Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GiaotrinhTTNT K508 Cntt508c Com
GiaotrinhTTNT K508 Cntt508c Com
M U
1.1. Tng quan v khoa hc tr tu nhn to
Trong CNTT, Tr Tu Nhn To (Artificial Intelligence) l mt ngnh mi,
nhng pht trin rt mnh m v em li nhiu kt qu to ln. Con ngi thng
t cho mnh l sinh vt thng minh v kh nng tr tu ng vai tr quan trong
trong cuc sng. Trong vn hc cng tng c nhng cu chuyn cao v tr
thng minh ca con ngi.
Tr Tu Nhn To ch mi hnh thnh t nm 1956. Tuy nhin, vic nghin
cu tr tu c t lu. Trn 2000 nm trc, cc nh trit hc tm hiu v cch
thc nhn nhn, hc tp, nh v suy l. Vic ra i ca my tnh in t vo nhng
nm 50 ca th k 20 sinh ra khuynh hng a cc lnh vc nghin cu tr tu
v cc vn l thuyt v thc nghim trn my.
1.1.1. i tng v mc tiu nghin cu ca tr tu nhn to
+ i tng nghin cu: Tr tu nhn to nghin cu v cch hnh x (hay
c ch ca cc hnh vi) thng minh (intelligent behaviour) ngi v my.
+ Mc tiu: Xy dng l thuyt y v thng minh c th gii thch
c hot ng thng minh ca sinh vt v p dng c cc hiu bit vo cc
my mc ni chung, nhm phc v cho con ngi. (Hay ni cch khc to chic
my tnh c kh nng nhn thc, suy lun v phn ng).
* Th no l my thng minh?
L my vt qua c th nghim (trc nghim) Turing.
* Trc nghim Turing (Turing test):
Nm 1950, mt nh ton hc ngi Anh l Alan Turing vit nhng trang
sch u tin tr li mt cch c th cu hi: tr tu my c lin h nh th no vi
my tnh k thut s hin i? Liu c th lm cho mt my tnh thc s c kh
nng suy ngh hay khng?
gii quyt nhng m h trong cu hi ny, ng xut thay th cu
tr li bng kt qu ca mt trc nghim mang tnh thc nghim - trc nghim
Turing (Turing test) hay tr chi bt chc.
Chng 2
BIU DIN VN TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
2.1. t vn
Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu ca Tr Tu Nhn To, chng ta thng
xuyn phi i u vi vn (bi ton) tm kim, v th chng ta phi c nhng
k thut tm kim p dng gii quyt cc vn (bi ton) .
Khi gii quyt bi ton bng phng php tm kim, trc ht ta phi xc
nh khng gian tm kim bao gm tt c cc i tng trn thc hin vic tm
kim.
N c th l khng gian lin tc, chng hn khng gian cc vct thc n
chiu, n cng c th l khng gian cc i tng ri rc.
Nh vy, ta s xt vic biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi sao
cho vic gii quyt vn c quy v vic tm kim trong khng gian trng thi.
Mt phng php biu din vn ph hp l s dng cc khi nim trng
thi (state) v ton t (operator) [Php bin i trng thi].
Phng php gii quyt vn da trn khi nim trng thi v ton t
c gi l cch tip cn gii quyt vn nh khng gian trng thi.
2.2. M t trng thi
Gii bi ton trong khng gian trng thi, trc ht phi xc nh dng m
t trng thi bi ton sao cho bi ton tr nn n gin hn, ph hp bn cht vt
l ca bi ton (C th s dng cc xu k hiu, vct, mng hai chiu, cy, danh
sch).
Mi trng thi chnh l mi hnh trng ca bi ton, cc tnh trng ban u
v tnh trng cui ca bi ton gi l trng thi u v trng thi cui.
V d 1: Bi ton ong nc
Cho 2 bnh c dung tch ln lt l m v n (lit). Vi ngun nc khng hn
ch, dng 2 bnh trn ong k lit nc. Khng mt tnh tng qut c th gi thit
k <= min(m,n).
Ti mi thi im xc nh, lng nc hin c trong mi bnh phn nh
bn cht hnh trng ca bi ton thi im .
- Gi x l lng nc hin c trong bnh dung tch m v y l lng nc
hin c trong bnh dung tch n. Nh vy b c th t (x,y) c th xem l trng thi
ca bi ton. Vi cch m t nh vy, cc trng thi c bit ca bi ton s l:
- Trng thi u: (0,0)
- Trng thi cui: (x,k) hoc (k,y), 0 x m , 0 y n
V d 2: Bi ton tr chi 8 s
10
Hnh 2.1
Hnh 2.2
Gi tr cc phn t trong bng xc nh trng thi bi ton. V vy c th m
t trng thi ca bi ton bng mt ma trn A3*3= (aij), aij{0..8}, aij < > akl, i<>k,
j<> l.
- Trng thi u ca bi ton l ma trn:
2 8 3
1 6 4
7 0 5
8 0 4
7 6 5
C th pht biu dng tng qut ca bi ton ny (Tr chi n2-1 s).
V d 3: Bi ton thp H Ni
Cho ba cc 1, 2, 3. cc 1 ban u c n a sp xp theo th t to dn t
di ln trn. Hy dch chuyn n a sang cc th 3 sao cho:
- Mi ln ch chuyn mt a.
- Trong mi cc khng cho php a to nm trn a nh hn.
A
B
1342587
6
1325487
6
1342587
6
1342568
7
fl(aij) =
aij
aij
ai0-1, j0
ai0, j0
(i, j)
nu j0 = 1
nu (i, j) (i0, j0-1) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v j0 > 1
nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), j0 > 1
nu (i, j) = (i0, j0-1), j0 > 1
aij
(i, j)
nu j0 = 3
fr(aij) =
aij
nu (i, j) (i0, j0+1) v (i, j) (i0, j0) v j0 < 3
ai0-1, j0
nu (i, j) = (i0, j0), j0 < 3
ai0, j0
nu (i, j) = (i0, j0+1), j0 < 3
V d 3: Bi ton Thp H Ni vi n=3.
Mi trng thi l mt b ba (i, j, k). C cc trng hp nh sau:
13
Ch :
- G l th v hng th (i, j) l mt cnh cng nh l (j, i) (tc l:(i, j)E
th (j,i)E).
- Nu G l th c hng th cung (i, j) hon ton khc vi cung (j, i).
V d: Xt th v hng G1 v th c hng G2
1
2
1
4
G1
G2
3
3
Tp nh k:
nV, T(n)={mV/ (n,m) E} c gi l tp cc nh k ca n.
ng i:
p = (n1,...,nk) c gi l ng i t nh n1 nk nu ni V, i=1,k
(ni, ni+1)E i=1, k -1.
Cy l th c nh gc n0V tho:
Mt th G=(V, E) gi l cy nu tn ti mt nh n0V c nhng tnh
cht sau:
15
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
16
(0,2)
(1,2)
(3,2)
(1,0)
(0,1)
(2,0)
(2,2)
(3,1)
V d 2: Thp H Ni vi n = 3
(111)
111
(112)
112
(113)
(132)
(133)
(123)
(131)
(121)
(122)
(233)
(231)
(221)
(222)
(223)
(322)
(232)
(323)
(212)
(213)
(321)
(313)
(211)
17
(311)
(331)
(312)
(332)
(333)
Chng 3
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM LI GII TRONG
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
3.1. t vn
Qu trnh tm kim li gii ca bi ton c biu din trong khng gian
trng thi c xem nh qu trnh d tm trn th, xut pht t trng thi ban
u, thng qua cc ton t chuyn trng thi, ln lt n cc trng thi tip theo
cho n khi gp c trng thi ch hoc khng cn trng thi no c th tip tc
c na.
Khi p dng cc phng php tm kim trong khng gian trng thi, ngi
ta thng quan tm n cc vn sau:
- K thut tm kim li gii
- Phng php lun ca vic tm kim
- Chin lc tm kim
Tuy nhin, khng phi cc phng php ny c th p dng gii quyt
cho tt c cc bi ton phc tp m ch cho tng lp bi ton.
Vic chn chin lc tm kim cho bi ton c th ph thuc nhiu vo cc
c trng ca bi ton.
* Chng ta ln lt nghin cu cc k thut sau:
- Cc k thut tm kim m: trong chng ta khng c hiu bit g v cc
i tng hng dn tm kim m ch n thun l xem xt theo mt h thng
no tt c cc i tng pht hin ra i tng cn tm.
- Cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic): trong chng ta
da vo kinh nghim v s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn cn gii quyt xy
dng nn hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim.
- v.v
* Cc chin lc tm kim c th phn thnh hai loi:
- Cc chin lc tm kim m: Trong cc chin lc tm kim ny, khng c
mt s hng dn no cho s tm kim, m ta ch pht trin cc trng thi ban u
cho ti khi gp mt trng thi ch no . C hai k thut tm kim m c bn,
l tm kim theo b rng (chiu rng) v tm kim theo su (chiu su).
- Tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic): Trong rt nhiu vn , chng
ta c th da vo s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn , da vo kinh nghim, trc
gic, nh gi cc trng thi.
tm kim kinh nghim s dng s nh gi cc trng thi hng dn s
tm kim: trong qu trnh pht trin cc trng thi, ta s chn trong s cc trng
18
Begin
Append(MO,no)
DONG=null;
While MO <> null do
begin
n:= Take(MO);
if n DICH then exit;
Append(DONG, n);
For m T(n) and mDONG+MO do
Append(MO, m);
end;
Write (Khng c li gii);
End;
Ch : Th tc Append(MO,n0) b sung mt phn t vo queue MO.
Hm Take(MO) ly mt phn t trong queue MO.
3.2.3. nh gi phc tp ca gii thut tm kim rng
Gi s rng, mi trng thi khi c xt s sinh ra k trng thi k tip. Khi
ta gi k l nhn t nhnh. Nu bi ton tm c nghim theo phng php tm
kim rng c di d. Nh vy, nh ch s nm mc d, do s nh cn xt
ln nht l:
1 + k + k2 + . . . + kd.
Nh vy phc tp thi gian ca gii thut l O(kd). phc tp khng
gian cng l O(kd), v tt c cc nh ca cy tm kim mc d u phi lu vo
danh sch.
3.2.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim rng
* u im:
ng i tm c i qua t nh nht.
21
Mc 1
Mc 2
Mc 3
(5;0)
(0;4)
(5;0) (1;4)(0;1)
8
6
7
3
4
5
2
1
8
6
7
3
4
5
2
1
7
2
1
7
8
4
6
2
1
7
2
1
7
8
6
5
22
8
6
5
8
6
3
4
3
4
5
Mc 4: C mi trng thi
8 3
2 1 4
7 6 5
2
7
8
1
6
3
4
5
8
4
6
3
5
2
1
1
8
4
7
3
5
2
1
7
1
7
2
8
6
3
4
5
2
1
7
3
8
6
3
4
5
2
6
1
2
1
8
6
7
2
1
7
8
6
5
3
4
2
1
7
8
6
5
3
4
Mc 5: C 12 trng thi
1 2 3
8 4
7 6 5
2
1
7
3
8
6
1
6
3
4
5
2
7
6
8
1
3
4
5
4
6
8
3
5
2
1
7
8
4
3
5
6
6
7
3
4
5
2
6
1
3
4
5
2
1
7
8
2
7
2
1
7
8
2
1
2
6
1
8
7
4
5
3
4
5
8
7
3
4
5
6
5
8
3
4
23
2
3
2 8 3
1 8 3
1 5 6
7 5 4
7
4
Mc 6: C 24 trng thi
1 2 3
1 2 3
8
4
7 8 4
7 6 5
6 5
...
mc ny ta gp c trng thi ch
1 2 3
8
4
7 6 5
3.3. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su
3.3.1. K thut tm kim su
Tm kim su trong khng gian bi ton c bt u t mt nt ri tip tc
cho n khi hoc n ng ct hoc n ch. Ti mi nt c lut trong ti, chng
hn, i theo nt cc tri, hng dn vic tm. Nu khng i tip c, gi l n
ng ct, h thng quay li mt mc trn th v tm theo hng khc, chng hn,
n nt st nt cc tri. Hnh ng ny gi l quay lui.
Thut ton tm kim theo chiu su c hnh dung nh vic kho st mt
cy bt u t gc i theo mi cnh c th c, khi gp cnh ct th quay li xt
cnh cha i qua.
- bc tng qut, gi s ang xt nh i, khi cc nh k vi i c cc
trng hp:
+ Nu tn ti nh j k i cha c xt th xt nh ny (n tr thnh
nh xt) v bt u t tip tc qu trnh tm kim vi nh ny..
+ Nu vi mi nh k vi i u c xt th i coi nh duyt xong
v quay tr li tm kim t nh m t ta i n c i.
3.3.2. Gii thut
Input:
Cy/ th G = (V,E) vi nh gc l n0 (trng thi u)
Tp ch Goals
Output:
Mt ng i p t n0 n mt nh n* Goals
Method:
S dng hai danh sch hot ng theo nguyn tc LIFO (Stack) MO v
DONG
24
* u im:
Nu bi ton c li gii, phng php tm kim su bo m tm ra li gii.
K thut tm kim su tp trung vo ch, con ngi cm thy hi lng khi cc
cu hi tp trung vo vn chnh.
Do cch tm ca k thut ny, nu li gii rt su, k thut tm su s tit
kim thi gian.
Thun li khi mun tm mt li gii
* Nhc im:
Tm su khai thc khng gian bi ton tm li gii theo thut ton n
gin mt cch cng nhc. Trong qu trnh tm n khng c thng tin no h tr
pht hin li gii. Nu chn nt ban u khng thch hp c th khng dn
n ch ca bi ton.
25
27
31
33
V d 2: Bi ton tr chi 8 s
Trng thi c chn i tip hng mi tn.
mc 3 chng ta thy c hai trng thi cng gi tr hm nh gi (h = 3).
y l trng hp cao nguyn bng phng nh nhn xt trn, nu ta chn
phng n kia th chc chn qu trnh tm kim s khc i nhiu.
Minh ho cy tm kim cho tr chi ny theo gii thut leo i vi hng
chn nh sau:
34
2
1
7
8
6
3
4
5
h(u) = 4
2
1
8 3
6 4
7 5
h(u) = 5
2 8 3
1
4
7 6 5
h(u) = 3
2 8 3
1 6 4
7 5
h(u) = 5
8 3
1 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 3
2
3
1 8 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 3
2 8 3
1 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 4
2 3
1 8 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 2
2 3
1 8 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 4
1
2 3
8 4
7 6 5
h(u) = 1
1
8
7
2
6
3
4
5
c(u)
ni
ni+1
* Vn :
c(u ) min
n* DICH sao cho c( p) =
up
Tm ng i p: n0
Lc , ta c:
begin
if nDICH then
exit {xay dung duong di cuc tieu}
push(DONG, n);
if T(n) <>null then
for mT(n) do
if mMO+DONG then
begin
push(MO,m);
g(m):=g(n)+c(n,m);
cha(m):=n;
end
else
if g(m) >g(n)+c(n,m) then
begin
g(m):=g(n)+c(n,m);
cha(m):=n;
end;
end;
writeln(Khong co duong di);
End;
3.7.3. Cc v d
V d 1:
8
n0=A
DICH={F,K}
5
4
2 B
F G
T(i)
MO
A0
DONG
37
A
C
D
G
I
B
K
BCD
G
HI
K
EF
B8 C4 D5
B8 D5 G5
B8 G5 H14 I6
B8 H14 I6
B8 H14 K8
H14 K8 E10 F11
A
AC
ACD
ACDG
ACDGI
ACDGIB
B
7
T(i)
A
C
B
D
E
F
G
BCD
ABEFD
ACE
ACFG
BCF
CDEG
MO
A0
B5 C3 D6
B4 D6 E7 F11
D6 E7 F11
E7 F9 G15
F9 G15
G14
D 9
3
DONG
A
AC
ACB
ACBD
ACBDE
ACBDEF
ng i tm c p: A D F G. Chi ph ca ng i l 14.
V d 3: Bi ton Thp H Ni - vi chi ph chuyn a nh sau:
Chi ph chuyn a nh gia 2 cc gn
1
Chi ph chuyn a nh gia 2 cc xa
3
Chi ph chuyn a va gia 2 cc gn
2
Chi ph chuyn a va gia 2 cc xa
5
Chi ph chuyn a ln gia 2 cc gn
4
Chi ph chuyn a ln gia 2 cc xa
8
Xut pht t nh (1,1,1), ta c g(1,1,1) = 0.
Khi xt nh (1,1,1) ta c cc nh k v chi ph tng ng :
38
Tuy nhin ngi ta CM c rng thut ton A* chc chn dng khi h0(n)
<= h(n) (h0=h: phng n tt nht, h0=0: phng n ti nht).
Lc ny gii thut tm kim cc tiu s thay vic xt hm g (nh bit
mc trc) bi hm f.
3.8.2. Thut gii A*
Input:
th G = (V,E), nh xut pht n0
Hm chi ph c: E R+
c(i,j): xc nh chi ph chuyn t nh i sang nh j vi (i,j) E
h: V R+; h(n) xc nh d on chi ph ti u ca ng i t nh n n
ch. (k hiu h thay cho h0, (tng t g))
Tp cc nh ch DICH
Output:
ng i t nh n0 n nh n* DICH
Procedure A* ;
Begin
g(n0):= 0;
push(MO, n0);
While MO<>null do
begin
f ( n) := min f (m)
mMO
if nDICH then
exit {xay dung duong di cuc tieu}
push(DONG, n);
if T(n) <>null then
for mT(n) do
if mMO+DONG then
begin
push(MO,m);
tnh f(m);
cha(m):=n;
end
else
if fmi(m) > fc(n) then
begin
f(m):= fmi(m);
cha(m):=n;
end;
end;
writeln(Khong co duong di);
40
End;
3.8.3. Cc v d
V d 1:
Trng thi ban u l trng thi A, trng thi ch l B, cc s ghi cnh cc
cung l di ng i, cc s cnh cc nh l gi tr ca hm h
KL: A D E I B
41
h0(n)
14
10
10
12
7
2
E
5
2
3
Tm ng i t nh A n nh H.
Trc tin nh A c a vo danh sch MO
g(A) = 0; h(A) = 14; f(A) = 14
Xt nh A, (a A vo danh sch DONG) ta c cc nh k B, C, D:
g(B) = 5; f(B) = 15; g(C) = 3; f(C) = 13; g(D) = 7; f(D) = 12 chn nh
D.
Xt nh D (a D vo danh sch DONG) c cc nh k A, C, E. nh A
trong danh sch DONG, ta tnh li f(C) v tnh f(E):
f(C) khng thay i; f(E) = g(D) +c(D,E) + H(E) = 7 + 6 + 5 = 18; f(E) =
18, chn nh C, c cc nh k A, D, E.
Tnh li f(E) = 12, chn E. Cc nh k ca E l C, D, F, G.
Tnh f(F) = 14; f(G) = 16, chn F. Cc nh k ca F l E, G, B v f(B),
f(G) khng i, chn B. Cc nh k ca B l F, H. f(H) = 17, chn G. Tnh li
f(H) = 15 v dng.
ng i tm c l p: A C E G H vi chi ph ng i l 15.
42
V d 3: Cho 1 bnh dung tch 4 lt, 1 bnh dung tch 3 lt. Lm th no bnh 4
c 2 lt.
Bi ton tr thnh (4,3)
(2,y)
Cho h: lch ca mc nc hin c trong bnh 4lt so vi ch (2lt).
g: l di mc ng i t nt gc ti n
Ta c th biu din di dng th sau:
g=0
(4;3)
h=2
g=1
g=2
g=3
g=4
g=5
g=6
(4;3)
(0;3)
h=2
(4;0)
h=2
h=2
h=1
h=1
(0;0) (3;0) (0;0) (4;3) (1;3)
h=1
h=1
(4;0) (0;0)(3;3) (0;3) (4;3)(0;3) (1;0)(4;0)
h=2
(4;3)(0;3)(3;0) (4;2)
h=2
(0;2)(4;3) (4;0)(3;3)
h=2
(4;0)(0;0) (1;3) (0;1)
h=2
(4;1) (0;3)(0;0)(1;0)
h=0
(0;1)(4;3)(4;0)(2;3)
h=0
(4;2)(0;3)(0;0) (2;0)
ch
ch
Giai on th: nu a*a + b*b + c*c + d*d + e*e + f*f chia ht cho 3 th
chon, ngc li, to ra s khc.
V d 2: Mt bnh nhn c mt vi triu chng, chng hn: st cao v bui
chiu, ho v mt mi ,. Bc s c chn on nghi b lao phi, ngi ta s cho
lm ngay xt nghim, nu ng l dng tnh th kt lun v iu tr bnh lao phi,
ngc lai, bt buc bc s phi chuyn hng suy ngh sang mt bnh khc, v.v
3.10. Phng php tho mn rng buc
Phng php tho mn rng buc h tr cho phng php sinh v th, khi
ch ti mt s rng buc p t ln cc nt trong khng gian bi ton. Mc ch
t ra l xc nh ng i trong th khng gian bi ton, ng i t trng thi
u n trng thi cui p ng mt vi rng buc no . Do vy qu trnh tm
kim li gii bao gm hai phn lin quan cht ch vi nhau:
- Tm kim trong khng gian cc rng buc.
- Tm kim trong khng gian cc bi ton ban u.
Ni dung ca phng php nh sau: Thc hin cc bc t a) n e) di
y cho n khi tm c li gii y ca bi ton hoc tt c cc ng u
duyt qua nhng khng cho kt qu.
a) Chn mt nh cha c xt trong th tm kim.
b) p dng cc lut suy din trn cc rng buc i vi nh chn to
ra tp cc rng buc mi.
c) Nu tp cc rng buc mi c mu thun th a ra thng bo ng i
hn thi ti nt ang xt dn ti b tc.
d) Nu tp rng buc m t li gii y ca bi ton th dng v a ra
thng bo thnh cng. Ngc lai, sang bc sau.
e) p dng cc lut bin i khng gian trng thi tng ng to ra li
gii b phn, tng hp vi tp cc rng buc hin thi. Thm cc li
gii b phn ny vo th tm kim.
* V d: Xt bi ton in cc ch s phn bit thay cho cc ch ci S, E,
N, D, M, O, R, Y sao cho php cng sau l ng:
SEND
MORE
MONEY
Cc rng buc ban u:
- Cc ch ci khc nhau khng nhn cng mt gi tr.
- Cc rng buc s hc (cng c nh hoc khng c nh.
Gii
44
46
Chng 4
TM KIM LI GII TRN TH V/HOC
4.1. t vn
Trong chng 2, chng ta nghin cu vic biu din bi ton thng qua
cc trng thi v cc ton t. Khi vic tm li gii ca bi ton c quy v vic
tm ng i trong khng gian trng thi. Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin
cu mt phng php lun khc gii quyt vn , da trn vic quy vn v
cc vn con.
tng ch yu l xut pht t bi ton ban u, tch ra cc bi ton con,
qu trnh ny tip tc i vi cc bi ton con cho n khi gp cc bi ton s cp
(bi ton c li gii ngay).
2
V d 1: Xt bi ton tnh tch phn x(ln x + x )dx .
Thng thng tnh tch phn bt nh, chng ta thng s dng cc quy
tc tnh tch phn: tch phn ca tng, quy tc tch phn tng phn hay cc php
bin i v.v a tch phn cn tnh v tch phn ca cc hm s s cp m
chng ta bit cch tnh. i vi tch phn trn, p dng quy tc tch phn ca
tng ta a v hai tch phn xlnxdx v tch phn x3dx. p dng quy tc tch
phn tng phn ta a tch phn xlnx v tch phn xdx. Qu trnh trn c th
biu din bi th trong Hnh 4.1.
2
x(lnx+x )d
x
x3dx
xlnxdx
xdx
Hnh 4.1
Trong bi ton tch phn, cc tch phn c bn l cc trng thi kt thc.
V d 2: Bi ton tm ng i trn bn giao thng.
47
48
4.2. th V/Hoc
Khng gian trng thi m t vic quy vn v cc vn con c th biu
din di dng th nh hng c bit gi l th v/hoc. th ny c
xy dng nh sau:
Mi bi ton ng vi mt nh ca th. Nu c mt ton t quy bi ton
v cc bi ton tng ng th s c cc cung i t bi ton xut pht n cc bi
ton tng ng . Nu mt ton t quy bi ton v cc bi ton con th cng c
cc cung ni t bi ton xut pht n cc bi ton con, ngoi ra gia cc cung ny
cng c ng ni vi nhau.. Chng hn, gi s bi ton A c a v hai bi
ton tng ng A1 v A2. Bi ton A1 li c quy v hai bi ton con B1 v
B2, ta c biu din nh hnh 4.2.
A
A1
B1
A2
B2
Hnh 4.2
n2 ...... nk
n1
n2 ...... nk
n c gi l nh V (n n1... nk )
49
VA: tp cc nh V
VO: tp cc nh HOC
Nu VA= tm li gii trn th biu din bng khng gian trng thi
Khi :
- Bi ton n c gi l gii c nu:
+ hoc n l nh kt thc
th V/Hoc
Bi ton
Chuyn bi ton thnh cc bi ton con
Bi ton s cp
Cc bi ton con ph
Cc bi ton con c lp
Gii bi ton
nh
Cung
nh cui
nh V
nh HOC
Tm th con li gii bi ton
else
else
giaiduoc:=false;
End;
Function khonggd(n):boolean;
51
Begin
If T(n)<>null then
if T(n)VA then
else
else
if <T(n) khong so cap> then
khonggd:=true
else
khonggd:=false;
End;
* V d: Phng php tm kim chiu rng
Procedure TKR;
Begin
Push(n0, MO);
While MO<>null do
begin
n:=pop(MO);
push(DONG, n);
if T(n)<>null then
for m T (n) do
begin
push(m, MO);
if T(m)=null then
if giaiduoc(m) then
if giaiduoc(n0) then
exit
else
for kMO do
if giaiduoc(k) then
MO:=MO-[k]
Else
If khonggd(m) then
If khonggd(n0) then
Exit
Else
For kMO do
if khonggd(k) then
MO:=MO-[k]
end;
end;
52
E*
J
M*
D
H*
I
L*
O*
Hnh 4.3
Cc nh kt thc l cc nh nh du *. Qu trnh tm kim li gii ca
th trn bng phng php tm kim rng c th trnh by bng sau
n
T(n)
MO
DONG
A
A
B, C, D
BCD
A
B
E*, F
CDF
AB
C
G
DFG
ABC
D
H*, I
FGI
ABCD
F
J
GIJ
ABCDF
G
K0
IJ
ABCDFG
I
L*
Dng
Cy li gii hnh sau:
A
D
H*
L*
(Xem thm cc v d khc trong ti liu tham kho)
53
Chng 5
BIU DIN BI TON NH LOGIC HNH THC
Trong chng ny s trnh by phng php biu din vn nh logic
hnh thc v cc phng php gii quyt vn trn cch biu din ny.
Logic hnh thc thng dng thu gn qu trnh tm kim li gii trc
khi gii quyt vn , nh phn tch logic, c th chng t rng mt bi ton no
c th gii c hay khng?...
Ngoi ra, cc kt lun logic rt cn ngay c trong cch tip cn da trn
khng gian trng thi v quy bi ton v bi ton con. Chng hn, trong cc
phng php da trn khng gian trng thi, cc kt lun logic dng kim tra
mt trng thi no c phi l trng thi ch hay khng?...
Logic hnh thc c th c s dng gii quyt nhng bi ton chng
minh logic, chng hn nh chng minh mt khng nh no l ng khi bit
nhng tin ban u v cc lut suy din. y l mt dng quen thuc nht v
c cc chuyn gia TTNT quan tm ngay t u.
5.1. Logic mnh
5.1.1. Mnh
- Mnh l mt pht biu c th khng nh tnh ng hoc sai (hay gi tr
ca n ch c th hoc l ng hoc l sai).
- Cc k hiu (symbol) ca php tnh mnh l cc k hiu mnh bi
ch ci latinh (bin mnh ) : a, b, c, p, q, P, Q, R ; cc k hiu chn l - chn
tr (truth symbol) : true -1, false -0 hay cc php ton kt ni (php ton logic) nh
: (php tuyn (), php hi ( ), ph nh ( , ~, ), php ko theo (, ), php
tng ng (, ,=)).
Cc k hiu mnh biu th cc mnh (proposition) hay cc pht biu
v th gii thc m gi tr ca chng c th l ng hoc sai.
V d:
Pht biu: Chic xe hi kia mu .
Pht biu: "1+1=2" (c gi tr ng).
Pht biu: Nc th t.
5.1.2. Cu
Cu trong php tnh mnh c cu to t nhng k hiu s cp theo cc
lut sau y :
- Tt c cc k hiu mnh v k hiu chn l u l cu (sentences): true,
a, b v c l cc cu.
54
- Ph nh ca mt cu l mt cu : P v false l cc cu
- Hi hay v ca hai cu l mt cu : P P l mt cu
- Tuyn hay hoc ca hai cu l mt cu : P P l mt cu
- Ko theo ca mt cu c mt cu khc l mt cu : P Q l mt cu
- Tng ng ca hai cu l mt cu : P Q R l mt cu
Cc cu hp l c gi l cc cng thc dng chun (well-formed formula)
hay WFF.
Trong cc cu php tnh mnh , cc k hiu ( ) v [ ] dng nhm cc
k hiu vo cc biu thc con v nh kim sot c th t ca chng trong
vic nh gi biu thc v din t.
V d: (P Q) R hon ton khc vi P (Q R).
5.1.3. Biu thc
Mt biu thc l mt cu hay cng thc dng chun, ca php tnh mnh
khi v ch khi n c th c to t nhng k hiu hp l thng qua mt dy
nhng lut ny.
V d: (( P Q) R P Q R l mt cu dng chun trong php tnh
mnh v : P, Q, R l cc mnh v do l cc cu.
P Q, hi ca hai cu l mt cu.
(P Q) R, ko theo ca mt cu l mt cu.
P v Q, ph nh ca cc cu l cu.
P Q, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
P Q R, tuyn ca hai cu l cu.
(( P Q) R P Q R , tng ng ca hai cu l cu.
y l cu xut pht, n c xy dng thng qua mt lot cc lut hp
l v do n c dng chun.
Biu thc logic dng chun: l biu thc c xy dng t cc bin mnh
v cc php ton , , .
V d: p ( q r)
Th t u tin ca cc php ton logic: , , , ,
5.1.4. Ng ngha ca php tnh mnh
Php gn gi tr chn l cho cc mnh phc tp thng c m t thng
qua bng chn tr nh sau :
55
P
T
T
F
F
Q
T
F
T
F
P
F
F
T
T
P Q
T
F
F
F
P Q
T
T
T
F
P Q
T
F
T
T
P Q
T
F
F
T
58
Bin kt buc
(bound)
Hng
Bin khc
Biu thc hm c th
cha cc bin khc
V d: i snh foo(X,a,goo(Y)) vi:
foo(X,b,foo(Y))
khng i snh
foo(X,Y)
khng i snh
moo(X,a,goo(Y))
khng i snh
foo(fred,a, goo(Z))
{fred/X, Z/Y}
foo(W,a,goo(jack))
{W/X,jack/Y}
foo(Z,a,goo(moo(Z)))
{Z/X,moo(Z)/Y}
Ni chung mt qu trnh gii quyt vn s i hi nhiu suy din v do
cn nhiu php hp nht ni tip nhau. Cc chng trnh gii quyt vn
62
logic phi duy tr tnh nht qun ca cc php th bin. iu ny c pht biu
trong gii thut i snh mu.
(Xem thm trong ti liu tham kho)
5.5. Mt s gii thut chng minh
Mt trong nhng vn kh quan trng ca logic mnh l chng minh
tnh ng n ca php suy din (ab). y cng chnh l bi ton chng minh
thng gp trong ton hc.
R rng rng vi hai php suy lun c bn ca logic mnh (Modus
Ponens, Modus Tollens) cng vi cc php bin i hnh thc, ta cng c th
chng minh c php suy din. Tuy nhin, thao tc bin i hnh thc l rt kh
ci t c trn my tnh. Thm ch iu ny cn kh khn vi c con ngi!
Vi cng c my tnh, bn c th cho rng ta s d dng chng minh c
mi bi ton bng mt phng php "th bo" l lp bng chn tr . Tuy v l
thuyt, phng php lp bng chn tr lun cho c kt qu cui cng nhng
phc tp ca phng php ny l qu ln, O(2n) vi n l s bin mnh .
Sau y chng ta s nghin cu cc phng php chng minh mnh
(hoc v t) vi phc tp ch c O(n ):
5.5.1. Bi ton
Cho tp cc gi thit di dng cc biu thc logic mnh (hoc v t)
GT={GT1, GT2, ...GTn}. Hy chng minh tp kt lun KL={KL1, KL2,..., KLm}.
5.5.2. Th tc Wong. H (Vng Ho)
Vo: Cho cc biu thc mnh gi thit GT1, GT2, ...,GTn
Cc biu thc mnh kt lun KL1, KL2,...,KLm
Ra: Chng minh GT1, GT2,...,GTn KL1, KL2,...,KLm: True
(Thng bo thnh cng nu GT1 GT2 ...GTn KL1 KL2...KLm)
* Phng php:
{ for i=1 to n do
{ Trans (GTi); //a tng GT v dng chun
VT
{GTi} VT; } //a vo v tri
for i=1 to m do
{ Trans (KLi); //a tng GT v dng chun
VP
{KLi} VP; } //a vo v phi
P
{(VT, VP)}; //P: tp cha cc bi ton (VT, VP)
While P do
{ (VT, VP)
get (P); //Ly bi ton trong P
63
if VT VP = then
{ chuyen (VT, VP);
if VT VP = then
if not tach (VT, VP) then
Exit (ko thnh cng);
}
} P : cc bi ton con qua php tach (VT, VP) m c
write (thnh cng);
}
* Ch :
- Trans (BT:) l th tc a biu thc BT v biu thc ch cha cc php ton , ,
di dng chun (v nh chun hi: hi cc tuyn, chun tuyn: tuyn cc hi).
Ch : a b = a b; (a b) = a b
V d: Biu thc (a b) (c d) c th a v thnh:
1. (a b) (c d)
2. (a c) (a d) (b c) (b d)
- chuyen (VT, VP): th tc chuyn cc GTi , KLj dng ph nh.
V d:
p q, (rs), g, p r s, p
pq, p r, p (r s), g, s
V nu GTi c php th thay th php bng du "," . Nu KLj c php
th thay th php bng du ",".
V d:
p q, r (p s) q, s
p, q, r, p s q, s
- tach (VT, VP): th tc tch (VT, VP) thnh 2 danh sch con nu GTi c
phphoc KLj c php . Nu tch c th th tc tach (VT,VP) nhn gi tr
True.
V d :
p, p q q tch thnh 2 dng:
p, p q
p, q q
- Mt dng c chng minh nu tn ti chung mt mnh c hai
pha.
V d :
p, q q c chng minh
p, p q p p, q
64
65
a b c , b c d, a , b d
a , b c d, a , b d
b c, b c d, a , b d
b c d, a , b d, a : CM
b, b c d, a , b d
b c d, a , b d, b : CM
c, b c d, a , b d
c, b, a , b d
c, c d, a , b d
c, a , b d , b : CM
c, c, a , b d
c, d, a , b d: CM
c, a , b d, c : CM
VD2: Xt cc cu ng sau:
Nu tri ma th Lan mang theo d
Nu Lan mang theo d th Lan khng b t
Nu tri khng ma th Lan khng b t
a. Xy dng cc cu trn bng cc biu thc logic mnh
b. Hy chng minh rng Lan khng b t bng phng php Vng Ho
Gii
a. r: Tri ma
u: Lan mang theo d
w: Lan b t
Lc , ta c cc biu thc logic ng sau:
r u
u w
r w
b.Ta phi chng minh (r u) (u w) (r w) w: True
66
tc {a b c, b c d, a, b} {d}
Gii:
P = {a b c , b c d, a , b, d}
n gin ta vit nh sau:
1. a b c
2. b c d
3. a
4. b
5. d
Qu trnh hp gii nh sau:
6. b c (l kt qu hp gii dng 1 v dng 3, k hiu l Res(1A,3), ch A
ch ra rng ly thnh phn u tin trong trong 1).
7. a c
Res(1B,4)
8. c d
Res(2A,4)
9. b c
Res(2C,5)
10. c
Res(3,7A)
11. c
Res(4,9A)
12. Mu thun gia 10 v 11
Chng minh xong.
(Xem hnh sau)
a b c a
b
b c d
d
b c
a c c d b c
c
c
Mu thun
68
Chng 6
BIU DIN TRI THC V CC PHNG PHP SUY DIN
Nh ta bit con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn c th gii
nh cc gic quan v s dng tri thc tch lu c v nh kh nng lp lun, suy
din, con ngi c th a ra cc hnh ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi
ang lm.
Trong khi mc tiu ca tr tu nhn to ng dng l thit k cc tc nhn
thng minh (intelligent agent) cng c kh nng nh con ngi. Tc nhn
thng minh l bt c ci g c th nhn thc c mi trng thng qua cc b
cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng li mi trng thng qua
b phn hnh ng (effectors). V d: robots, softrobot (software robot), cc h
chuyn gia,...l cc tc nhn thng minh.
Chnh v vy, mun xy dng mt tr thng minh nhn to, ta cn phi c
cc phng php a tri thc vo my tnh c gi l biu din tri thc.
Tri thc v suy din l hai thnh phn trong bt k mt h da trn tri thc
no. Phng php biu din tri thc s quyt nh phng php suy din tng
ng, nhng ngc li phng php suy din ch c th ph hp cho mt phng
php biu din tri thc nht nh.
6.1. Tri thc v d liu
- Tri thc: l s hiu bit v mt min ch (lnh vc) no .
V d: Hiu bit v y hc, vn hc,.... l tri thc
- Ngi ta thng phn loi tri thc ra lm cc dng nh sau :
+ Tri thc s kin : l cc khng nh v mt s kin, khi nim no
(trong mt phm vi xc nh). Cc nh lut vt l, ton hc, ... thng c xp
vo loi ny. (Chng hn : mt tri mc ng ng, tam gic u c 3 gc
600, ...)
+ Tri thc th tc : thng dng din t phng php, cc bc cn tin
hnh, trnh t hay ngn gn l cch gii quyt mt vn . Thut ton, thut gii l
mt dng ca tri thc th tc.
+ Tri thc m t : cho bit mt i tng, s kin, vn , khi nim, ...
c thy, cm nhn, cu to nh th no (mt ci bn thng c 4 chn, con
ngi c 2 tay, 2 mt,...)
+ Tri thc Heuristic : l mt dng tri thc cm tnh. Cc tri thc thuc loi
ny thng c dng c lng, phng on, v thng c hnh thnh thng qua
kinh nghim.
69
Tri thc
- nh tnh
- Khng c cu trc hoc
c cu trc phc hp
- dng phc hp
Nu xt theo quan nim biu din tri thc th c s tri thc ch l mt dng
d liu c bit v ng c suy din cng ch l mt dng ca thut ton c bit
m thi. Tuy vy, c th ni rng, c s tri thc v ng c suy din l mt bc
tin ha mi ca d liu v thut ton ca chng trnh! Bn c th hnh dung
ng c suy din ging nh mt loi ng c tng qut, c chun ha c th
dng vn hnh nhiu loi xe my khc nhau v c s tri thc chnh l loi nhin
liu c bit vn hnh loi ng c ny !
70
cnh
c
is-a
Chp chp
Yn
is-a
Chim
is-a
Cnh ct
Khng kh
is-a
th
Con vt
hot ng
bay
hot ng
i
u im:
- Cho php biu din mt cch trc quan cc s kin v cc mi lin h gia
chng.
- Tnh m un cao theo ngha cc tri thc mi c thm vo hon ton c
lp vi cc tri thc c.
- L ngn ng biu din dng m t.
- C th p dng mt s c ch suy din trn mng: c ch truyn v tha
hng thng tin gia cc i tng (tnh k tha), c ch "chy" trn mng.
Nhc im:
- Khng c mt phng php suy din chung no cho mi loi mng ng
ngha.
- Kh kim sot qu trnh cp nht tri thc dn n mu thun trong c
s tri thc.
6.2.3. Biu din tri thc bng khung (Frame)
Khung thc cht l s tng qut ho ca cu trc bn ghi trong Pascal v
tng t nh cu trc i tng trong C++
Mt khung c m t bi cu trc:
- Tn khung: nh danh i tng m t.
- Cc khe (slot): trn mi khe lu tr cc thng tin, min gi tr, thuc tnh
v chiu mi tn ch n cc khung khc.
V d: Xt khung (frame) m t tp hc sinh HOCSINH
72
Frame HOCSINH
IS-A:
PART-OF: NGUOI-DI-HOC
A KIND OF: (HOCSINHCOSO, HOCSINHTRUNGHOC)
Cn nng: 10-60kg
Chiu cao: 80-170cm
Cu trc frame ny cho ta mt "khung d liu" khoanh vng cc i
tng l hc sinh. Trng hp gp mt ngi cao 175cm, nng 45kg th ta c th
khng nh rng khng phi l hc sinh v khng tho mn cc rng buc c.
Ngoi ra, mt trong nhng c trng quan trng ca frame l kh nng tha
k cc thng tin ca cc khe c cng tn i tng bc trn.
V d: Trong frame HOCSINHCOSO, HOCSINHTRUNGHOC c khe
chiu cao vi gi tr m t min, th sau khi tha k thng tin mc trn Frame
HOCSINH, khe ny cn phi ly cc gi tr trong khong 80-170cm.
6.2.4. Biu din tri thc nh cc lut sn xut
Phng php biu din tri thc nh logic (logic mnh v logic v t) kh
trc quan song ch ph hp khi khng c qu nhiu lut suy din.
Mt tri thc c th hin bng mt cu Horn dng chun:
p1 p2 ....pn q
Cc cu Horn dng ny cn c gi l lut if- then (lut nu - th) v c
biu din nh sau:
if P1 and....and Pn then Q
Cc Pi (i = 1, ..., n) c gi l cc iu kin, Q c gi l kt lun ca
lut.
Mt cu Horn dng tng qut:
p1 p2 ....pn q1 q2 ....qm
Lu :
Nu c lut dng: p1 p2 ....pn q1 q2 ....qm th tng ng vi m lut
sau:
p1 p2 ....pn q2 ....qm q1
p1 p2 ....pn q1 q3...qm q2
p1 p2 ....pn q1....qm-1 qm
Tuy nhin ta ch xt cu Horn dng chun (m=1)
- Nu n=0, m=1: cu Horn c dng q: gi l s kin (fact) q.
- Nu n>0, m=1: cu Horn c dng: p1 p2 ....pn q: gi l lut (rule).
73
6.3.3.1. Suy din tin (lp lun tin - forward chaining hoc forward
reasoning)
(T tng c bn ca suy din tin l p dng lut suy din Modus Ponens tng
qut)
L qu trnh suy din bt u t tp s kin bit, rt ra nhng s kin
mi v c nh vy cho n khi c c s kin cn chng minh hoc khng c
lut no sinh ra cc s kin mi (tp s kin ng l cc i).
* Phng php:
Gi T l tp cc s kin (mnh ) ti thi im ang xt (khi to tp T=F:
tp s kin ng ban u ).
Xt cc lut ri c dng: p1 p2 ....pn q v pjT j = 1, n ngha l left
(ri) T
th T= T+ right (ri)
qu trnh lp li cho n khi G T hoc khng c lut no sinh ra thm s
kin mi.
* Gii thut:
Procedure suydientien;
Begin
T:= F;
S:= loc(R, T);{ S: l tp lut c dng p1 p2 .... pn q sao cho pjT
j = 1, n }
While G T and S<> do
Begin
r := get(S);
T:= T + right(r);
R:=R \ {r};
S:= loc(R,T);
End;
If G T then write (thnh cng)
Else write (khng thnh cng);
End;
* V d:
Cho trc tp s kin F={a,b}. S dng cc lut:
r1: a c
r2: b d
r3: c e
r4: a d e
r5: b c f
r6: e f g
75
cn suy ra g
Gii: Ta th hin trn bng sau:
r
T
S
R
a, b
r1, r2, r3
r1, r2, r3, r4, r5, r6
r1
a, b, c
r2, r3, r5
r2,, r3, r4, r5, r6
r2
a, b, c, d
r3, r4, r5
r3, r4, r5, r6
r3
a, b, c, d, e
r4, r5
r4, r5, r6
r4
a, b, c, d, e
r5
r5, r6
r5
a, b, c, d, e, f
r6
r6
r6
a. b, c, d, e, f, g
Vy gT nn bi ton c chng minh (g: true).
* Nhn xt:
Qu trnh suy din tin l qu trnh xem xt cc lut, vi mi lut ta xt
phn iu kin ( v tri) ti phn kt lun ( v phi) v khi m tt c cc iu
kin ca lut u tho mn th ta suy ra s kin trong phn kt lun. Chnh v l
m c tn l suy din tin.
Trong mi bc ca th tc, ngi ta xt mt lut trong tp lut. So snh
mi iu kin ( v tri) ca tp lut vi cc s kin trong c s s kin, nu tt c
cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn th s kin trong phn kt lun c xem l
s kin c suy ra. Nu s kin ny l s kin mi (khng c trong b nh lm
vic) th n c a vo b nh lm vic. Qu trnh trn c lp li cho n khi
no khng c lut no sinh ra s kin mi.
Qu trnh suy din tin khng nh hng ti gii quyt mt vn no c,
khng hng ti tm ra cu tr li cho mt cu hi no c. Suy din tin ch l qu
trnh suy ra cc s kin mi t cc s kin c trong b nh lm vic.
6.3.3.2. Suy din li (lp lun li - backward chaining hoc backward
reason)
L qu trnh xut pht t s kin cn chng minh v thay vo l nhng
s kin v tri ca 1 lut c v phi l s kin cn chng minh. Qu trnh ny
c thc hin cho n khi a v cc s kin l tp s kin con ca tp s kin
gi thit. (Ngha l: a ra kt lun b, ta th tm tt c cc lut c dng: a 1 ....
an b, c b, phi a ra cc kt lun a1,...,an. Qu trnh xc nh ai cng tng
t nh i vi b, nu n mt lc no pht hin c rng c mt ai no
khng dn xut c t cc gi thit th quay lui sang cc lut sn xut khc sinh
ra b c dng b1....bm b. Ngc li, nu mi ai u dn xut c gi thit th
qu trnh dn xut ra b l ng)
* Gii thut:
76
78
MC LC
Chng 1.........................................................................................................1
M U...........................................................................................................1
1.1. Tng quan v khoa hc tr tu nhn to.................................................1
1.1.1. i tng v mc tiu nghin cu ca tr tu nhn to...................1
1.1.2. Vai tr ca tr tu nhn to..............................................................2
1.1.3. Cc k thut tr tu nhn to...........................................................3
1.2. Lch s pht trin ca tr tu nhn to...................................................5
1.3. Mt s vn tr tu nhn to quan tm...............................................6
1.3.1. Nhng vn chung ......................................................................6
1.3.2. Nhng vn cha c gii quyt trong tr tu nhn to .............7
1.3.3. Nhng vn t ra trong tng lai ca tr tu nhn to................7
1.4. Cc khi nim c bn.............................................................................8
1.5. Mt s chuyn ngnh (lnh vc ng dng) ca tr tu nhn to ............9
Chng 2.......................................................................................................10
BIU DIN VN TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI....................................10
2.1. t vn ...........................................................................................10
2.2. M t trng thi...................................................................................10
2.3. Ton t chuyn trng thi....................................................................12
2.4. Khng gian trng thi ca bi ton......................................................14
2.5. Biu din khng gian trng thi di dng th.................................15
2.5.1. Cc khi nim................................................................................15
2.5.2. Biu din khng gian trng thi bng th..................................16
2.5.3. Biu din th.............................................................................16
Chng 3.......................................................................................................18
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM LI GII TRONG ..............................................18
KHNG GIAN TRNG THI..............................................................................18
3.1. t vn ...........................................................................................18
3.2. Phng php tm kim theo chiu rng................................................19
3.2.1. K thut tm kim rng..................................................................19
3.2.2. Gii thut.......................................................................................19
3.2.3. nh gi phc tp ca gii thut tm kim rng.......................20
3.2.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim rng.......................20
3.2.5. Cc v d.......................................................................................21
3.3. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su.................................................24
3.3.1. K thut tm kim su....................................................................24
3.3.2. Gii thut.......................................................................................24
3.3.3. nh gi phc tp ca thut ton tm kim su.......................25
3.3.4. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim su........................25
3.3.5. Cc v d.......................................................................................26
3.4. Phng php tm kim theo chiu su dn..........................................27
3.4.1. K thut tm kim su dn.............................................................27
3.4.2. Gii thut.......................................................................................28
3.4.3. Nhn xt........................................................................................28
3.5. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin (Best First Search)........................30
3.5.1. K thut tm kim tt nht u tin ..............................................30
3.5.2. u v nhc im ca phng php tm kim tt nht u tin....31
3.5.3. Gii thut.......................................................................................31
3.5.4. V d..............................................................................................31
3.6. Phng php tm kim leo i (Hill-Climbing Search)...........................32
3.6.1. K thut tm kim leo i ..............................................................32
79
81