng hi ngh t xa qua mng PSTN. Chun ny c c c tnh ca MPEG-1 v MPEG-2. M ho video ca H.263 da trn chun H.261 v thc cht n l phin bn m rng ca H.261 vi phng

161

php m ho video kt hp DPCM/DCT. C hai chun ny u dng k thut chnh nh DCT, b chuyn ng, m ho chiu di t m thay i, lng t ho v hng v x l trn cp macroblock. Duy ch c khi nim v khung PB trong H.263 l kh c bit, tn PB c ngun gc t P v B, l s kt hp ca P v B.
2.3.4 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn Bng 2.3.7 tp hp cc ng dng ca cc tiu chun nn. nh dng MJPEG c hn ch trong ng dng. N c dng ch yu trong my ghi hnh bng a (qu trnh m ha v gii m trong cng mt n v).

Bng 2.3.7. Cc ng dng ca cc tiu chun nn. ng dng Tiu m ha H.261 H.261 MPEG-2 Truyn hnh cp Truyn hnh DPCM MPEG-2 MJPEG Studio / sn xut MPEG2(@4:2:2) MPEG-2 MPEG-2 720x576 < 50 Mbps 1920x1280 1920x1280 100 Mbps 20 Mbps chun phn gii cc i i 176x144 352x288 720x576 720x576 Mbps 49 Mbps < 50 Mbps Tc bit cc

Videophone Hi ngh truyn hnh

64 128 Kbps 0.384

1.554

HDTV / sn xut HDTV / truyn dn

Vic ra i chun MPEG-2 khng nh u th ca MPEG so vi MJPEG khi n p ng c t khu sn xut n truyn dn v pht sng. Vi tim nng kinh t mnh th vic u t thit b theo chun MPEG cho tt c cc khu trong truyn hnh l iu khng bn ci. Nhng kh nng u t cho truyn hnh Vit Nam cn hn ch, chng ta li ang giai on nghin cu v th nghim, cho nn vic tm gii php thch hp m bo iu kin kinh t, cht lng hnh nh ph hp cho tng cng on l vn cn thit. Trong khu pht sng, chun MPEG-2 MP@ML (4:2:0) l s la chn ti u c nguyn nhn su sc v c yu t khch quan. Su sc l ngi ta phi tit kim ti a di thng ca ng truyn, tng s lng chng trnh. MPEG-2 MP@ML s dng cc nh I, P, B v nn vi h s nn rt cao, gim vn tc ca dng chng trnh cn rt thp pht qung b ti cc my thu. V d c th, pht qua b pht p ca v tinh c di thng 36 MHz, s dng nn MPEG-2 ta truyn c 1012 chng trnh. Yu t khch quan l mt ngi ch cm nhn v phn tch n mt chng mc no l . Nu truyn tn hiu c vn tc cao 162

hn, mt ngi cng ch cm nhn thm khng ng l bao m s lng chng trnh phi gim i ng k. iu ng ngha vi hiu qu pht sng thp. Tm li, mc ch u tin ca pht qung b l nn lm sao pht c nhiu chng trnh. Nh vy, vn ta quan tm y l la chn chun no trong cng on sn xut hu k. i vi nn ca my ghi hnh cn phi ch gi cht lng tn hiu cn cho gia cng x l trong studio. Cc phng php nn trong my ghi hnh s thc cht l x l ni ti trong my gim vn tc dng s ghi ln bng cn va thp nhm gii quyt kh nhiu vn thc t. i vi MPEG-2, c th s dng MPEG-2 4:2:2P@ML trong khu hu k. V mt cht lng, nu s dng my ghi cng ngh nn MPEG dng mt loi nh I cng thun li cho vic dng in tng ng M-JPEG. Nhng cch gii quyt nh th l cha kinh t, v trong h thng mch theo cng ngh nn MPEG, mch d on b chuyn ng l mch phc tp nht v c gi thnh cao m li khng s dng (ch dng mt nh I, khng s dng nh P v B). V mc tiu pht c nhiu chng trnh nn pht qung b s dng nn MPEG-2 vi nhm nh y I, P, B v h s nn rt cao. Qua phn tch trn, ta c th thy rng chun M-JPEG s dng trong cc thit b sn xut chng trnh tin dng cho sn xut studio v dng hu k, lm k xo vi gi thnh h thng ph hp.

163

PH LC: CC TIU CHUN M HO M THANH V HNH NH TRONG TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN
1. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh

Cc tiu chun ITU-T cho m thanh bao gm G.711 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2 G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.729.1 G.729a

G.711 l chun ITU-T dng cho thoi ch yu trong cc h thng tng i, c pht hnh chnh thc vo nm 1972.

G.711 trnh by cc mu iu ch xung m logarit cho tn hiu bng tn thoi, tn s ly mu l 8000 mu trong mt giy. C hai gii thut chnh c nh ngha trong chun ny, gii thut -law dng khu vc Bc M, Nht v gii thut A-law dng khu vc Chu u v nhng nc cn li. C hai gii thut iu tnh ton trn m logarit, nhng gii thut A-law c thit k c bit cho mc ch thc hin cc php tnh trong qu trnh tnh ton sao cho n gin hn, chun ny cng nh ngha mt chui cc gi tr m lp li c mc cng sut l 0 dB. Hai gii thut -law c m ha dng cc mu PCM tuyn tnh 14-bit v A-Law l 13-bit vi mu 8-bit. Nh vy, b m ha G.711 s to c lung d liu bit c tc 64kbit/giy vi tn s ly mu l 8kHz.
G.722 l chun ITU-T dng cho m ha ting ni bng tn rng hot ng vi tc truyn 32-64 kbit/giy. Cng ngh m ha da trn vic phn chia bng tn ADPCM.

G.722.1 cung cp c vic nn d liu vi tt bit thp. Mt bin th mi ca G722.1 l G.722.2, c bit di tn l AMR-WB (Adaptive Multirate Wideband), cho php vic nn vi tc thp hn na, c th p ng tt vi cc kiu nn khc nhau cng nh cc thay i a hnh mng. Trong trng hp sau, bng thng c t ng bo tn khi c s nghn mch cao. Khi vic nghn quay tr v mc bnh thng, th ch tc bit cao hn v mc nn thp hn c phc hi. Chun G.722 v d liu mu m thanh ti tc 16kHz, gp i tc x l ti cc giao tip thoi truyn thng, kt qu l cht lng thoi tt hn. Chun G.722.1, c bit qua tn khc l Siren, l mt chun quc t cho m ha m thanh bng rng tc 24 v 32 kbps (bng thng thoi 50Hz-7kHz, tn s ly mu l 16 ksps)tc 16kb/giy), s dng trong cc h thng hi ngh truyn hnh c ph chun vo 30 thng 09 nm 1999. Chun G.722.1 l b nn da trn s bin i sao cho ti u ha c m thoi ln nhc. phc tp tnh ton tng i thp i vi b nn cht lng cao, tr ca gii thut ca hai im u cui l 40ms. Phin bn G.722.1/Annex C, c ph chun bi ITU-T vo 14 thng 05 nm 2005, cn c bit thng qua tn Siren14, c pht trin bi Polycom vi dng khng cn bn quyn truyn vi tn s 14kHz (32ksps).

164

S lng m ha m thanh bng tn rng ITU i khi khng c hiu chnh xc. Thc t, c ba loi m ha c bn phn bit, nhng iu c chung mt tn l G.722. u tin, G.722 l m ha vi tn s 7kHz, s dng ADPCM hot ng vi tc truyn 48-64kbps. Mt phin bn khc G.722.1 hot ng vi tc d liu bng mt na nhng c cht lng tt nh G.722 vi phng php m ha da vo nn tng chuyn i. V chun G.722.2, hot ng vi m thoi bng tn rng vi tc bit truyn rt thp, s dng gii thut CELPbased. V vn bn quuyn, n thi im ny, giy ng k bn quyn cho G.722 ht hn, cho nn hin ti chun ny c xem nh l chun min ph. G.722.1 thuc bn quyn ca tp on Polycom v chun G.722.2 cn c tn l AMR-WB, thuc quyn s hu ca tp on VoiceAge. G.722.2 (GSM AMR WB)
Adaptive Multi Rate - WideBand hay AMR-WB l mt chun m ha ting ni c pht trin sau khi AMR s dng cng cng ngh tng t nh ACELP. M cung cp cht lng m thoi tuyt vi bi v s dng bng tn thoi rng hn 50-7000 Hz khi so snh vi cc m m thoi bng hp hin ang dng rng ri trong cc POTS vi 300-3400Hz. AMRWB c h thng ha thnh G.722.2, l mt chun m ha m thoi chun ITU-T.

Cc trng thi hot ng ca M: AMR-WB hot ng tng t AMR vi nhiu tc bit khc nhau gm: 6.60; 8.85; 12.65; 14.25; 15.85; 18.25; 19.85; 23.05 v 23.85 kbps. Tn hiu truyn vi tc thp nht cho cht lng thoi tt nht ng vi mi trng khng nhiu l 12.65 kbps. Tc bit cao rt hu dng trong mi trng c nhiu v trong trng hp tn hiu truyn l m nhc. Tc bit 6.60 8.85 cung cp cht lng chp nhn c khi so snh vi m ha bng tn hp. AMR-WB c chun ha cho vic s dng trong tng lai trong cc h thng mng nh UMTS. Chun ny cung cp cht lng thoi tt hn rt nhiu v c chn dng cho nhiu mng c h tr cho bng rng. Thng 10 nm 2006, kim nghim AMR-WB u tin c thc hin trn h thng mng thc do T-Mobile v Ericssion phi hp ti c. G.723 l mt chun ITU-T m ha m thoi bng tn rng, l chun m rng ca G.721 iu ch xung sai phn tng thch vi tc truyn 24 v 40 kbps cho cc ng dng thit b nhn mch s, hin nay G.723 c thay th bi chun G.276, do hin ti chun ny l li thi. Chun G.723.1 l chun m ha m thanh cho thoi vi tnh nng nn thoi trong khung 30 mili giy, chu k 7.5ms cng c s dng. Nhc hoc m tone nh DTMF hoc fax ton khng th truyn tin cy vi chun m ha ny, do mt s cc phng php khc nhu G.711 hoc phng php ngoi dy bng tn dng truyn cc tn hiu ny. Chun G.723.1 ch yu dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) v yu cu bng thng thp. N tr thnh chun ITU-T vo nm 1995, iu phc tp ca gii thut l yu cu l di 16MIPS vi 2.2kByte v RAM.

165

C hai tc bit m G.723.1 c th hot ng:

o o

6.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 24 byte), dng gii thut MPC-MLQ (MOS 3.9) 5.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 20 byte) dng gii thut ACELP (MOS 3.62)

G.726 l chun m ha ting ni ITU-T ADPCM truyn m thanh vi cc tc 16, 24, 32, v 40 kbps. L chun thay th cho c G.721 (ADPCM tc 32kbps) v chun G.723 (ADPCM vi tc 24 v 40 kbps). G.726 hot ng vi tn s l 16 kbps. Bn tc bit thng s dng cho chun G.726 tng ng vi kch thc ca mt mu theo th t l 2-bits, 3-bits, 4-bits, v 5-bits. Tc thng dng l 32 kbps, bi v y chnh l tc bng mt na so vi chun G.711, nh th lm gia tng dung lng c mng ln 50%. Thng thng c dng trong cc mng in thoi quc t cng nh h thng in thoi khng dy DECT. G.721 c gii thiu ln u tin vo nm 1984, trong khi chun G.723 c gii thiu vo nm 1988. C hai c gp chung thnh chun G.726 vo nm 1990. G.727 c gii thiu cng thi im vi G.726, cng tc bt nhng ti u hn cho mi trng PCME Packet Circuit Multiplex Equipment. iu ny t c bng cch nhng b lng t ha 2 bit vo b lng t ha 3 bit, cho php hy b bit c trng s nh nht trong chui bit truyn m khng c nh hng xu n tn hiu m thoi. G.728 l chun ITU-T m ha m thoi vi tc 16kbps. Cng ngh s dng l LDCELP, Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction. tr ca m ch 5 mu ( 0.625 ms). D on tuyn tnh c thc hin tnh ton vi b lc LPC ngc bc 50. Ng vo kch thch c to ra m bo nhn c li VQ. Chun c a ra vo nm 1992 di dng gii thut m du chm ng. Nm 1994, bn dng cho du chm tnh c pht hnh. G.728 c tc ln n 2400 bps. phc tp ca bng m l 30 MIPS, vi yu cu 2.2kByte v RAM. G.729 l mt gii thut nn d liu m thanh dng cho tn hiu thoi, nn tn hiu m thanh vi khung 10 mili giy. Cc tone nhc nh DTMF hoc fax khng th truyn vi b m ha ny, m phi s dng G.711 hoc phng php ngoi bng tn truyn cc tn hiu ny. G.729 a s dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) vi yu cu bng tn thp. Chun G.729 hot ng tc 8 kbps, nhng cc phin bn m rng c th hot ng ti 6.4 kbps i vi mi trng truyn xu v 11.8 kbps vi yu cu cht lng thoi tt hn. Trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng chun G.729a, tng t nh G.729 nhng c tnh ton n gin hn, tuy nhin chun ny li khng cho chtl lng thoi tt hn. Phin bn G.729b l mt chun c bn quyn, s dng module VAD pht hin tn hiu thoi hay phi thoi. N cng bao gm mt module DTX dng quyt nh nng cp cc thng s nhiu nn cho tn hiu phi thoi (cc khung nhiu). Cc khung ny c truyn thc hin vic nng cp ny c gi l cc khung SID. Mt b to nhiu (CNG) cng c tch hp trong chun ny, bi v trong mt knh truyn, nu vic truyn b dng li v l do tn hiu l tn hiu phi thoi, th site cn li s xem nh ng kt ni ny b t. V th khi s dng chun ny cn phi thn trng.

166

Nhng nm gn y, chun G.729 c nghin cu m rng h tr cho tn hiu m thoi bng tn rng v m ha m thanh thnh chun G.729.1. B m ha G.729.1 c thit k theo m hnh phn cp, tc bit v cht lng iu hiu chnh n gin bng cch thc ct gim chui bit truyn. G.729.1 thm chc nng bng tn rng so vi G.729 thng qua cc lp c nhng vo. Lp u tin trn cng G.729 (12kps) vn l dng bng tn hp. 14 kbps thm vo cht lng bng tn rng thng qua vic ti to ph, s dng ng gi thi gian v ng gi tn s (c tc truyn cng thm l 2kbps). Cc lp khc ( ng vi tn bc 2 kbps) thm nhiu thng tin v ni dung ca ph cc tn s cao v nh th lm gia tng cht lng tn hiu. Cc m c pht trin bi s phi hp ca cc t chc: France Telecom, tp on Mitsubishi Electric, tp on Nippon Telegraph v Telephone (NTT), v Universit de Sherbrooke.
2. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho hnh nh v Video.

Chun H.261 l chun ITU m ha tn hiu video nm 1990 c a ra truyn trn h thng ng dy ISDN vi cc tc d liu l s nhn ca 64 kbps. Tc d liu ca gii thut m ha c a ra c th hot ng c gia 40 kbps v 2 Mbps. Chun h tr cc khung video CIF v QCIF vi phn gii 352x288 v 176x144 theo th t tng ng (v 4:2:0 mu vi phn gii mu l 176x144 v 88x72 theo th t tng ng). Chun cng xt n tnh hung d phng cho vic truyn cc hnh vi phn gii 704x576 ( c hiu chnh vo nm 1994). Chun H.261 l chun m ha tn hiu video s u tin c p dng trong thc t. Vic thit k chun H.261 l mt n lc tin phong, cc chun m ha video ton cu sau ny (MPEG-1, MPEG-2/H.262, H.263, v ngay c H.264) cng ch yu da trn chun ny. Ngoi ra, cac phng php c s dng bi hi ng pht trin H.261 (ng u l Sakae Okubo) cng tc pht trin chun vn c ng dng trong cc cng vic chun ha cc chun sau ny trong lnh vc ny. Gii thut m ha s dng mt hybrid ca s chuyn dng ca c on hnh nh ni ti v m ha truyn trong khng gian vi vic lng t v hng, phn hnh theo kiu zig-zac v m ha entropy. 2.1 Chun H.261 Qu trnh c bn ca vic thit k c gi l macroblock. Mi macroblock bao gm 1 dy 16x16 cc mu luma v hay dy mu chroma 8x8 dng vic ly mu 4:2:0 v khng gian muYCbCr. D on hnh nh ni ti thc hin lai b cc d tha tm thi, vi cc vector chuyn ng c dng h tr cho vic b m ha cho vic di ng. M di chuyn s dng chuyn i cosin ri rc 8x8 (DCT) dng loi b cc d tha thuc khng gian, v cc h s bin i lng t c phn hnh theo kiu zig-zac v m ha entropy (dng m RunLevel variable-length) loi b cc d tha thng k. Chun H.261 tht s ch nh r bng cch no gii m video. Cc nh thit k b m ha c t do trong vic a ra cc gii thut m ha ca ring h, ngay c vi tn hiu ng ra b m ha khng c t nhin nhm mc ch c th c gii m bng bt k b gii m no min l c thit k theo ng chun. Cc b m ha cng c thit k tu 167

nhm thc hin qu trnh tin x l m chng mun ng vo video u tin mc nh thc hin. Mt k thut hiu qu trong vn hu x l tr thnh phn t chnh yu ca cc h thng tt nht da trn chun H.261 l lc gii kha. N thc hin vic gim s xut hin ca vt nhn to nhiu c dng hnh khi gy ra bi vic b di ng theo dng khi v cc phn chuyn i do vic thit k to ra. Vic lc gii kha tr thnh mt phn tch hp trong hu ht cc chun hin nay, H.264 (ngay c s dng chun H.264, vic hu x l vn cho php thc hn v c th cho c cht lng cao) Vic lc c cp trong vic chun ha c nh hng n vic ci tin quan trng gia kh nng nn v thit k H.261. Tuy nhi, H.261 vn l nh hng lch s chnh trong lnh vc pht trin ca m ha video. 2.2 Chun H.262 Chun H.262 l mt chun m ha video s ITU-T. Chun ny lin quan n phn video ca chun ISO/IEC MPEG-2 (c bit di ci tn ISO/IEC 13818-2). Chun ny c pht trin do s hp tc ca ITU-T v cc t chc ISO/IEC JTC 1, v tr thnh chun chung cho c hai t chc ny. ITU-T Recommendation H.262 v ISO/IEC 13818-2 c pht trin v pht hnh di dng l chun quc t. Hai ti liu ny m t hu ht tt c cc kha cnh ca chun. 2.3 Chun H263 Chun H.263 l chun m ha ITU-T thit k vo nm 1995/1996 dng cho gii php m ha nn tc truyn thp cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh. M u tin c thit k trong cc h thng H.324 (PSTN hoc cc mch chuyn mch mch khc truyn dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v in thoi truyn hnh), cng nh trong cc h thgn dng m H.323 (hi ngh truyn hnh RTP/IP-based), H.320 (hi ngh truyn hnh ISDN-based), RTSP (phng tin truyn thng dng streaming) v SIP (hi ngh Internet). Hu ht ni dung Flash Video( dng trn cc site nh YouTube, Google Video, MySpace, v.v.) c m ha di dng nh dng ny, tuy vn c site s dng m ha VP6, h tr phin bn Flash 8. Tn hiu video H.263 c th c gii m bng th vin phi bn quyn LGPL-licensed dng trong cc chng trnh nh ffdshow, VLC media player v MPlayer. Chun H.263 c pht trin nh l mt phin bn nng cp da trn chun H.261, v chun MPEG-1, MPEG-2. Phin bn u tin c hon thnh vo nm 1995 v hon ton ph hp trong vic thay th cho H.261 vi tt c cc tc truyn. Hin ti c cc phin bn H.263v2 (cn gi l chun H.263+ 1998) v chun H.263v3 (H.263++ 2000). Chun m ha c ITU-T sau H.263 l H.264, cn c tn l AVC v MPEG-4 phn th 10. Hu ht cc sn phm hi ngh truyn hnh cng ngh mi hin nay lun tch hp c ba chun H.264, H.263 v H.261. 2.4 Chun H264

168

Chun H.264, MPEG-4 Part 10, hay AVC (dng cho Advanced Video Coding), l mt chun m ha video s vi nn cc cao, l kt qu ca ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) kt hp vi ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), c xem l sn phm thng mi Joint Video Team (JVT). Chun ITU-T H.264 v ISO/IEC MPEG4 Part 10(ISO/IEC 14496-10) ng dng cc cng ngh l tng. Phin bn nhp u tin c hon thnh vo thng 05 nm 2003. Chun H.264 c t tn theo cng dng ITU-T H.26x ca cc chun video, trong khi tn AVC c t tn da theo tn d n hp tc, vi tn ca d n l H.26L. Chun cn c gi bng cc tn khc H.264/AVC, AVC/H.264, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, MPEG-4/H.264 AVC nhm nhn mnh tnh k tha. i khi, cn c gi l m ha JVT vi l do l t chc JVT pht trin. Mc ch ca d n H.264/AVC l to ra mt chun c kh nng cung cp tn hiu video cht lng cao vi cc tc bit truyn thp, nh hn hay bng mt na so vi tc ca cc chun trc ( nh MPEG-2, H.263, hay MPEG-4 Part 2) vi tnh ng dng cao trong thc t. Ngoi ra, chun phi p ng yu cu cung cp cch thc linh ng cho php chun c ng dng rng ri trong nhiu trnh ng dng ( v d cho c tc bit cao v thyp hoc phn gii cao hoc thp, v chy n nh trong nhiu h thng cng nh mng ( cho vic broadcast, lu tr DVD, mng gi RTP/IP, v cc h thng tng i ang phng tin ITU-T) 2.5 Chun JVT Chun JVT hon thnh vic nng cp, pht trin mt s tnh nng m rng so vi chun nguyn thu, c bit di tn l Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). Cc phin bn m rng h tr m ha video vi trung thc cao bng cch thc gia tng chnh xc ly mu (bao gm m ha 10-bit v 12-bit) vi thng tin mu phn gi cao (gm cc cu trc ly mu nh YUV 4:2:2 v YUV 4:4:4). Mt s tnh nng khc trong d n Fidelity Range Extensions ( nh php bin i s nguyn chuyn mch tng thch 44 v 88, cc ma trn trng s lng t ha da trn gic quan, m ha khng mt mt hnh ni ti hiu qu, h tr cc khng gian mu cng thm v php bin i mu s d). Cng vic thit k trong d n c hon thnh vo thng 7 nm 2004 v phin bn nhp c ra mt vo thng 09 nm 2004.

169

TI LIU THAM KHO

1. Anil K. Jain, Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall, 1988. 2. J. R. Parker, Algorithms for Image Processing and Computer Vision, Wiley, 1996. 3. Alan C. Bovik , Handbook of Image and Video Processing, Academic Press, 2000. 4. John R. Deller, John H. L. Hansen, John G. Proakis, Discrete-Time Processing of Speech Signals, Wiley-IEEE Press, 1999. 5. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, Steven L. Eddins, Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB, Prentice Hall, 2003. 6. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods Digital Image Processing , Prentice Hall, 2002. 7. William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside, Third Edition 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9. Michael Robin & Michel Poulin, Digital Television Fundamental, McCraw-Hill Companies. Inc. 10. Hong Tin, Dng Thanh Phng Truyn hnh k thut s. NXB Khoa hc v k thut, 2004. 11. Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thy, Nhp mn x l nh s, NXB Khoa hc v k thut, 1999.

170

MC LC
LI NI U CHNG 1 K THUT X L M THANH
1.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH
1.1.1 Gii thiu s lc v m thanh & h thng x l m thanh 1.1.2 Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh

1 3
3
3 10

1.2 M HNH X L M THANH

1.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi 1.2.2 Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh 1.2.3 M hnh thi gian ri rc

13
13 19 27

1.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN

1.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh 1.3.2 D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi

30
30 36

1.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI

1.4.1 Cc phng php m ho 1.4.2 Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi 1.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn

40
40 41 41

1.5 M HNH NG DNG X L THOI

1.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng 1.5.2 M hnh chui markov n 1.5.3 Mng nron

48
48 53 55

CHNG 2: K THUT X L NH
2.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S
2.1.1 Khi nim c bn v x l nh 2.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh 2.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh 2.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s 2.1.5 Biu din nh s 2.1.6 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s

60
60
60 61 62 64 67 92

2.2 PHN TCH CC K THUT X L NH V VIDEO

2.2.1 Khi nim v quan h gia cc im nh 2.2.2 Cc phng php xc nhv d an bin nh

106
106 109

2.3 CC K THUT NN NH
2.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh 2.3.2 Phng php nn nh JPEG 2.3.3 Chun nn MPEG 2.3.4 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn

115
115 121 140 162

PH LC: GII THIU CC TIU CHUN M HA M THANH V HNH NH TRONG TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN 164
171

1. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh 2. Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho hnh nh v Video

164 167

TI LIU THAM KHO

170

172

X L M THANH, HNH NH
M s: 411XAH450
Chu trch nhim bn tho TRUNG TM O TO BU CHNH VIN THNG 1