Chng 7 : m kim loi [5, 8, 12, 16,17,18] M khng nhng c ng dng trang tr, bo v b mt kim loi, tng tnh

h tip xc trong cc mch in, cng tc in m cn c s dng phc hi cc chi tit my b mi mn. Mc ch ca m phc hi ch yu l ci thin b mt tip xc ca chi tit, khi phc cc kch thc lp ghp, phc hi kch thc cc chi tit b mi mn, tng cng, tng chu mi mn; bo v kim loi khi tc dng ca mi trng xung quanh. 7.1 Cc khi nim chung v qu trnh m 7.1.1 Cc hng s vt l v ho hc Nng cht tan trong nc c biu din bng mt trong cc phng php sau : S ng lng gam ca cht tan trong 1 lt dung dch (nng ng lng ) N. Nng cht tan l s gam cht tan ( C ) trong 1 lt dung dch gam/lt (g/l) ; Nng phn trm ( p ) l s gam cht tan trong 100 gam dung dch , % ; C = p . . 10 Trong : C - nng cht tan (g/l) p - Nng % - T trng dung dch , g/cm3. Tnh nng ng lng N t nng C (g/l) theo cng thc :

N=
C=

C.Z M
M. N z

Trong

M - Phn t lng ca cht z - Ho tr

7.1.2 Cc thng s ca quy trnh m 1. Mt dng in trn catt Dk hoc trn ant Da l nhng thng s ch yu ca qu trnh in phn. Mt dng in l t s cng dng in trn din tch in cc , thng c biu din theo n v : ( A/ dm2 ). 2. Qu trnh in phn tun theo nh lut Faraday : lng kim loi kt ta trn catt hoc ho tan trn ant t l thun vi in lng qua dung dch. in lng tnh bng cu lng. 3. Lng cht kt ta hoc ho tan trong 1 ampe gi c gi l ng lng in ho v tnh theo cng thc [16]:

73

a=

A Z .28,6

Trong :

A - nguyn t lng ca kim loi; Z - ho tr 28,6 - s in lng (28,6 ampe . gi= 96.500 cu lng ) 4. Lng kim loi kt ta hoc ho tan c tnh theo cng thc : m = a.I.t. m - Lng kim loi ( gam , g) I - Cng dng in ( Ampe, A ) t - Thi gian ( gi , h) a - ng lng in ho ( gam/ (A.h) ( Cr a = 0,323 ; Fe a = 1,043 ) - H s hu ch ca qu trnh 5. Hiu sut dng in Trn catt , ngoi ion kim loi kt ta cn c ion hydro. V th kim loi bm trn catt khng bng lng kim loi tnh theo nh lut Faraday. T s lng kim loi kt ta trn lng kim loi l thuyt tnh theo nh lut Faraday gi l hiu sut dng in
=
m 100.% a. I . t

6. Tnh dy lp m [ 13]

m S .

m - lng kim loi ho tan in ho S - Din tch, - t trng.

D .. a. t = k .1000

- dy trung bnh, - T trng kim loi m - Hiu sut dng in t - Thi gian m (gi ) a - ng lng in ho T cng thc (*) ta tnh c thi gian cn m. . .1000
t= Dk . S

Trong :

mm g/cm3. % h g/(A.h)

S - din tch b mt kim loi m (mm2) I = Dk . S 8. Kim tra tnh cht ca lp m Kim tra do v bn x rch: Xc nh bn x rch lc x rch cc i Fmax (kp) v tit din vt m b b x rch A (mm2)

b. l t s

F B = max S

(kp/mm2)

74

9. cng :

[ 5]

F HV = max S
S - Din tch ln (mm2) Fmax - Lc p (kp)

(kp/mm2)

Nu > 100 m , cng c o bng mi kim cng, trn cc my o thng thng. Nu < 100 m , o bng mi kim cng c gc m 136 o. cng Vicker c o bng cng thc :

HVm =

1854,4.F d2

d - su ca vt ln (m) F - Lc tc dng
Bng 7 - 1

Lp m Niken nng Lnh Ho hc Crm M crm sa M crm cng T dung dch tetracromat St Vng Km Cadimi Thic

cng Vicker HV, Mpa 1400 - 1600 3000 - 5000 6500 - 9000 4500 - 6000 7500 - 11000 3500 - 4000 4500 - 7000 400 - 600 400 - 600 350 - 500 120 - 300

10. bm - c th bng phng php b gy mu, hoc xon. 11. chu mi mn c kim tra bng cch cho th ma st. 12. bng kim tra bng cch so snh nh sng phn chiu. 13. bn n mn th bng phi mu t nhin v phi mu trong hi mui. Kim tra dung dch m Gi tr pH cng thp th dung dch cng mang tnh axit, pH cng cao th dung dch cng mang tnh kim. Khi mui tc dng vi nc to thnh kim v axit gi l phn ng thu phn. Mui axit mnh tc dng vi kim mnh (NaCl) s khng thu phn, dung dch in ly l trung tnh. Mui axit yu+ kim mnh s thu phn cho mi trng kim. Dung dch m c kh nng lm gim mt lng ng k ion H+ hoc (OH)- ca cc mui axit yu + kim mnh hoc axit mnh + kim yu gi cho gi
75

tr pH khng thay i nhiu khi thm axit hoc kim vo dung dch m axit boric - mui borat, axit axtic - mui axtat v amniac - mui amn. 14. Nng pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tnh axit mnh axt yu Trung tnh 9 10 11 12 13 14 kim yu Kim mnh

Hnh 7 - 1 Lin h tnh axit, tnh baz v nng pH pH ca dung dch c nh hng ln n : + dn in ca dung dch in ly + ho tan v bn vng ca cc cht + ho tan v th ng in ho ca ant + qu trnh gii phng hydro + qu trnh kt ta kim loi tnh cht lp kim loi c kt ta. + thu phn cc mui kim loi; + kt ta cc hp cht kim. Khi qu trnh m cn duy tr v n nh pH trong phm vi nht nh. Nu pH thay i s lm xu cht lng m nh tng dn, gy, r, bong,... n nh v duy tr pH ca dung dch trong phm vi nht nh, ngi ta thng cho cc cht ph gia gi l cht m. Cht m c kh nng to ion H+ khi thiu hay kt hp bt ion tha. Khi m Ni, cht m thng dng l axit boric (H3BO3. in cc kim loi b ho tan l ant (ni vi cc dng ca ngun in ) Kim loi c th tiu chun khc nhau nn lp m c th c in th dng hn hoc m hn so vi kim loi nn. Nu kim loi lp m c in th m hn so vi kim loi nn : lp m b ho tan ant nn c gi l lp m ant.
Zn Fe Zn c th in cc - 0,76 V Km b n mn Fe c th in cc - 0,44 V Kim loi c bn - st c bo v

Hnh 7-2

S n mn ca lp m ant

Nu kim loi lp m c in th dng hn so vi kim loi nn : kim loi nn b tan nu lp m c r, lp m ny c gi l lp m catt.

76

Sn Sn c th in cc - 0,14 V Fe Fe c th in cc - 0,44 V St b n mn

Hnh 7- 3 S n mn ca lp m Katt 7.2 S nguyn l m in

6-12 V

+ 2 4 1 5 3 6

Hnh 7 - 4 S nguyn l ca m in [24] 1 - Dung dch in phn 2 - Ant (Cc dng); 3 - Katt ( Cc m ); 4 - Ion dng ( cation ) 5 - Ion m ( anion ) 6 - Nguyn t trung ho Katt ( cc m ) ni vi chi tit cn m. Chi tit ny c nhng vo dung dch in phn (thng l mui hoc a xid c cha kim loi cn m) Ant ( cc dng) l thanh hay tm kim loi ng cht vi lp cn m ln chi tit (in cc tan nh Ni, Cr,... ) hoc l in cc khng tan : ch, grafit - in cc. Ant thng c ch to t kim loi cn m ln chi tit (in cc tan). Thng thng khi c dng in i vo dung dch in ly th ant b ho tan (in cc tan). Nhng do mt dng in ant ln hoc thnh phn dung dch khng ng th ant khng tan m ch c oxy thot ra, ant b en. Qu trnh ho tan ant b km hm gi l s th ng. chng th ng ngi ta cho vo cc cht hot ng (active) nh ion : Cl, F, Br,...

77

Dung dch in phn l dung dch nc ct vi cc mui kt ta. i khi ngi ta cn cho thm mt t axit lm tng cht lng m v tng cng qu trnh m. Trong k thut m ngi ta s dng rng ri cc dung dch axit, baz, v mui. Trong dung dch axit, th phn ly thnh H+ v gc axit . Trong dung dch kim th phn ly thnh ion kim loi v ion hydroxit OH--. Trong dung dch mui th phn ly thnh ion kim loi v gc axit. M in l qu trnh in phn khi dng in chy qua dung dch. Sau khi c dng in chy qua dung dch in phn, ant bt u phn hu (ho tan) v di chuyn vo dung dch 4 v ng thi c gii phng oxy. Cc ion bt u chuyn ng theo hai hng : Ion dng s theo chiu dng in chy v catt nhn in t v b kh; ion m chy v ant b mt in t - b xy ho. Ti catt ( chi tit): xy ra s lng ng kim loi v gii phng hydro. Ion dng i v pha catt ; nhng ion kim loi cc dng ho tan trong dung dch in phn hoc nhng ion dng ca kim loi trong dung dch in phn s bm ln b mt chi tit cn m ( catt ). Ti ant : - ion m i v pha ant ; Khi tip xc vi cc in cc, cc ion s bin thnh cc nguyn t trung ho lm cho lng cc ion trong dung dch s gim xun nn chng phi thng xuyn c b sung bng cc ion do ant ho tan vo, hay do b sung dung dch mi. 7.3 c im ca phng php m phc hi

u im Lp bm chc; C l ho tnh tt; Kim loi c bn khng b nh hng nhiu n tnh cht v c tnh ca kim loi c bn; Hnh dng hnh hc t b thay i; M ch ph hp v vic phc hi cc chi tit c chnh xc cao v lp dy khng ln; M c th ng dng ci thin b mt ca chi tit; Cho b mt c cc tnh cht c bit nh cng cao, chu mi mn; Bo v kim loi v tng tui th cho chi tit (Chng n mn,...) ; Nhc im Thi gian m rt lu, iu kin lm vic kh khn. Chiu dy lp m b hn ch; Cht lng lp m ph thuc : Cht lng chun b b mt; Nhit m; axit ca dung dch;

78

 Thnh phn ca dung dch; Mt dng in D ( A/dm2); T l gia din tch S catt / S ant. 7.4 Quy trnh m 1. Chun b ; 2. Tin hnh m; 3. Giai on x l sau khi m. 7.4.1 Giai on chun b Tch ring cc chi tit cn m ra khi cc chi tit khc. Khc ph cc sai s b mt v hnh dng v kch thc ca chi tit cn m nh : gia cng c (tin, mi, nh bng, ...) m bo sch, bng v chnh xc. Ty sch du m bng cc phng php th cng (gi lau, bn chi st, chi lng), c hc (siu m), ho hc (ty trong dung dch kim nng, cc dung mi,...), in ho (ty bng cat tt, ty du m ant), ... + Ty du m bng phng php ho hc Dng nc vi CaO, MgO, nc vi thi khi hn gi ty. + Bng phng php in phn Cho chi tit vo b c cha dung dch kim, cho dng in mt chiu i qua, chi tit ni vi cc m, tm thp ni vi cc dng, khi c dng in i qua th b mt chi tit c gii phng H2 v cc bt kh. Cc bt kh ny c tc dng khoy dung dch, ph hu mng du trn b mt chi tit lm cho du phn tn vo dung dch dng nh tng. tng hiu qu ty thnh thong nn i in cc (chi tit ni vi cc dng (+). + Ty sch du m bng siu m s dng dung dch ty [ 5 ] Dng siu m rung v xo trn dung dch, sau ty ra chi tit bng nc nng v treo chi tit vo b m. + Ty du m bng catt Khi c dng in i qua, lng hydro sinh ra trn catt ln gp i lng xy sinh ra trn ant. Bt kh i ln, khoy dung dch v tch cht bn ra khi b mt kim loi, lc ny kim loi l catt. Cc chi tit tch in m y cc ht cht bn tch in m. Nhc im ca ty catt l cc chi tit tch in m s ht cc ion Cu2+, Zn2+, v cc ion khc : x phng, cc cht keo ti b mt in cc. Cc nguyn t hydro sinh ra trn cc chi tit kim loi c th bm v hp th trn b mt kim loi, gy nh hng n kt ta trn b mt chi tit. Cc kim loi mu thng c ty du catt, l do in tch m ca b mt ngn cn kh nng ho tan kim loi mu trong mi trng kim, ngn nga hin tng to mng oxyt trn b mt kim loi mu.

79

+ Ty du m bng ant B mt kim loi tch in dng (+) y cc cation cht bn. B mt kim loi khng hp th xy nn tnh cht kim loi khng gim st. Kim loi mu khng th ty ant qu vi giy v dng ant (b mt in tch dng) lm cho kim loi mu d b ho tan trong dung dch kim. Trong qu trnh ty du b mt kim loi mu li b oxy ho mnh v b che ph bng mng c - cht c ch c th ngn cn s xy ho. Ty sch lp oxyd Ty sch du m ln cui Chn ngun in cho b m : + S dng my pht in, ngun in qua chnh lu,... + Dng in mt chiu + Dng mt chiu nhng i cc theo nhng chu k nht nh. S dng dng i cc cho php tng mt dng J ln t 1,5 - 3 ln. Do cho php tng nng sut, nng cao cht lng t chc m, c tnh lp m; qu trnh m ch yu cu nhit thp. + Dng chu k khng sin (na chu k khi catt (cc m) ni vi chi tit th gi lu hn so vi na chu k chi tit ni vi cc dng (+). Khi tin hnh o chiu th thi gian chi tit mang in m (-) nhiu hn 8 - 10 ln khi chi tit mang in dng (+) [24]. + in p : 6 - 18 V 7.4.2 Tin hnh qu trnh m G lp chi tit ln b m (m bo bn, tip xc in tt , c tit din ph hp dng in...) 7.4.3 Giai on x l sau khi m Sau khi m c th c cc cng vic cn thc hin nh sau: Ra sch chi tit; Thu hi dung dch bm theo chi tit; Kh ho cht cn dnh li trn chi tit; Tho chi tit, g cch in v sy kh; Ngm chi tit trong du bi trn ; Gia cng ngui nu cn thit; Doa v nh bng theo tng ct sa cha ca xylanh. 7.5 M Crm. [8, 16] 7.5.1 c im Theo l thuyt crm d b n mn hn st (Cr - 0,744V; Fe - 0,44V) Nhng nh lp oxyt Cr2O3 trn b mt kh bn vng trong nhiu mi trng xm thc, khng b n mn trong kh quyn, Cr bn nhiu trong axid v kim nh: HCl, HNO3, N ch tan trong cc a xid trn nhit cao nn ni chung n c tnh nng bo v tt.
80

 Cr c cng cao ch xp sau kim cng v Corundum ( Al2O3 ) cng t t 310 - 1050 HB ( tng ng mc thp tt nht sau nhit luyn. Crm chu c mi mn, chu c n mn, khng b hydrsulfua ( H2S ) ph hu; Lp m Crm c n nh ho hc cao; Lp m Crm cos bng cao, trong sng p, khng b bin i theo thi gian ( n nhit 400 - 500 oC vn khng b i mu) phn x nh sng tt. Chnh v l m m crm c s dng rt rng ri . 7.5.2 Cng dng v phm vi s dng ca phng php m crm Tng c tnh cho b mt chi tit Lm tng chu mi mn c hc ng dng m ln cc chi tit my, khun c thu tinh, khun dp nha, khun p cao su, ... M cc loi dng c chnh xc lm tng tui th ln khong 5-10 ln; M cc chi tit lm vic nhit cao nh ng hi, vng gng ca ng c t trong,... M phc hi cc chi tit b mi mn v ht thi gian s dng; rt thch hp vi nhng chi tit cn ti luyn b mt, cc chi tit cn cng cao (nh trc quay, c qu nn, trc tay li, piston bm cao p . Chiu dy lp m c th t n trn 500 m M trang tr ln cc b mt cn p , bn, bng,... M bo v ln cc b mt chi tit. Chiu dy lp m bo v bng Ni c th t n trn 0,5 - 1,5 m Chiu dy lp m bo v bng Cu c th t n trn 6 - 9 m tng chu mi mn c th t 7 - 60 m Ch : Lp m Cr l lp m catt, c nhiu l nn khng bo v c st thp khi b n mn. V th khng th m trc tip Cr ln st chng r c v ti nhng v tr h s hnh thnh pin ho hc Cr-Fe , gy nn n mn i vi st khi tip xc vi khng kh m. Cho nn trc khi m Cr bao gi cng m hai lp lt l Cu v Ni, khi dy lp Crm m ch cn mng na thi (c micrmt ). To bng cao tng kh nng phn x trong quang hc. Crm c th m ln b mt c bng cao, sng, lm gng phn chiu thay v phi dng bc ( Ag) t. Tng kh nng bi trn bng m Crm xp c ng dng cho nhng chi tit cn bi trn v cc l xp c cha cc l rng c kh nng ch du bi trn.

81

7.5.3 c im ca qu trnh m Crm. Khi m cc c u c thot bt kh c bit l cc m . Ta c th da vo tnh trng bt kh nhn bit cc mc c chnh xc hay khng. a. Cn mt ngun in mnh v phi lm vic vi mt dng in cao. Mt dng ti thiu kt ta Cr ln hn 5 - 10 ln so vi trng hp m cc kim loi khc nh Zn, Cd, Fe, Ni, Cu, ... b. Thnh phn chnh ca dung dch m khng phi l mui kim loi m l a xid cromic trong dung dch c c mt s anion khc bo m cht lng lp m nh SO4 - - Dung dch ny t nhy vi cc ion kim loi, nhng cc iu kin m nh nhit , mt dng in lm thay i cht lng lp m d dng hn bt k qu trnh m no khc. c. in tr ring ca dung dch m Cr cao nn in th m phi bng 10-12 V. d. M Crm thng dng ant l ch, khng dng Crm v Crm dn, tc tan nhanh hn tc m. Nn phi thng xuyn b sung dung dch b li lng Crm kt ta. e. Hiu sut dng catt khi m Crm thp do trn b mt ca tt c Hydr gii phng, cn trn b mt ant khng tan th o xy thot ra mnh. Cc kh thot ra cun theo mt lng cc cht in phn lm hao ht cc cht in phn. lm gim lng hao ht ny cn phi b sung mt lng ho cht vo dung dch " Crmin " ( CrO2) lm gim sc cng b mt ca cht in phn. Cng c th thm vo cc thnh b cc mu hoc cc vin bi ni lm t vt liu tr (polyetylen, polypropilen, teflon f. Kh nng m u ca dung dch m Cr thp, nn ch c th m ln b mt m ng nht m thi nhng lc lp m vn c bng cao m khng cn cc ph gia lm bng khc. g. Ant c s dng loi khng tan do vy phi thng xuyn b sung lng dung dch b li lng Cr kt ta. h. Phn loi lp m crm C 3 lp m Cr khc nhau : *-Lp m Crm xm; loi ny c cng cao nht (72 HRC), nhng dn, d bong tch khi b mt nn t dng. *-Lp m Crm trng bng; C cng va phi ( 64-65 HRC) 900 HB c bm v c tnh tt. *- Lp m Crm trng sa c cng 48-50 HRC c c tnh tt, chc, k. Dung dch m crm * Dung dch long C nng : 150-200 gam/lt CrO3 + (1,5 G/L H2SO4)

82

Dung dch c nng CrO3 thp dng m crm cng, m phc hi cc chi tit my; v cng lp m cao, hiu sut dng in cao 16-18 % v c th s dng mt dng in cao. Dung dch t b tn tht. * Dung dch long va C nng : 200-250 gam/lt CrO3 + (2,5 G/L H2SO4) Kh nng phn b trung bnh, dung dch n nh, lp m tt dng m phc hi. * Dung dch c C nng : 250-500 gam/lt CrO3 + (3,5 G/L H2SO4) Dung dch ny kh n nh, dn in cao, kh nng phn b tt, nhng mt dng (J ) cao , lp m mm, dung dch b hao ht nhiu nn ch dng m trang tr. Thnh phn dung dch m crm cng xem bng 7-2 dng cho m cc chi tit nh khun, trc, xilanh, dng c o. Chiu dy lp m t khong t 20 - 250 m. Bng 7-2 [16] Thnh phn n v Dung dch dung dch tnh N1 N2 N3 N4 CrO3 G/lt 150-250 150-250 200 - 300 200 - 250 H2SO4 G/lt 1,5 - 2,5 1,5-2,5 2-3 10 - 20 Cht cromil G/lt 3 1-3 1-3 CrO2 o Nhit C 45 - 70 50 - 80 57 - 75 54 2 2 D A/dm 35 - 50 15 - 100 15 - 35 20 - 40 Hiu sut % 12 - 15 13 - 15 20 - 25 dng 7.5.4 Cc phng php m crm 1. Mt s c im ca ch m c in in p 6-8V Da 50 - 80 A/dm2 50 - 60 oC ToC Cn kim tra nng dung dch, pH, nng cc cht pha vo dung dch. Nhc im kh m bo ng u ca dung dch cng nh cht lng m. 2. Ch m hin i C thit b hin i : Kim tra khng ch quy trnh m. T ng iu chnh nng dung dch; Dng dung dch t iu chnh hoc kt hp vi thit b c iu chnh c thnh phn theo yu cu

83

V d mt loi dung dch khi m crm : = 6 g/L SrSO4 = 200-300 g/L CrO3 = 20 g/l K2SiF6 = 110 g/L K2CrO4 T iu chnh c v SrSO4 ho tan dung dch CrO3 theo t l nht nh (250 g/l CrO3 ho tan 2,5 g/l SrSO4 , phn d ra kt ta lng ng khi Cr +++ gim dn . * Nhit c iu chnh nh kt cu l hai lp. Bn trong l cht do hay Graft Bn ngoi l v thp gi hai lp l nc nng hay hi c th iu chnh c nhit b m. ( Sai s iu chnh 1-2 oC). Ch m o cc tng cng cht lng m ngi ta s dng phng php o cc, v nu khng th dung dch b long dn gia hai cc; H+ lm cho b mt lp m tng cng cn tr qu trnh m. V d : - Da = 60 A/dm2 - t (-) = 9 pht - t (+) = 15 giy Cht lng lp m tt hn khi khng o cc. + u im ca phng php m o cc : - Nng sut tng gp 3 ln - Kh nng chng mn tng 30 % - Sc bn mi tng 25 % + B m phi cch in v khng b n mn. 7.5.5 V d quy trnh m xylanh 1. Chun b chi tit cn m ( xy lanh) Lm sch 2. Chun b b m Cho CrO3 vo b; Cho nc ct vo vi T oC = 50 oC; Cho dung H2SO4; Ni cc + Vi tm ch c pha thm 5 - 10 % Sb (Antimoan) Cc m (-) vo chi tit ; 3. Ch m c trng Da 50-80 A/dm2. T 50-60 oC

84

t 6-8 gi 4. Gia cng x l sau khi m Ra sch chi tit trong thng nc ct; Thu hi dung dch bm theo xylanh; Ra li bng nc thng; Ngm vo dung dch cha 5-3 % NaCO3 kh ho cht cn dnh li; Ra sch bng nc nng; Tho chi tit, g cch in v sy kh T = 100 - 120 oC; Ngm chi tit trong du bi trn T = 160 - 200 oC t 1-2 gi ; Gia cng ngui nu cn thit ; Doa v nh bng theo tng ct sa cha ca xylanh.

7.6 M ni ke Tnh cht ca ni ken Ni ken c mu trng bc, Dn in , dn nhit tt,; D nh bng v d hn; Ni ken b th ng v bn trong cc dung dch trung tnh, kim v axt yu. C bng cao, ng dng trong k thut quang hc; Chiu dy lp m = 5 - 40 m v c kh nng chng n mn; tit kim ni ken ngi ta tin hnh m lt ng Cu sau mi m Ni vi tng chiu dy lp m Ni chim khong (50 - 70) % chiu dy ton b. 7.7 M ng 7.7.1 ng v tnh cht ca n Mu sng , khi b xy ho trong khng kh s bin mu do to thnh lp oxyt mng v kn. ng d tc dng vi axit HNO3. Lp ng m bng phng php xianua v dung dch phot pht c cu trc tinh th mn, kn bo v tt nn thng dng m lt, m bo v gia lp st m v lp m Ni hay Cr. Lp ng m bng dung dch axit c cu trc tinh th th v mm, song dung dch li cho tc m ln, lp m dy nen c th ng dng cho m khun. Bng cch cho thm cc cht hu c ngi ta c th bin i tnh cht ca lp m nh cng, bng,... 7.7.2 Cc phng php m ng a. M ng bng dung dch sun pht, Floborat, diphotphat; b. M ng bng dung dch xianua;

85

7.8 M km

86