Mobile Radio Propagation Channel Models

Dr. Chih-Peng Li ()

Table of Contents
Introduction Propagation Path Loss Model
Friis Free Space Model Hata Model

Large Scale Propagation Model Long Term Fading

Lognormal Distribution

Small scale Propagation Model Short Term Fading

Multipath
Delay Spread vs. Coherent Bandwidth Flat Fading vs. Frequency Selective Fading Narrowband vs. Wideband
2

Table of Contents
Dopplers Effect
Dopplers Shift vs. Coherent Time Fast Fading vs. Slow Fading.

Rayleigh Distribution
Level Crossing Rate

Ricean Distribution Computer Simulation of Multipath Interference Channel Models in WCDMA Fading Counteraction Diversity Schemes

Introduction

Main Components of Radio Propagation Propagation Path Loss. ( ~ 1/r2 in free space) Large Scale: Propagation models that predict the strength for an arbitrary separation distance. Small Scale: Propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuation of the received signal strength over very short travel distance (~ ) or short time duration (~s).

Large-Scale Propagation Models

Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter. They characterize signal strength over large T-R (transmitter receiver) separation distances (several hundreds or thousands of meters).

Small-Scale Propagation Models

Small-scale fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel distance. Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions of the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly different time. These waves, called multi-path waves, combine at the receiver antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in amplitude and phase.

Small-Scale Propagation Models

The received signal power may vary by as much as three or four orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moved by only a fraction of a wavelength. Typically, the local average received power is computed by averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40 .
Hint : with f = 1 GHz ~ 2 GHz,

c = = 30cm ~ 15cm f
8

Small-Scale vs. Large-Scale Fading

Propagation Path Loss Model

Free Space Propagation Model

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight (LOS) path between them.
e.g. satellite, microwave ling-of-sight radio link.

As with most large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised to some power.

11

Friis Free Space Equation

Pt Gt Gr Pr (d ) = 2 2 (4 ) d L Pt : transmitted power.
2

Pr (d ) : received power which is a function of the T - R separation. Gt : the transmitter antenna gain. Gr : the receiver antenna gain. d : the T - R separation distance in meters. L : the system loss factor not related to propagation. : the wavelength in meters.
12

Friis Free Space Equation

The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, Ae, by:

G=

4Ae

The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna. The miscellaneous losses L (L1) are usually due to transmission line attenuation , filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. L=1 indicates no loss in the system hardware.

13

Log-distance Path Loss Model

d PL ( dB ) = PL ( d 0 ) + 10n log d0
d PL ( d ) d0
n

14

Hata Model
L50 (urban)(db) = 69.55 + 26.16 log f c 13.82 log hte a (hre ) + (44.9 6.55 log hte ) log d
An empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura Valid from 150M to 1500Mhz. hte : 30m ~ 200m (base station antenna height) hre : 1m~10m (mobile antenna height) d : T-R separation distance (in km) a (hre) : correction factor for effective mobile antenna height.
15

Hata Model
For small to medium sized city: a (hre ) = (1.1 log f c 0.7)hre (1.56 log f c 0.8)dB For large city:
a (hre ) = 8.29(log1.54hre ) 2 1.1dB for f c 300MHz a (hre ) = 3.2(log11.75hre ) 2 4.97 dB for f c 300 MHz

For suburban area:

L50 (db) = L50 (urban) 2[log( f c / 28)] 2 5.4

For open rural areas:

L50 (db) = L50 (urban) 4.78(log f c ) 2 18.33 log f c 40.98
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Hata Model in PCS Band

Extension of Hata model to 2 GHz.
L50 (urban)(db) = 46.3 + 33.9 log f c 13.82 log hte a (hre ) + (44.9 6.55 log hte ) log10 d + CM

CM = 0dB for medium sized city and suburban areas = 3dB for metropolitan centers
f : 1500MHz ~ 2000MHz hte : 30m ~ 200m hre : 1m ~ 10m d : 1km ~ 20km
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Large Scale Propagation Model Long-Term Fading

Shadow Fading Lognormal Distribution

When reaching the mobile station, the radio wave will have traveled through different obstructions such as buildings, tunnels, hills, trees, etc. This is called the shadowing effect. The received signal R, when measured in decibels, has a normal density function. Thus R is described by lognormal distribution. 2 1 ( ln r m ) / 2 2 e ( r 0) The PDF of R is: p ( r ) = 2 r 0 ( r < 0)
d PL (d ) = PL (d ) + X = PL (d 0 ) + 10 n log + X d 0 X: a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (dB) with standard deviation 4 - 10 dB.
19

Correlation of Path Loss

Shadow Fading: attenuation 10
10

Correlation of Path Loss: (from Viterbi, Principles of Spread Spectrum Communications)

= a mobile + b base station

a 2 + b 2 = 1, E ( ) = E ( mobile ) = E (base station ) = 0, Var ( ) = Var ( mobile ) = Var (base station ) = .
2

20

Small Scale Propagation Model Short-Term Fading

Small Scale Fading -- 1

Problem 1: multi-path induces inter-symbol interference (ISI) and delay spread.

22

Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel

A mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear filter with a time varying impulse response, where the time variation is due to receiver motion in space. The filtering nature of the channel is caused by the summation of amplitudes and delays of the multiple arriving waves at any instant of time.
23

Channel Impulse Response

Due to the different multipath waves which have propagation delays which vary over different spatial locations of the receiver, the impulse response of the linear time invariant channel should be a function of the position of the receiver.

y (d , t ) = x(t ) h(d , t ) =

x( )h(d , t )d

where h(d , t ) is the channel impulse resonse. x(t ) is the transmitted signal. y (d , t ) is the received signal at position d .
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Multipath Radio Channel

25

Multipath Propagation Effect

26

Measured Multipath Power Delay Profiles

From a 900 MHz cellular system in San Fancisco.

27

Measured Multipath Power Delay Profiles

Inside a grocery store at 4 GHz.

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Delay Spread
Delay spread and coherence bandwidth are used to describe the time dispersive nature of the channel. Received Signal:

h (t ) =

a i ( t T i )

i =1

Delay Spread corresponds to standard deviation of Ti . Excess delay is the relative delay of the i-th multipath component as compared to the first arriving component.
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Time Dispersion Parameters

Mean Excess Delay: the first moment of the power delay profile. 2
=

a a
k k k

2 k

P ( ) P ( )
k k k k

RMS (room mean square) Delay Spread: the square root of the second central moment of the power delay profile. 2 2
=
2

( )

k k

a k2 a
2 k

2 k

k k

P (

)
k

2 k

P (

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Time Dispersion Parameters

These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal arriving at the receiver at 0=0. The equations in the previous page do not rely on the absolute power level of P(), but only the relative amplitudes of the multipath components within P(). Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order of microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channels and on the order of nanoseconcds in indoor radio channels.

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Typical Measured Values of RMS Delay Spread

32

Maximum Excess Delay

Maximum Excess Delay (dB) = the time delay during which multipath energy falls to dB below maximum. Maximum Excess Delay (dB) can also be defined as x-0, where 0 is the first arriving signal; x is the maximum delay at which a multipath component is within X dB of the strongest arriving multipath signal. The value of x is sometimes called the excess delay spread of a power delay profile.

33

Example of An Indoor Power Delay Profile

34

Coherence Bandwidth
Time domain focus on excess delay. Frequency domain focus on coherence bandwidth Bc. Bc is defined related to rms delay spread 1/(Bc) Bc (Coherence Bandwidth) A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e. a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase.). The range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by the channel.
35

Coherence Bandwidth
Version 1: the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation is above 0.9

1 Bc = 50

Version 2: the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation is above 0.5

Bc =

36

Types of Small-Scale Fading

Based on multi-path time delay spread Flat Fading (narrowband system)
BW of signal < BW of channel Delay spread < Symbol period

Frequency Selective Fading (wideband system)

BW of signal > BW of channel Delay spread > Symbol period

37

Wideband v.s. Narrowband

Signal Bandwidth t2 t1 Signal Bandwidth

f wideband narrow band

38

Flat Fading

Signal undergoes flat fading if

Ts : reciprocal BW (e.g. symbol period) Bs : BW of the TX modulation : rms delay spread Bc : Coherence BW
39

B S << BC

and

TS >>

Flat Fading
The mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. The multipath structure of the channel is such that the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at the receiver. The strength of the received signal changes with time, due to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by multipath.

40

Flat Fading
Typical flat fading channels cause deep fades, and thus may require 20 or 30 dB more transmitter power to achieve low bit error rates during times of deep fades as compared to systems operating over nonfading channels. Also known as amplitude varying channel. Also referred to as narrowband channels since the bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel flat fading bandwidth. The most common amplitude distribution of flat fading channel is the Rayleigh distribution.
41

Frequency Selective Fading

Signal undergoes frequency selective fading if

42

BS > BC and TS <

Frequency Selective Fading

The channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal. The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted waveform which are attenuated and delayed in time. The channel induces inter-symbol interference. Certain frequency components in the received signal spectrum have greater gains than others. Also known as wideband channels. M-ray Rayleigh fading model is usually used for analyzing frequency selective small-scale fading.

43

Small Scale Fading -- 2

Problem 2: moving receiver induces fading effects (Doppler shift) for each ray path.

44

Doppler Effect
Doppler is a frequency shift, cause by movement of the mobile antenna relative to the base station
- f = V/ (at 250 km/h and 900 MHz, f = 208 Hz)

f - f

f + f

45

Doppler Shift / Spread

l = d cos = vt cos

Phase Change : =

2l

1 v Doppler Shift : f d = = cos 2 t

46

2vt

cos

Doppler Spread and Coherence Time

Delay spread and coherence bandwidth do not offer information about the time varying nature of the channel caused by either relative motion between the mobile and base station, of by movement of objects in the channel. Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale. Doppler spread BD is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio channel and is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero. When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency fc is transmitted, the received signal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will be in the range fc-fd to fc+fd , where fd is Doppler shift.
47

Coherence Time
Coherence time Tc is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain. Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant. Coherence time is the time duration over which two received signals have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.
48

Coherence Time
Version 1: T c 1 f m m : the maximum Doppler shift, m = / Version 2: the time over which the time correlation > 0.5

Tc 9 16 f m
Version 3: Geometric mean of version 1 and version 2.
9 0.423 Tc = = 2 fm 16f m
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Doppler Power Spectrum

50

Types of Small-Scale Fading

Based on Doppler Spread
Fast Fading
High Doppler spread. Coherence time < Symbol Period. Channel variations faster than base-band signal variations

Slow Fading
Low Doppler spread. Coherence time > Symbol period. Channel variations slower than base-band signal variations

51

Fast Fading
TS>TC and BS<BD. The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. The coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted signal. Signal distortion due to fast fading increases with increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. Fast fading only deals with the rate of change of the channel due to motion. In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates (or very fast motion speed).
52

Slow Fading
TS<<TC and BS>>BD Channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t). The channel may be assumed to be static over one or several reciprocal bandwidth intervals. The Doppler spread of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband signal. The velocity of the mobile and the baseband signaling determines whether a signal undergoes fast fading or slow fading.
53

Type of Small-Scale Fading

54

Type of Small-Scale Fading

55

Rayleigh Distribution

Rayleigh Distribution
Rayleigh distributions are commonly used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the received envelope of a flat fading signal, or the envelope of an individual multipath component. Envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signals obeys a Rayleigh distribution.

57

Typical Rayleigh Fading Envelope

58

Rayleigh Distribution
Consider a carrier signal s at a frequency 0 and with an amplitude a: s = a exp( j t )
0

The received signal sr is the sum of n waves:

sr = ai exp[ j ( 0t + i )] r exp[ j ( 0t + )]
i =1 n

where r exp( j ) = ai exp( j i )

i =1

Define : r exp( j ) = ai cos i + j ai sin i x + jy

i =1 i =1 n

We have : x ai cos i and y ai sin i

i =1 i =1

where : r 2 = x 2 + y 2 x = r cos y = r sin

59

Rayleigh Distribution
Because (1) n is usually very large, (2) the individual amplitudes ai are random, and (3) the phases i have a uniform distribution, it can be assumed that (from the central limit theorem) x and y are both Gaussian variables with means equal to zero and variance

2 x

2 y

Because x and y are independent random variables, the joint distribution p(x,y) is

x2 + y2 exp p ( x, y ) = p ( x ) p ( y ) = 2 2 2 2
p ( r , ) = J p ( x, y )
60

The distribution p(r,) can be written as a function of p(x,y) :

Rayleigh Distribution
r sin r2 r = r ; p(r , ) = exp 2 r cos 2 2 Thus, the Rayleigh distribution has a pdf:
2

x / r x / cos J = y / r y / sin

p(r ) =

r r2 2 exp 2 p(r , )d = 2 0

r0 otherwise

The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a specified value R is given by the corresponding cumulative distribution function (CDF) R R2 P ( R ) = Pr( r R ) = p ( r ) dr = 1 exp 2 2 0
61

Rayleigh Distribution
Mean:
rmean = E [ r ] = rp ( r ) dr =
0

= 1 .2533

Variance:

r2 = E[r 2 ] E 2 [r ] = r 2 p(r )dr

0 2

2
2

= 2 = 0.4292 2 2 rmedian 1 Median value of r is found by solving: = p (r )dr 2 0 rmedian = 1.177

Mean squared value: E[r 2 ] = r 2 p (r )dr = 2 2 Most likely value = max { p(r) } =
62
0

Rayleigh Probability Density Function

63

Level Crossing and Fading Statistics

The level crossing rate (LCR) is defined as the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified level in a positive-going direction. Useful for designing error control codes and diversity. Relate the time rate of change of the received signal to the signal level and velocity of the mobile.

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Level Crossing Rate (LCR)

The number of level crossings per second is given by:
NR =
0

p ( R , r )d r =

2 f m e

r is the tim e d erivative o f r ( t ) (i.e. th e slo p e) p ( R , r ) is th e joint d en sity fu n ctio n o f r an d r at r = R f m is th e m ax im u m D op p ler frequ en cy

= R / R rm s is th e valu e o f th e sp ecified level R , no rm alized

to the lo cal rm s am p litu d e of th e fad in g en velop e.

Clarke, R. H., A Statistical Theory of Mobile-Radio Reception, Bell Systems Technical Journal, Vol. 47, pp. 957-1000, 1968.
65

Average Fade Duration

Average fade duration is defined as the average period of time for which the received signal is below a specified level R. For a Rayleigh fading signal, this is given by:
1 = Pr [ r R ] NR where Pr[rR] is the probability that the received signal r is less than R and is given by 1 Pr [ r R ] = i T i

where i is the duration of the fade and T is the observation interval of the fading signal.

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Average Fade Duration

The probability that the received signal r is less than the threshold R is found fro the Rayleigh distribution as:
Pr[r R] = p (r )dr = 1 exp( )
2 0
R

R2 2 = 2 2

where p(r) is the pdf of a Rayleigh distribution. The average fade duration as a function of and fm can be expressed as 2 e 1 = f m 2

67

Average Fade Duration

The average duration of a signal fade helps determine the most likely number of signaling bits that may be lost during a fade. Average fade duration primarily depends upon the speed of the mobile, and decreases as the maximum Doppler frequency fm becomes large.

68

Ricean Distribution

Ricean Fading Distribution

When there is a dominant stationary (non-fading) signal component present, such as a line-of-sight propagation path, the small-scale fading envelope distribution is Ricean.
scattered waves direct waves

sr = r ' exp[ j ( 0t + )] + A exp( j 0t ) [( x + A) + jy ] exp( j 0t ) r exp[ j ( 0t + )] r = ( x + A) + y

2 2 2

x + A = r cos y = r sin
70

Ricean Fading Distribution

By following similar steps described in Rayleigh distribution, we obtain:
r r 2 + A2 Ar I0 2 2 exp 2 p ( r ) = r 2 r r 0 where Ar 1 2 Ar cos I0 2 = 2 exp 2 d r r 0 is the modified zeroth - order Bessel function. xi I 0(x) = i i!2 i =0

for (A 0, r 0 ) for (r < 0 )

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Ricean Fading Distribution

The Ricean distribution is often described in terms of a parameter K which is defined as the ratio between the deterministic signal power and the variance of the multipath. It is given by K=A2/(22) or in terms of dB:

A2 [dB] K (dB) = 10 log 2 2 The parameter K is known as the Ricean factor and completely specifies the Ricean distribution. As A 0, K - dB, and as the dominant path decreases in amplitude, the Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution.

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Ricean Fading Distribution

73

Computer Simulation of Multi-path Interference

Reference: Microwave Mobile Communications, by W.C. Jakes, pp. 60-71.

Frequency Selective Fading Channel

Rayleigh fading is usually adopted for flat fading channel model. Frequency selective fading channel model is usually modeled as the sum of several flat fading channels with different delays.
t0

Rayleigh

t1

Rayleigh

tn-1

Rayleigh

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Spatial Correlations at the Base Station

Scattering model for spatial correlations at the base station generation of Rayleigh distribution.

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Computer Simulation of Rayleigh Fading

Simulator that duplicates mobile radio spectrum

Producing random phase modulation, a Rayleigh fading envelope, and a time-averaged, discrete approximation to the desired power spectrum. Simulation inputs:
Carrier frequency. Mobile velocity. Sampling rate.

The number of frequency components (N0) needed is at least 8 (N is at least 34 where N0 =0.5*(N/2-1) and N/2 is an odd integer).

77

Computer Simulation of Rayleigh Fading

Simulator that duplicates mobile radio spectrum

78

Channel Models in WCDMA

(I) Static Propagation Condition

The propagation for the static performance measurement is an Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) environment. No fading or multi-paths exist for this propagation model.

80

(II) Multi-Path Fading Propagation Conditions

Table B.1 shows propagation conditions that are used for the performance measurements in multi-path fading environment. All taps have classical Doppler spectrum, defined as: 1 S( f ) f [ f D , f D ] 2 1 ( f fD )
Table B.1: Propagation Conditions for Multi path Fading Environments
Case 1, speed 3km/h Relative Delay [ns] 0 976 Average Power [dB] 0 -10 Case 2, speed 3 km/h Relative Delay [ns] 0 976 20000 Average Power [dB] 0 0 0 Case 3, 120 km/h Relative Delay [ns] 0 260 521 Average Power [dB] 0 -3 -6 Case 4, 250 km/h Relative Delay [ns] 0 260 521 Average Power [dB] 0 -3 -6

781

-9

781

-9

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(III) Moving Propagation Conditions

The dynamic propagation conditions for the test of the base band performance are non-fading channel models with two taps. The moving propagation condition has two tap, one static, Path0, and one moving, Path1. The time difference between the two paths is according Equation (B.1). The parameters for the equation are shown in Table B.2. The taps have equal strengths and equal phases. A = B + (1 + sin( t ) ) (B.1) P P 2
0 1

Table B.2: Parameters for moving propagation t0 t1

Figure B.1: The moving propagation conditions

A B 82

5 s 1 s 4010-3 s-1

(IV) Birth-Death Propagation Conditions

The dynamic propagation conditions for the test of the baseband performance is a non-fading propagation channel with two taps. The moving propagation conditions has two taps, Path1 and Path2 which alternate between 'birth' and 'death'. The positions the paths appear are randomly selected with an equal probability rate and are shown in Figure B.2.
P1 P2 P1 P1 P2 P2 P1 P2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure B.2: Birth death propagation sequence

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Birth-Death Propagation Conditions

1. Two paths, Path1 and Path2 are randomly selected from the group [-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0 ,1, 2, 3, 4, 5] s. The paths have equal magnitudes and equal phases. 2. After 191 ms, Path1 vanishes and reappears immediately at a new location randomly selected from the group [-5, 4, -3, -2, -1, 0 ,1, 2, 3, 4, 5] s but excludes the point Path2. The magnitudes and the phases of the tap coefficients of Path 1 and Path 2 shall remain unaltered. 3. After an additional 191 ms, Path2 vanishes and reappears immediately at a new location randomly selected from the group [-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0 ,1, 2, 3, 4, 5] s but excludes the point Path1. The magnitudes and the phases of the tap coefficients of Path 1 and Path 2 shall remain unaltered. 4. The sequence in 2) and 3) is repeated.
84

Fading Counteraction (Diversity Schemes)

Fading Counteractions
Long-Term (large scale) Fading Counteraction: Macroscopic diversity (Space diversity) S-diversity S+I-diversity S/I-diversity

86

Fading Counteraction
Short-Term (small scale) Fading Counteraction: Microscopic diversity. Space diversity - spacing is between receiving antennas. Polarization: orthogonality of the polarized wave components. Angle: directional antenna. Frequency: two or more different carriers. Time: time separation. Hopping: frequency hopping and time hopping.
87

Combining Schemes
Switched Combining
Pure Selection: the received signals are continuously monitored so that the best signal can be selected. Threshold Selection: the received signals are scanned in a sequential order, and the first signal with a power level above a certain threshold is selected.

Gain Combining
Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC): each one of the M signals has a gain proportional to its own signal-to-noise ratio. Equal Gain Combining: all of the signals have a gain equal to one.
88