MODELARE+++++Modeling and Assessing of Omni-Directional Robots With Three and Four Wheels

Modeling and Assessing of Omni-directional Robots with Three and Four Wheels 207
X

ModeIing and Assessing of Omni-directionaI
Robots with Three and Four WheeIs

HeIder I. OIiveira, Arnando }. Sousa, A. IauIo Moreira and IauIo }. Cosla
Unitcrsiac c Pcr|c, |acu|ac c |ngcnnaria
|N|SC-Pcr|c - |ns|i|u|c c |ngcnnaria c Sis|cmas c Ccmpu|acrcs c Pcr|c
Pcr|uga|

1. Introduction

Rolols vilh onni-direclionaI Ioconolion are increasingIy popuIar due lo lheir enhanced
noliIily vhen conpared vilh lradilionaI rolols. Their usage is nore proninenl in nany
rololic conpelilions vhere perfornance is crilicaI, lul can le appIied in nany olhers
appIicalions such as service rololics. Rolols vilh onni-direclionaI Ioconolion offer
advanlages in nanoeuvraliIily and effecliveness. These fealures are gained al lhe expense
of increased nechanicaI conpIexily and increased conpIexily in conlroI. TradilionaI
nechanicaI configuralion for onni-direclionaI rolols are lased on lhree and four vheeIs.
Wilh four nolors and vheeIs, il is expecled lhal lhe rolol viII have leller effeclive fIoor
lraclion (OIiveira el aI., 2OO8), lhal is, Iess vheeI sIippage al lhe expense of nore conpIex
nechanics, nore conpIex conlroI and addilionaI currenl consunplion.
Connon rololic appIicalions require precise dynanicaI nodeIs in order lo aIIov a precise
Ioconolion in dynanicaI environnenls. Such nodeIs are aIso essenliaI lo sludy Iinilalions
of nechanicaI configuralions and lo aIIov fulure inprovenenls of conlroIIers and
nechanicaI configuralions.
The presenled sludy is lased on a singIe prololype lhal can have lolh configuralions, lhal
is, lhe sane nechanicaI pIalforn can le used vilh lhree vheeIs and lhen il can le easiIy
disassenlIed and reassenlIed vilh a four vheeIed configuralion. A nalhenalicaI nodeI
for lhe nolion of lhe rolol vas found using various inerliaI and friclion paranelers. The
nolion anaIysis incIudes lolh kinenalicaI and dynanicaI anaIysis.

1.1 Context
Rolols vilh onni-direclionaI Ioconolion are hoIononic and lhey are inleresling lecause
lhey aIIov grealer nanoeuvraliIily and efficiency al lhe expense of sone exlra conpIexily.
One of lhe nosl frequenl soIulions is lo use sone kind of varialion of lhe Mecanun vheeIs
proposed ly (DiegeI el aI., 2OO2) and (SaIih el aI., 2OO6).
Onni-direclionaI vheeI design is quile deIicale and differenl vheeIs exhilil very differenl
perfornances. WheeI conslruclion is oflen appIicalion specific and lhe presenled vork uses
lhe vheeIs shovn in Iig. 1. These vheeIs are luiIl in-house for severaI denanding
appIicalions. The prololype used in lhe experinenls uses four vheeIs of lhis kind lo achieve
12
CONTEMPORARY ROBOTCS - Challenges and Solutions 208

onni-direclionaI Ioconolion. A rolol vilh four vheeIs is expecled lo have nore lraclion
lhan ils lhree vheeIed counlerparl. In lolh configuralions lhe nolor pIus vheeI assenlIies
are idenlicaI lo lhe pholograph seen in Iig. 2.

Iig. 1. 5DIO onni-direclionaI vheeI Iig. 2. Molor and vheeI

A rolol vilh lhree or nore nolorized vheeIs of lhis kind can have aInosl independenl
langenliaI, nornaI and anguIar veIocilies (hoIononic properly). DynanicaI nodeIs for lhis
kind of rolols are nol very connon due lo lhe difficuIly in nodeIing lhe severaI inlernaI
friclions inside lhe vheeIs, naking lhe nodeI sonevhal specific lo lhe lype of vheeI leing
used (OIiveira el aI., 2OO8) and (WiIIians el aI., 2OO2).
Irequenl nechanicaI configuralions for onni-direclionaI rolols are lased on lhree and four
vheeIs. Three vheeIed syslens are nechanicaIIy sinpIer lul rolols vilh four vheeIs have
nore acceIeralion vilh lhe sane kind of nolors. Iour vheeIed rolols are expecled lo have
leller effeclive fIoor lraclion, lhal is, Iess vheeI sIippage - assuning lhal aII vheeIs are
pressed againsl lhe fIoor equaIIy. Of course four vheeIed rolols aIso have a higher cosl in
equipnenl, increased energy consunplion and nay require sone kind of suspension lo
dislrilule forces equaIIy anong lhe vheeIs.

(a) Three vheeIed configuralion (l) Iour vheeIed configuralion
Iig. 3. Configuralions for lhe prololype

In order lo sludy and conpare lhe nodeIs of lhe lhree and four vheeIed rolols, a singIe
prololype vas luiIl lhal can have lolh configuralions, lhal is, lhe sane nechanicaI pIalforn

can le used vilh lhree vheeIs and lhen il can le disassenlIed and reassenlIed vilh a four
vheeI configuralion, see Iig. 3.
Dala fron experinenlaI runs is laken fron overhead canera, see Iig. 4. The selup is laken
fron lhe herilage of lhe syslen descriled in (Cosla el aI., 2OOO) lhal currenlIy fealures 25
franes/second, one cenlineler accuracy in posilion (XX and YY axis) and aloul lhree
degrees of accuracy in lhe heading of lhe rolol.

Iig. 4. Inage fron overhead canera

In order lo increase lhe perfornance of rolols, lhere vere sone efforls on lhe sludying lheir
dynanicaI nodeIs (Canpion el aI., 1996), (Conceicao el aI., 2OO6), (KhosIa, 1989),
(Tahnaseli el aI., 2OO5), (WiIIians el aI., 2OO2) and kinenalic nodeIs (Canpion el aI., 1996),
(Leov el aI. 2OO2), (Loh el aI. 2OO3), (Muir & Neunan, 1987), (Xu el aI., 2OO5). ModeIs are
lased on Iinear and non Iinear dynanicaI syslens and lhe eslinalion of paranelers has
leen lhe suljecl of conlinuing research (Conceicao el aI., 2OO6), (OIiveira el aI., 2OO8) and
(OIsen and Ielersen, 2OO1). Once lhe dynanicaI nodeI is found, ils paranelers have lo le
eslinaled. The nosl connon nelhod for idenlificalion of rolol paranelers are lased on lhe
Leasl Squares Melhod and InslrunenlaI VarialIes (Aslron & Willennark, 1984). Hovever,
lhe syslens are naluraIIy non-Iinear (}uIier & UhInann, 1997), lhe eslinalion of paranelers
is nore conpIex and lhe exisling nelhods (Chahranani & Roveis, 1999), (Cordon el aI.,
1993), (Tahnaseli el aI., 2OO5) have lo le adapled lo lhe nodeI's slruclure and noise.

2. MechanicaI Configurations

Iig. 5 and Iig. 6 presenl lhe configuralion of lhe lhree and four vheeIed rolols respecliveIy,
as veII as aII axis and reIevanl forces and veIocilies of lhe rololic syslen. The lhree vheeIed
syslen fealures vheeIs separaled ly 12O degrees, and lhe four vheeIed ly 9O degrees.


Iig. 5. Three vheeIed rolol Iig. 6. Iour vheeIed rolol

Iig. 5 and Iig. 6 shov lhe nolalion used lhrough-oul lhis paper, delaiIed as foIIovs:
- x, y, - Rolol's posilion (x,y) and angIe lo lhe defined fronl of rolol,
- d |nj - Dislance lelveen vheeIs and cenler rolol,
- v
O
, v
1
, v
2
, v
3
|n/sj - WheeIs Iinear veIocily,
- e
O
, e
1
, e
2
, e
3
|rad/sj - WheeIs anguIar veIocily,
- f
O
, f
1
, f
2
, f
3
|Nj - WheeIs lraclion force,
- T
O
, T
1
, T
2
, T
3
|Nnj - WheeIs lraclion lorque,
- v, vn |n/sj - Rolol Iinear veIocily,
- e |rad/sj - Rolol anguIar veIocily,
- I
v
, I
vn
|Nj - Rolol lraclion force aIong v and vn,
- T |Nnj - Rolol lorque (respecls lo e).
The reader shouId le avare lhal in onni-direclionaI rololics, lhe fronl of lhe rolol is
arlilrariIy defined according lo lhe inluilive nolion of lhe rolol nechanics. Of course, lhe v
direclion foIIovs lhe fronl of lhe rolol and lhe vn direclion is orlhogonaI.

3. Motion AnaIysis and ModeI Determination

3.1 Kinematic modeI
In order lo find nolion nodeIs for a surface vehicIe, lhe pose of lhe vehicIe nusl le
idenlified as (x, y, ) and associaled veIocilies are ( )
( )
GW
W G[
W Y
[
= , ( )
( )
GW
W G\
W Y
\
= , ( )
( )
GW
W G
W
u
e = .
The foIIoving lexl uses lhe nolalion presenled in Iig. 5 and Iig. 6, vhere lhe defined fronl
aIso defines lhe v direclion and ils orlhogonaI vn direclion.
Lqualion (1) aIIovs lhe lransfornalion fron Iinear veIocilies v
x
and v
y
on lhe slalic (vorId)
axis lo Iinear veIocilies v and vn on lhe rolol's axis.
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
W
W Y
W Y
W W
W W
W
W YQ
W Y
\
[
e
u u
u u
e 1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos

(1)


3.1.1 Three WheeIed Robot
WheeI veIocilies v
O
, v
1
and v
2
are reIaled vilh rolol's veIocilies v, vn and e as descriled ly
equalion (2).
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
W
W YQ
W Y
G
G
G
W Y
W Y
W Y
e t t
t t
3 cos 3 sin
1 0
3 cos 3 sin
2
1
0

(2)
AppIying lhe inverse kinenalics is possilIe lo ollain lhe equalions lhal delernine lhe rolol
veIocilies reIaled vilh lhe vheeIs veIocilies. SoIving in order of v, vn and e, lhe foIIoving
can le found:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W Y
0 2
3
3

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(3)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W Y W YQ
1 0 2
3
2
3
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
=
(4)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W Y
G
W
2 1 0
3
1
+ + |
.
|
\
|
= e
(5)

3.1.2 Four WheeIed Robot
The reIalionship lelveen lhe vheeIs veIocilies v
O
, v
1
, v
2
and v
3
, vilh lhe rolol veIocilies v,
vn and e is descriled ly equalion (6).
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
W
W YQ
W Y
G
G
G
G
W Y
W Y
W Y
W Y
e
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
3
2
1
0

(6)
Il is possilIe lo ollain lhe equalions lhal delernine lhe rolol veIocilies reIaled vilh vheeIs
veIocily lul lhe nalrix associaled vilh equalion (6) is nol square. This is lecause lhe syslen
is redundanl. Il can le found lhal:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W Y
1 3
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
(7)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W YQ
2 0
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
(8)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) W Y W Y W Y W Y
G
W
3 2 1 0
4
1
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
= e
(9)

3.2 Dynamic
The dynanicaI equalions reIalive lo lhe acceIeralions can le descriled in lhe foIIoving
reIalions:
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) W ) W ) W )
GW
W GY
0
&Y %Y Y
=
_

(1O)

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) W ) W ) W )
GW
W GYQ
0
&YQ %YQ YQ
=
_

(11)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) W 7 W 7 W 7
GW
W G
-
& % e e
e
=
_

(12)
vhere lhe foIIoving paranelers reIale lo lhe rolol are:
- M |kgj - Mass,
- } |kgn
2
j - Inerlia nonenl,
- I
v
, I
vn
|Nj - Viscous friclion forces aIong v and vn,
- T
e
|N nj - Viscous friclion lorque vilh respecl lo lhe rolol's rolalion axis,
- I
Cv
, I
Cvn
|Nj - CouIonl friclions forces aIong v and vn,
- T
Ce
|Nnj - CouIonl friclion lorque vilh respecl lo rolol's rolalion axis.
Viscous friclion forces are proporlionaI lo rolol's veIocilies, see Iig. 7, and such as:
( ) ( ) W Y % W )
Y %Y
=
(13)
( ) ( ) W YQ % W )
YQ %YQ
=
(14)
( ) ( ) W % W 7
%
e
e e
=
(15)

Iig. 7. Viscous friclion Iig. 8. CouIonl friclion

vhere lhe foIIoving paranelers reIale lo lhe rolol as foIIovs:
-
v
,
vn
|N/(n/s)j - Viscous friclion coefficienls for direclions v and vn,
-
e
|Nn/(rad/s)j - Viscous friclion coefficienl lo e.
The CouIonl friclion forces are conslanl in anpIilude, see Iig. 8.
( ) ( ) ( ) W Y VLJQ & W )
Y &Y
=
(16)
( ) ( ) ( ) W YQ VLJQ & W )
YQ &YQ
=
(17)
( ) ( ) ( ) W VLJQ & W 7
&
e
e e
=
(18)
vhere lhe foIIoving paranelers reIale lo lhe rolol as foIIovs:
- C
v
, C
vn
|Nj - CouIonl friclion coefficienl for direclions v e vn,
- C
e
|N nj - CouIonl friclion coefficienl for e.


3.2.1 Three WheeIed Robot
The reIalionship lelveen lhe lraclion forces and rolalion lorque of lhe rolol vilh lhe
lraclion forces on lhe vheeIs is descriled ly lhe foIIoving equalions:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) |
.
|
\
|
=
_
3
sin
0 2
t
W I W I W )
Y

(19)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) |
.
|
\
|
+ + =
_
3
cos
0 2 1
t
W I W I W I W )
YQ

(2O)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) G W I W I W I W 7 + + =
_
2 1 0

(21)
The lraclion force on each vheeI is eslinaled ly lraclion lorque, vhich can le delernined
using lhe nolor currenl, as descriled in lhe foIIoving equalions:
( )
( )
U
W 7
W I
M
M
=
(22)
( ) ( ) W L . O W 7
M W M
=
(23)
vhere:
- I - Cearlox reduclion,
- r |nj - WheeI radius,
- K
l
|Nn/Aj - Molor lorque conslanl,
- i
j
|Aj - Molor currenl (j=nolor nunler).

3.2.2 Four WheeIed Robot
( ) ( ) ( ) W I W I W )
Y 1 3
=
_

(24)
( ) ( ) ( ) W I W I W )
YQ 2 0
=
_

(25)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) G W I W I W I W I W 7 + + + =
_
3 2 1 0

(26)
As alove, lhe lraclion force in each vheeI is eslinaled using lhe vheeIs lraclion lorque,
vhich is delernined ly lhe nolor currenl, using equalions (22) and (23) vhere j=O,1,2,3.

3.3 Motor and Gearbox
The prololype uses lrushIess nolors for lhe Ioconolion of lhe rolol, pholograph shovn in
Iig. 2. The used nolors are fron Maxon Molor (Maxon Molor, 2OO9), and lhe nolor
reference is LC 45 fIal 3O W. The nain nolor characlerislics are: NoninaI Iover: 3OW,
NoninaI VoIlage: 12V, NoninaI Currenl: 2.14A, Slarling Currenl: 1OA, Resislance phase lo
phase: 1.52 , TerninaI induclance phase lo phase O.56 nH, Torque conslanl 25.5 nNn/A,
Speed conslanl 374 rpn/V, MechanicaI line conslanl: 17.1 ns, Rolor inerlia: 92.5 gcn
2
and
a naxinun efficiency of 77.
The Cear-lox CoupIed lo lhe nolor is a 5:1 CS45, aIso fron Maxon Molor (Maxon
Molor, 2OO9), vilh a gear head of Spur lype. The nain characlerislic are: AlsoIule
Reduclion: 51/1O, Maxinun nechanicaI efficiency of 9O and a nass inerlia of 3.7 gcn
2
.

This lype of nolors has leen nore connon in lhe Iasl years. The principaI reason is lhe
high perfornance vhen conpared vilh olhers nolors. These nolors don'l have nechanicaI
svilching, and lhis is lhe lig difference lo lhe connon DC nolors. The nodeI for lrushIess
nolors is siniIar lo lhe connon DC nolors, lased on (IiIIay & Krishnan, 1989).
( )
( )
( ) ( ) W . W L 5
GW
W GL
/ W X
PM Y M
M
M
e + + =
(27)
( ) ( ) W L . W 7
M W PM
=
(28)
vhere:
- L |Hj - Molor induclance,
- R |j - Molor resislor,
- K
v
|V/(rad/s)j - LMI nolor conslanl,
- u
j
|Vj - Molor voIlage (j=nolor nunler),
- e
nj
|rad/sj - Molor anguIar veIocily (j=nolor nunler),
- T
nj
|Nnj - Molor lorque (j=nolor nunler).

4. Parameter Estimation

The necessary varialIes lo eslinale lhe nodeI paranelers are nolor currenl, rolol posilion
and veIocily. Currenls are neasured ly lhe drive eIeclronics, posilion is neasured ly using
exlernaI canera and veIocilies are eslinaled fron posilions.
The paranelers lhal nusl le idenlified are lhe viscous friclion coefficienls (
v
,
vn
,
e
), lhe
CouIonl friclion coefficienls (C
v
, C
vn
, C
e
) and inerlia nonenl }. The rolol nass vas
neasured, and il vas 1.944 kg for lhe lhree vheeIed rolol and 2.34O kg for lhe four vheeIed
rolol.

4.1 Experience 1 Steady State VeIocity
This nelhod pernils lo idenlify lhe viscous friclion coefficienls
e
and lhe CouIonl friclion
coefficienls C
e
. The eslinalion of lhe coefficienl according lo veIocily e, vas onIy
inpIenenled lecause inerlia nonenl is unknovn, and il is necessary lo have an iniliaI
eslinale of lhese coefficienls. The experinenlaI nelhod reIies on appIying differenl voIlages
lo lhe nolors in order lo nove lhe rolol according his rolalion axis - lhe lesls vere nade for
posilive veIocilies. Once reached lhe sleady slale, lhe rolol's veIocily e and rolalion lorque
T can le neasured. The rolol veIocily is conslanl, so, lhe acceIeralion is nuII, and as such
equalion (12) can le re-vrillen as foIIovs:
( )
_
+ =
e e
e & W % W 7 ) (
(29)
This Iinear equalion shovs lhal il is possilIe lo lesl differenl vaIues of rolalion veIocilies and
rolalion lorques in nuIlipIe experiences and eslinale lhe paranelers.

4.2 Experience 2 NuII Traction Forces
This nelhod aIIovs for lhe eslinalion of lhe viscous friclion coefficienls (
v
,
vn
), lhe
CouIonl friclion coefficienls (C
v
, C
vn
) and lhe inerlia nonenl }. The experinenlaI nelhod

consisls in neasuring lhe rolol acceIeralion and veIocily vhen lhe lraclion forces vere nuII.
The nolor conneclors vere disconnecled and vilh a nanuaI novenenl slarling fron a
slalIe posilion, lhe rolol vas pushed lhrough lhe direclions v, vn and rolaled according lo
his rolalion axis. During lhe sulsequenl deceIeralion, veIocily and acceIeralion vere
neasured. ecause lhe lraclion forces vere nuII during lhe deceIeralion equalions (1O), (11)
and (12) can le re-vrillen as foIIovs:
( )
( )
0
&
W Y
0
%
GW
W GY
Y Y
=
(3O)
( )
( )
0
&
W YQ
0
%
GW
W GYQ
YQ YQ
=
(31)
( )
( )
-
&
W Y
-
%
GW
W G
e e
e
=
(32)
These equalions are aIso a Iinear reIalion and eslinalion of aII paranelers is easier.
The inerlia nonenl } is eslinaled using lhe vaIues ollained in lhe previous seclion. To do
lhis, equalion (32) nusl le soIved in order of }:
( )
( ) ( )
e e
e e
e
&
GW W G
%
GW W G
W
- =
1

(33)

4.3 DC Motor Parameters
The previous eIeclricaI nolor nodeI (equalion (27)) incIudes an eIeclricaI poIe and a nuch
sIover, doninanl nechanicaI poIe - lhus naking induclance L vaIue negIigilIe. To
delerninale lhe reIevanl paranelers K
v
and R, a conslanl voIlage is appIied lo lhe nolor.
Under sleady slale condilion, lhe nolor's currenl and lhe rolol's anguIar veIocily are
neasured. The lesls are repealed severaI lines for lhe sane voIlage, changing lhe operalion
poinl of lhe nolor, ly changing lhe friclion on lhe nolor axis.
In sleady slale, lhe induclance L disappears of lhe equalion (27), leing revrillen as foIIovs:
( ) ( ) ( ) W . W L 5 W X
PM Y M M
e + =
(34)
As seen in equalion (35), ly dividing (34) ly i
j
(l), a Iinear reIalion is ollained and lhus
eslinalion is possilIe.
( )
( )
( )
( ) W L
W
. 5
W L
W X
M
PM
Y
M
M
e
+ =
(35)

5. ResuIts

5.1 Robot ModeI
y conlining previousIy nenlioned equalions, il is possilIe lo shov lhal nodeI equalions
can le rearranged inlo a varialion of lhe slale space lhal can le descriled as:
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) [ VLJQ . W X % W [ $
GW
W G[
+ + =
(36)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
7
W W YQ W Y W [ e =
(37)
This fornuIalion is inleresling lecause il shovs exaclIy vhich parl of lhe syslen is
non-Iinear.

5.1.1 Three WheeIed
Using equalions on seclion 3.2, (19) lo (23) and (34), lhe equalions for lhe lhree vheeIed
rolol nodeI are:
) , , (
33 22 11
$ $ $ GLDJ $ =
(38)
0
%
0 5 U
O .
$
Y W

=
2
2 2
11
2
3

0
%
0 5 U
O .
$
YQ W

=
2
2 2
22
2
3

-
%
- 5 U
O . G
$
W e

=
2
2 2 2
33
3

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
-
G
-
G
-
G
0 0 0
0 0
5 U
. O
%
W
2
1 1
2
1
2
3
0
2
3

(39)
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
&
0
&
0
&
GLDJ .
YQ Y e
, ,
(4O)

5.1.2 Four WheeIed
Using equalions on seclion 3.2, (22) lo (26) and (34), ve gel lhe foIIoving equalions lo lhe
four vheeIed rolol nodeI.
) , , (
33 22 11
$ $ $ GLDJ $ =
(41)
0
%
0 5 U
O .
$
Y W

=
2
2 2
11
2

0
%
0 5 U
O .
$
YQ W

=
2
2 2
22
2

-
%
- 5 U
O . G
$
W e

=
2
2 2 2
33
4

(
(
(
(
(
(
=
-
G
-
G
-
G
-
G
0 0
0 0
5 U
. O
%
W
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0

(42)
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
&
0
&
0
&
GLDJ .
YQ Y e
, ,
(43)


5.2 ExperimentaI Data for Robot ModeI

5.2.1 Three WheeIed
Lxperience 1 vas conducled using an inpul signaI corresponding lo a ranped up slep, see
Iig. 9. This vay vheeI sIeeping vas avoided, lhal is, vheeI - lraclion prolIens don'l exisl.

Iig. 9. Inpul voIlage for lhe lhree vheeIed rolol

TalIe 1 and Iig. 1O shovn lhe resuIls for lhe lhree vheeIed rolol vilh experience 1.

u(V) e(rad/s) T(Nm)
2 3.7O62 O.1324
4 8.681 O.2319
6 13.43O5 O.2789
8 18.3492 O.2972
1O 21.8234 O.3662
12 26.2269 O.3971
TalIe 1. Lxperience 1 - ResuIls for lhe lhree vheeIed configuralion

Iig. 1O. Lxperience 1 - ResuIls for lhe lhree vheeIed configuralion

The pIols shovn in Iig. 11 presenl lhe resuIls ollained vilh experience 2.


(a) Direclion v (l) Direclion vn (c) Rolalion axis
Iig. 11. Lxperience 2 - VeIocily and acceIeralion for lhe lhree vheeIed rolol

5.2.2 Four WheeIed
Lxperience 1 vas conducled using an inpul signaI corresponding lo a ranped up slep,
siniIar lo lhe charl pIolled in Iig. 9. This vay vheeI sIeeping vas avoided, lhal is, vheeI -
lraclion prolIens don'l exisl.

TalIe 2 and Iig. 12 shov lhe resuIls for lhe four vheeIed rolol vilh experience 1.

u(V) e(rad/s) T(Nm)
2 3.7269 O.1491
4 8.7519 O.2645
6 13.519 O.3257
8 18.357 O.3352
1O 22.4O65 O.3966
12 27.1416 O.4513
TalIe 2. Lxperience 1 - ResuIls for lhe four vheeIed configuralion

Iig. 12. Lxperience 1 - ResuIls for lhe four vheeIed configuralion

The resuIls ollained vilh experience 2 are shovn in Iig. 13.


(a) Direclion v (l) Direclion vn (c) Rolalion axis
Iig. 13. Lxperience 2 - VeIocily and acceIeralion for lhe four vheeIed configuralion

5.2.3 Motor
The nolor nodeI vas presenled earIier in equalion (34).
LxperinenlaI lesls lo lhe four nolors vere nade lo eslinale lhe vaIue of resislor R and lhe
conslanl K
v
. The nunericaI vaIue of lhe lorque conslanl K
l
is idenlicaI lo lhe LMI nolor
conslanl K
v
.
TalIe 3 and Iig. 14 pIols experinenlaI runs regarding nolor O. Olher nolors foIIov siniIar
lehaviour.

u
0
I
0
e
m0
e
m0
/ I
0
u
0
/ I
0

(V) (A) (rad/s) ((rad/s)/A) ()
12 O.151 44O.9 291O.1 79.2
12 O.831 345.7 415.7 14.4
12 O.425 4O2.1 945.O 28.2
12 O.456 397.O 87O.3 26.3
12 O.715 36O.5 5O3.6 16.7
12 O.641 371.5 579.6 18.7
12 1.164 3O1.O 258.4 1O.3
12 O.272 423.7 1553.8 44.O
12 O.515 389.O 755.2 23.2
12 1.454 266.3 183.1 8.2
TalIe 3. LxperinenlaI lesls vilh nolor O

Iig. 14. LxperinenlaI lesls for nolor O

5.3 NumericaI ResuIts
TalIe 4 presenls lhe experinenlaI resuIls lo lhe friclion coefficienls and inerliaI nonenl.

Paramctcrs 3 whcc!s 4 whcc!s
} (kgn
2
) O.O15 O.O16
v
(N/(n/s)) O.5O3 O.477
vn
(N/(n/s)) O.516 O.6OO
e
(Nn/(rad/s)) O.O11 O.O11
C
v
(N) 1.9O6 1.873
C
vn
(N) 2.O42 2.219
C
e
(Nn) O.113 O.135
TalIe 4. Iriclion coefficienls and inerlia nonenl

Iron lhe experinenlaI runs fron aII 4 nolors, lhe paranelers found are K
v
=O.O259
V/(rad/s) and R=3.7OO7 .
To vaIidale lhe nodeI vere nade sone experinenlaI lesl on using a slep voIlage vilh a
iniliaI acceIeralion ranp, see Iig. 15.

(i)

(ii)

(a) VeIocily aIong v (l) VeIocily aIong vn (c) AnguIar veIocily e
Iig. 15. LxperinenlaI runs for iniliaI nodeI vaIidalion for lhe (i) lhree vheeIed configuralion
and (ii) lhe four vheeIed configuralion

To evaIuale lhe perfornance of lhe nodeI, lhe reaI vaIues of lhe veIocilies vere conpared lo
lhe eslinaled ones. The foIIoving nuneric paranelers are used lo evaIuale lhe adequacy of
lhe nodeI:
( ) ( ) N Y N Y H
VLP
= max
max

(44)
_
=
=
1
L
L
H
1
H
1
1

(45)

( )
_
=
=
1
L
L
H H
1
1
2
1
o
(46)
vhere e
i
represenls lhe error in each inslanl.
The anaIysis of lhe errors of lhe experinenlaI run shovn in Iig. 15, in accordance lo
equalions (44), (45) and (46) are anaIyzed Ialer in TalIe 7.

5.4 Sensitivity AnaIysis
To undersland vhich nodeI paranelers have nore infIuence on lhe rolol's dynanics, a
conparison vas nade lelveen lhe nalrices of lhe nodeIs.
The nodeI equalion (36) is a sun of fraclions. AnaIyzing lhe conlrilulion of each parceI and
of lhe varialIe porlion vilhin each fraclion, a sensilivily anaIysis is perforned, one
eslinaled paraneler al a line.
1. Malrix A, rolol noving aIong v direclion,
- Three vheeIed configuralion:
3110 . 3
2
3
1
2
2 2
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

5
.
0 5 U
O .
D W
3245 . 0
2
= =
Y D
Y
% .
0
%

- Iour vheeIed configuralion:
6676 . 3
2
1
2
2 2
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

5
.
0 5 U
O .
D W
2041 . 0
2
= =
Y D
Y
% .
0
%

2. Malrix and K, rolol noving aIong v direclion vilh conslanl voIlage nolor equaI
lo 6V,
- Three vheeIed configuralion:
7570 . 5 12 12
2
3
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|

5
.
0 5 U
O .
E W
8728 . 0 = =
Y N
Y
& .
0
&

- Iour vheeIed configuralion:
5227 . 5 12 12 = =
|
|
.
|
\
|

5
.
0 5 U
O .
E W
7879 . 0 = =
Y N
Y
& .
0
&

The sane kind of anaIysis couId le laken furlher ly anaIyzing olher veIocilies (vn and e).
ConcIusions reaffirn lhal nolor paranelers have nore infIuence in lhe dynanics lhan
friclion coefficienls. This neans lhal il is very inporlanl lo have an accurale eslinalion of
lhe nolor paranelers. Sone addilionaI experiences vere designed lo inprove accuracy. The
nelhod used previousIy does nol offer sufficienl accuracy lo lhe eslinalion of R. This
paraneler R is nol a physicaI paraneler and incIudes a porlion of lhe non-Iinearily of lhe H
lridge povering lhe circuil lhal, in lurn, feeds 3 rapidIy svilching phases of lhe lrushIess
nolors used. In concIusion, addilionaI accuracy in eslinaling R is needed.


5.5 Experience 3 Parameter Estimation Improvement
The paraneler inproving experience vas nade using a slep voIlage vilh an iniliaI
acceIeralion ranp.
As seen in 5.1 lhe nodeI vas defined ly lhe equalion (36) and ve can inprove lhe quaIily of
lhe eslinalion ly using lhe Leasl Squares nelhod (CeIl el aI., 1974). The syslen nodeI
equalion can le revrillen as:
3 3 2 2 1 1
[ [ [ \ O + O + O =
(47)
vhere: x
1
=x(l), x
2
=u(l), x
3
=1, y=dx(l)/dl.
The paranelers O are eslinaled using:
( ) \ [ [ [
7 7
= O
1
(48)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
7
Q [ [ Q [ [ Q [ [ [
3 3 2 2 1 1
1 1 1 " " " =
(49)
Lslinaled paranelers can le skeved and for lhis reason inslrunenlaI varialIes are used lo
nininize lhe error, vilh veclor of slales defined as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
7
Q [ [ Q [ [ Q [ [ ]
3 3 2 2 1 1
1 1 1 " " " =
(5O)
The paranelers O are nov caIcuIaled ly:
( ) \ ] [ ]
7 7
= O
1

(51)
Three experinenls vere nade for each configuralion of lhree and four vheeIs, aIong v, vn
and e. Ior lhe v and vn experinenls vaIues C
v
and C
vn
are kepl fron previous anaIysis. Ior
lhe e experinenl, lhe vaIue of lhe R paraneler used is lhe aIready inproved version fron
previous v and vn experinenlaI runs of lhe currenl seclion.
The nunericaI vaIue of R for each nolor vas eslinaled for each nolor and lhen averaged lo
find R=4.3111 . The resuIls are presenl on foIIovings lalIes. TalIe 5 shovs vaIues
eslinaled ly lhe experinenl nenlioned in lhis seclion.

} (kgn
2
) O.O187 O.O288
v
(N/(n/s)) O.5134 O.5181
vn
(N/(n/s)) O.4571 O.7518
e
(Nn/(rad/s)) O.O15O O.O165
C
e
(Nn) O.O812 O.1411
TalIe 5. Iaranelers eslinaled afler experience 3

The finaI vaIues for friclion and inerliaI coefficienls are averaged vilh resuIls fron aII 3
experinenlaI nelhods and lhe nunericaI vaIues found are presenled in TalIe 6.

d (n) O.O89
r (n) O.O325
I 5:1
K
v
(V/(rad/s)) O.O259

R () 4.3111
M (kg) 1.944 2.34
} (kgn
2
) O.O169 O.O228
v
(N/(n/s)) O.5O82 O.4978
vn
(N/(n/s)) O.487O O.6763
e
(Nn/(rad/s)) O.O13O O.O141
C
v
(N) 1.9O68 1.8738
C
vn
(N) 2.O423 2.2198
C
e
(Nn) O.O971 O.1385
TalIe 6. Iaranelers of dynanicaI nodeIs

5.6 ModeI VaIidation Experiences
The nodeIs vere vaIidaled vilh experinenlaI lesls on using a slep voIlage vilh an iniliaI
acceIeralion ranp. Iig. 16 shov pIols for lhe experinenlaI runs.

(i)

(ii)

Iig. 16. LxperinenlaI runs for finaI nodeI vaIidalion for lhe (i) lhree vheeIed configuralion
and (ii) four vheeIed configuralion

The anaIysis of lhe errors of lhe experinenlaI runs shovn in Iig. 16, in accordance lo
equalions (44), (45) and (46) are presenled in TalIe 7.


CnnfI-
guratInn
Vc!s.
InItIa! FIna!
c
max
c
max

Three
vheeIed
v O.122 -O.O59 O.O34 O.O67 -O.OO3 O.O27
vn O.124 -O.O55 O.O32 O.O51 O.O16 O.O23
e 1.699 -O.O46 O.546 1.152 O.O17 O.538
Iour
vheeIed
v O.O96 -O.O52 O.O26 O.O61 O.OO8 O.O24
vn O.135 -O.O7O O.O34 O.O68 -O.OO9 O.O26
e 3.345 -O.919 O.852 2.5O4 -O.452 O.732
TalIe 7. Lrror anaIysis for iniliaI and finaI eslinaled paranelers (as shovn I nIig. 15 and 16)

Iig. 17 shovs lhe fil of lhe error of lhe iniliaI experinenlaI runs shovn in Iig. 15 vhen
conpared lo lhe fil of lhe errors for lhe finaI eslinaled paranelers, as shovn previousIy in
Iig. 16. CIearIy, lhe nean of lhe fils is cIoser lo zero in lhe finaI paranelers lhus producing
adequale nodeI perfornance.

(i)

(ii)

Iig. 17. Conparison error fils for iniliaI and finaI eslinaled paranelers for lhe (i) lhree
vheeIed rolol and lhe (ii) four vheeIed

5.7 Assessment and Comparison of the Found ModeIs

5.7.1 PreferentiaI Directions
The nodeIs found, shovn in seclion 5.1, prove lhal each nechanicaI configuralion has
differenl preferenliaI direclion al vhich lhe rolol has naxinun veIocilies, assuning e=O.
This facl can easiIy le ascerlained ly anaIysing lhe pIols shovn in Iig. 18 lhal occur
periodicaIIy over t/3 for lhe lhree vheeIed and periodicaIIy over t/2 for lhe four vheeIed
case.


Iig. 18. NornaIized veIocily varialion over u
The idenlified preferenliaI direclions are graphicaIIy idenlified in Iig. 19.

Iig. 19. IreferenliaI direclions

5.7.2 Current Consumption
y olserving Iig. 2O and Iig. 18, an inleresling concIusion is reveaIed: on lhe lhree vheeIed
configuralion lhe naxinun veIocily needs 8 Iess of lhe currenl lhan lhe currenl al lhe
nininun veIocily vhiIe lhe four vheeIed configuralion needs 9O nore currenl vhen
conpared lo lhe currenl needed for nininun veIocily.

Iig. 2O. Currenl varialion

5.7.3 Maximum VeIocities
The pIols shovn in Iig. 21a) cIearIy shov lhal lhe naxinun veIocily of lhe four vheeIed
configuralion is Iarger lhan ils lhree vheeIed counlerparl - lhe vaIues are 3.58 n/s and 2.86
n/s respecliveIy (al preferenliaI direclions). Il lhus seens naluraI lhal lhe acceIeralions
shovn in figure Iig. 21l) are aIso Iarger for lhe four vheeIed configuralion al lhe expense of
a nuch Iarger currenl consunplion, shovn in Iig. 21c). This Ialesl pIols shovs lhal roughIy
lvice as nuch currenl is necessary lo produce lhe previousIy nenlioned 25 veIocily
increase. Iig. 21c) aIso shovs lhal lhe sun of aII lhe nolor currenls inside lhe rolol vilh lhe
four vheeI configuralion is aloul 11 A vhich is sonevhal high and nay le Iarge enough lo
exceed lhe Iinils of lhe Iinearily of lhe syslen.

a) VeIocilies l) AcceIeralions c) OveraII Currenls
Iig. 21. Conparison of naxinun veIocilies, associaled acceIeralions and lolaI currenls

As expIained earIier, lhe naxinun speed varies vilh direclion of lhe novenenl so il is
inleresling lo olserve lhe pIol shovn in Iig. 22 lhal conparaliveIy predicls naxinun
speeds over lhe angIe u of lhe rolol for lolh rololic configuralions. Il can le seen lhal lhe
four vheeIed configuralion is frequenlIy, lul nol aIvays, fasler lhan lhe lhree vheeIed
version. The lhree vheeIed configuralion has a snoolher veIocily profiIe vhiIsl lhe four
vheeIed configuralion has a Iarge veIocily gap in lhe preferenliaI direclion.


Iig. 22. Conparison of lhe veIocily varialion fron lhe lvo pIalforns

6. ConcIusions

This paper presenls nodeIs for noliIe onni-direclionaI rolols vilh lhree and four vheeIs.
The derived nodeI is non-Iinear lul nainlains sone siniIarilies vilh Iinear slale space
equalions. Iriclion coefficienls are nosl IikeIy dependenl on rolol and vheeIs conslruclion
and aIso on lhe veighl of lhe rolol. The nodeI is derived assuning no vheeI sIip as is
inleresling in nosl slandard rololic appIicalions.
A prololype lhal can have eilher lhree or 4 onni-direclionaI vheeIs vas used lo vaIidale lhe
presenled nodeI. The lesl ground vas snoolh and carpeled. Lxperience dala vas galhered
ly overhead canera capalIe of delernining posilion and orienlalion of lhe rolol vilh good
accuracy.
Lxperiences vere nade lo eslinale lhe paranelers of lhe nodeI for lhe prololypes. The
accuracy of lhe presenled nodeI is discussed and lhe need for addilionaI experiences is
proved. The iniliaI eslinalion nelhod used lvo experiences lo find aII paranelers lul a
lhird experience is needed lo inprove lhe accuracy of lhe nosl inporlanl nodeI
paranelers. Sensilivily anaIysis shovs lhal lhe nosl inporlanl nodeI paranelers concern
nolor conslanls.
Olserving eslinaled nodeI paranelers, lhe four vheeI rolol has higher friclion coefficienls
in lhe vn direclion vhen conpared lo lhe v direclion. This neans of course higher
naxinun veIocily for novenenl aIong v axis and higher pover consunplion for
novenenls aIong lhe vn direclion. This difference in perfornance poinls lo lhe need of
nechanicaI suspension lo ensure even vheeI pressure on lhe ground.
The found nodeI vas shovn lo le adequale for lhe prololypes in lhe severaI shovn
experinenlaI runs.
Iron lhe derived nodeIs, sone inleresling concIusions vere found. IirslIy, il vas proven
lhal an onni-direclionaI rolol does nol drive aII direclions vilh lhe sane naxinun
veIocily. As such, preferenliaI direclions for naxinun veIocilies vere found for each

configuralion - lhese preferenliaI direclions are periodic and dependenl on lhe vheeI
configuralion. Anolher concIusion is lhal, as expecled, lhe four vheeIed configuralion has a
nuch, nuch Iarger currenl consunplion vhen conpared lo lhe lhree vheeIed version. Il is
inleresling lo nole lhal lhe lhree vheeIed configuralion has snaIIer currenl consunplion al
ils naxinun veIocily lhan lhal al ils nininun veIocily. AIso inleresling is lhe conparalive
pIol of naxinun veIocilies producilIe ly lhe rolol vilh each configuralion for a given
direclion of novenenl. The lhree vheeIed rolol has snaII veIocily gap al differenl
direclions of novenenl vhiIe inporlanl differences exisl for lhe four vheeIed version. Il
vas aIso proven lhal, for a Iarge porlion of direclions, lhe four vheeIed version al naxinun
speed is fasler, lul nol aIvays! There is snaII porlion of novenenl direclions vhere lhe
naxinun veIocily of lhe lhree vheeIed configuralion is superior lo lhal of lhe four vheeIed
counlerparl.

7. Future Work

The vork presenled is parl of a Iarger sludy. Iulure vork viII incIude furlher lesls vilh
differenl prololypes incIuding prololypes vilh suspension. The nodeI can aIso le enIarged
lo incIude lhe Iinils for sIippage and novenenl vilh conlroIIed sIip for lhe purpose of
sludying lraclion prolIens. DynanicaI nodeIs eslinaled in lhis vork can le used lo sludy
lhe Iinilalions of lhe nechanicaI configuralion and aIIov for fulure enhancenenls lolh al
conlroIIer and nechanicaI configuralion IeveI. This sludy viII enalIe effeclive fuII
conparison of lhree and four vheeIed syslens.

8. References

Aslron, K. & Willennark, . (1984), Ccmpu|cr Ccn|rc||c Sqs|cm - Tnccrq an Dcsign,
Irenlice-HaII, Infornalion and Syslen Sciences Series, 1984.
Canpion, C., aslin, C. & Dandrea-NoveI, . (1996), S|ruc|ura| prcpcr|ics an c|assifica|icn cf
|incma|ic an qnamic mcc|s cf uncc|c mc|i|c rc|c|s, ILLL Transaclions on Rololics
and Aulonalion, voI. 12(1), pp. 47-62, 1996.
Conceicao, A., Moreira, A. & Cosla, I. (2OO6), Mcc| |cn|ifica|icn cf a |cur Incc|c Omni-
Dircc|icna| Mc|i|c Rc|c|, Iroceedings of lhe 7lh Iorluguese Conference on
Aulonalic ConlroI, Inslilulo Superior Tecnico, Lisloa, IorlugaI, 2OO6.
Cosla, I., Marques, I., Moreira, A., Sousa, A. & Cosla, I. (2OOO), Trac|ing an |cn|ifqing in
Rca| Timc |nc Rc|c|s cf a |-180 Tcam, in ManueIa VeIoso, Lnrico IageIIo and Hiroaki
Kilano, edilors. RoloCup-99: Rolol Soccer WorId Cup III. Springer, LNAI, pp. 286-
291, 2OOO.
DiegeI, O., adve, A., righl, C., Iolgieler, }. & TIaIe, S. (2OO2), |mprctc Mccanum Incc|
Dcsign fcr Omni-ircc|icna| Rc|c|s, Iroceedings of lhe AuslraIasian Conference on
Rololics and Aulonalion, AuckIand, 2OO2.
CeIl, A., Kasper, }., Nash, R., Irice, C. & SulherIand, A. (1974), App|ic Op|ima| |s|ima|icn,
MIT Iress, 1974.
Chaharanani, Z. & Roveis, S. (1999), |carning Ncn|incar Dqnamica| sqs|cms using an |M
A|gcri|nm, In M. S. Kearns, S. A. SoIIa, D. A. Cohn, (eds) Advances in NeuraI
Infornalion Irocessing Syslens, Canlridge, MA: MIT Iress, voI. 11, 1999.

Cordon, N., SaInond, D. & Snilh, A. (1993), Nctc| apprcacn |c ncn|incar/ncn-Gaussian
8aqcsian s|a|c cs|ima|icn, ILL Iroceedings-I on Radar and SignaI Irocessing, voI.
14O(2), pp. 1O7-113, 1993.
}uIier, S. & UhInann, }. (1997), A Ncu |x|cnsicn cf |nc Ka|man |i||cr |c Ncn|incar Sqs|cms, Inl.
Synp. Aerospace/Defense Sensing, SinuI. and ConlroIs, OrIando, IL, 1997.
KhosIa, I. (1989), Ca|cgcriza|icn cf paramc|crs in |nc qnamic rc|c| mcc|, ILLL Transaclions on
Rololics and Aulonalion, voI. 5(3), pp. 261-268, 1989.
Leov, Y., Lov, K. & Loh, W. (2OO2), Kincma|ic Mcc||ing an Ana|qsis cf Mc|i|c Rc|c|s ui|n
Omni-Dircc|icna| Incc|s, Iroceedings of lhe Sevenlh InlernalionaI Conference on
ConlroI, Aulonalion, Rololics And Vision, Singapore, 2OO2.
Loh, W., Lov, K. & Leov, Y. (2OO3), Mccna|rcnics csign an |incma|ic mcc||ing cf a
singu|ari|q|css cmni-ircc|icna| uncc|c mc|i|c rc|c|, Iroceedings of lhe ILLL
InlernalionaI Conference on Rololics and Aulonalion, voI. 3, pp. 3237-3242, 2OO3.
Maxon Molor (2OO9), Maxcn Mc|cr Ca|a|cguc, hllp://vvv.naxonnolor.con (visiled ApriI
2OO9)
Muir, I. & Neunan, C. (1987), Kincma|ic mcc|ing fcr fcc|ac| ccn|rc| cf an cmniircc|icna|
uncc|c mc|i|c rc|c|, Iroceedings of lhe ILLL InlernalionaI Conference on Rololics
and Aulonalion, voI. 4, pp. 1772-1778, 1987.
OIiveira, H., Sousa, A., Moreira, A. & Cosla, I. (2OO8), Dqnamica| mcc|s fcr cmni-ircc|icna|
rc|c|s ui|n 3 an 4 uncc|s, Iroceedings of lhe 5
lh
InlernalionaI Conference on
Infornalics in ConlroI, Aulonalion and Rololics, pp. 189-196, 2OO8.
OIsen, M. & Ielersen, H. (2OO1), A ncu mc|nc fcr cs|ima|ing paramc|crs cf a qnamic rc|c|
mcc|, ILLL Transaclions on Rololics and Aulonalion, voI. 17(1), pp. 95-1OO, 2OO1.
IiIIay, I. & Krishnan, R. (1989), Mcc|ing, Simu|a|icn, an Ana|qsis cf Pcrmancn|-Magnc| Mc|cr
Dritcs, Par| 11. Tnc 8rusn|css DC Mc|cr Dritc, ILLL lransaclions on Induslry
appIicalions, voI. 25(2), pp. 274-279, 1989.
SaIih, }., Rizon, M., Yaacol, S. , Adon A., & Manal, M. (2OO6), Dcsigning Omni-Dircc|icna|
Mc|i|c Rc|c| ui|n Mccanum Incc|, Anerican }ournaI of AppIied Sciences, voI. 3(5),
pp. 1831-1835, 2OO6.
Tahnaseli, A., Taali, ., Molasser, I., & Hashlrudi-Zaad, K. (2OO5), Dqnamic paramc|cr
icn|ifica|icn an ana|qsis cf a PHANTcM nap|ic cticc, Iroceedings of lhe ILLL
Conference on ConlroI AppIicalions, pp. 1251-1256, 2OO5.
WiIIians, R., Carler, ., CaIIina, I. & Rosali, C. (2OO2), Dqnamic mcc| ui|n s|ip fcr uncc|c
cmniircc|icna| rc|c|s, ILLL Transaclions on Rololics and Aulonalion, voI.18(3), pp.
285-293, 2OO2.
Xu, }., Zhang, M. & Zhang, }. (2OO5), Kincma|ic mcc| icn|ifica|icn cf au|cncmcus mc|i|c rc|c|
using qnamica| rccurrcn| ncura| nc|ucr|s, Iroceedings of lhe ILLL InlernalionaI
Conference Mechalronics and Aulonalion, voI. 3, pp. 1447-145O, 2OO5.


MODELARE+++++Modeling and Assessing of Omni-Directional Robots With Three and Four Wheels

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODELARE+++++Modeling and Assessing of Omni-Directional Robots With Three and Four Wheels

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modeling and Assessing of Omni-directional Robots with Three and Four Wheels 207

You might also like