C H A P T E R

1.1
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
JOHN NORGARD
Air Force Research Laboratory Rome, New York

INTRODUCTION
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum consists of all forms of EM radiation, from DC to light to gamma rays. A chart of the EM spectrum can be arranged in order of frequency or wavelength into a number of regions,1 usually wide in extent, within which the EM waves have some specified common characteristics (e.g., those characteristics relating to the production or detection of the radiation). A common example is the spectrum of the radiant energy in the region referred to as white light, which when dispersed by a prism will produce a rainbow of its constituent colors. The EM spectrum is typically displayed as a function of frequency (or wavelength), as shown schematically in Figure 1.1-1. In air, frequency (f) and wavelength () are inversely proportional (f = c/, where c = 2.998 108 3 108 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum). The meter-kilogram-second (MKS) unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz, where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second); the MKS unit of wavelength is the meter. Frequency is also measured in the following subunits: Kilohertz (1 kHz = 103 Hz) Megahertz (1 MHz = 106 Hz) Gigahertz (1 GHz = 109 Hz) Terahertz (1 THz = 1012 Hz)
1

Petahertz (1 PHz = 1015 Hz) Exahertz (1 EHz = 1018 Hz) Electromagnetic energy at a particular frequency f has a photon energy (E) associated with it as follows: E = hf (units are electron volts [eV]) where h is Plancks constant 4.13567 eV/GHz, and f is the frequency (in Hz). Wavelength is also measured in the following subunits: Centimeters (1 cm = 102 m) Millimeters (1 mm = 103 m) Micrometers (microns) (1 m = 106 m) Nanometers (1 nm = 109 m) ngstroms (1 = 1010 m) Picometers (1 pm = 1012 m) Femtometers (1 fm = 1015 m) Attometers (1 am = 1018 m)

SPECTRAL SUBREGIONS
For convenience, in this chapter the overall EM spectrum is divided into three main subregions: DC to light spectrum Optical spectrum (this spectrum is treated first) Light to gamma ray spectrum

Note that specific frequency ranges are often called bands; several contiguous frequency bands are usually called spectrums; and subfrequency ranges within a band are sometimes called segments.

NAB ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Copyright 2007 Focal Press. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

Visible Light

Ku

Ls

FIGURE 1.1-1 Simplified chart of the electromagnetic spectrum. (Reprinted with permission from Whitaker, J. C., Ed., The Electronics Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996.)

XB Xu

4
Vision RO
(0.39) (0.78) 0.7mm 0.6mm 0.5mm 0.4mm

YGC B

IV

CB

CB

TV
Primary

TV

TV

Secondary

Audio band

AM

International broadcast FM Far Near Near Intermediate Far Soft Hard Soft Hard

(Cosmic orgin)

PF IR UV X-Rays
X-ray tubes Fluorescent lights HID lights Lasers Thermal cameras Incandescent lights Radio T.V. Electronic tubes Integrated circuits Radar Magnetrons Klystrons Gyrotrons

RF

Microwaves

Gamma Rays
Linear accelerators Betatrons Synchrotrons

Rotating machinary Musical instruments Microphones Telephones

Photon Energy

Hz
30 100 300 1 30 100 300 1 3 10 3 10 30 100 300 30 100 300 1 3 10 10 100 1 10

kHz

MHz

GHz

THz

eV

keV
100 1

MeV
10 100 1

GeV
10 100

10

30 100 300

10

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

1016 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 Frequency (in Hertz 5 cycles per second) Wavelength (in meters)

1017

1018

1019

1020

1021

1022

1023

1024

1025

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

101

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

1011

1012

1013

1014

1015

1016

1017 1018

300 100 30 10 300 100 30 10 3 1 300 100 30 10 3 3 1

10

300 100 30

1 300 100 30

10

300 100 30

10

300 100 30

10

1 300 100 30

10

300 100 30

10

Mm

km

mm

mm (1 micron)

nm

1 pm

fm

am

SECTION 1: BROADCAST ADMINISTRATION, STANDARDS, AND TECHNOLOGIES

ELF VLF
Centimeter waves

VF

LF

MF

HF VHF UHF

SHF EHF Sub

Millimeter waves Millimeter waves

A B C D E F GH I J K L M

(old) (new) L

L S C XBK SC
X K

QV

W
VQ

ME F GR

CHAPTER 1.1: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Note that the boundaries between some of the spectral regions are somewhat arbitrary. Some spectral bands have no sharp edges and merge into each other, and some spectral segments overlap each other slightly.

IR Band
The IR band is the region of the EM spectrum lying immediately below the visible light band in frequency. The IR band consists of EM radiation with wavelengths extending between the longest visible red, approximately 0.7 m (429 THz), and the shortest microwaves, 300 m1 mm (1 THz300 GHz). The IR band is further subdivided in wavelengths into the near (shortwave), intermediate (midwave), and far (longwave) IR segments (listed by wavelength/frequency):4 Near IR segment, 0.73 m/429100 THz Intermediate IR segment, 37 m/10042.9 THz Far IR segment, 7300 m/42.91 THz Note that the submillimeter region of wavelengths is sometimes included in the very far region of the IR band: Submillimeter band, 100 m1 mm/3 THz300 GHz In addition to emanating from electronic devices specifically designed for EM radiation purposes, EM radiation is produced in all matter by the oscillation and rotation of the molecules and atoms of which that matter is comprised; therefore, all objects at temperatures above absolute zero emit EM radiation by virtue of their thermal motion (warmth) alone. Objects near room temperature emit most of their radiation in the IR band; however, even relatively cool objects emit some IR radiation, and hot objects, such as incandescent filaments, emit strong IR radiation. IR radiation is sometimes incorrectly referred to as radiant heat, because warm bodies emit IR radiation and bodies that absorb IR radiation are warmed; however, IR radiation is not itself heat. This radiant energy is more properly referred to as black body radiation. Such waves are emitted by all material objects; for example, background cosmic radiation (2.7 K) emits microwaves, room temperature objects (293 K) emit IR rays, the sun (6000 K) emits yellow light, and the solar corona (1 million K) emits X-rays. IR astronomy uses the 1 m to 1 mm portion of the IR band to study celestial objects by their IR emissions. IR detectors are used in night vision systems, intruder alarm systems, weather forecasting, and missile guidance systems. IR photography uses multilayered color film, with an IR-sensitive emulsion in the wavelengths between 700 and 900 nm, for medical and forensic applications and for aerial surveying.

Optical Spectrum
The optical spectrum is the middle frequency/wavelength region of the EM spectrum. It is defined here as the visible and near-visible regions of the EM spectrum and includes the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet bands (listed by wavelength/frequency): Infrared (IR) band, 3000.7 m/1429 THz Visible light band, 0.70.4 m/429750 THz Ultraviolet (UV) band, 0.4 m10 nm/750 THz 30 PHz Because frequencies in the optical spectrum are so high, these regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their wavelengths. Atomic and molecular radiation produce radiant light energy. Atomic radiation (outer shell electrons) and radiation from arcs and sparks produce EM waves in the UV band. Molecular radiation and radiation from hot bodies produce EM waves in the IR band.

Visible Light Band

The visible light band, in the middle of the optical spectrum, extends in wavelength from approximately 0.4 m (violet) to 0.7 m (red) and in frequency from approximately 750 THz (violet) to 429 THz (red). EM radiation in this region of the EM spectrum, when entering the eye, gives rise to visual sensations (colors), according to the spectral response of the eye, which responds only to radiant energy in the visible light band extending from the extreme long wavelength edge of red to the extreme short wavelength edge of violet.2 This visible light band is further subdivided into the various colors of the rainbow (listed in decreasing wavelength/increasing frequency): Reda primary color;3 peak intensity at 700.0 nm (429 THz) Orange Yellow Greena primary color; peak intensity at 546.1 nm (549 THz) Cyan Bluea primary color; peak intensity at 435.8 nm (688 THz) Indigo Violet
2 The spectral response of the eye is sometimes described as extending from 0.38 m (violet) to 0.75 or 0.78 m (red) (i.e., from 789 THz to 400 or 385 THz). 3 Primary colors are those that cannot be created by mixing other colors. The three additive primary colors are red, green, and blue, and the three subtractive primary colors are magenta, yellow, and cyan.

UV Band
The UV band is the region of the EM spectrum lying immediately above the visible light band in frequency. The UV band consists of EM radiation with wavelengths extending between the shortest visible violet
4 Some reference texts use 2.5 m (120 THz) as the breakpoint between the near and the intermediate IR bands and 10 m (30 THz) as the breakpoint between the intermediate and far IR bands. Also, 15 m (20 THz) is sometimes considered as the long wavelength end of the far IR band.

SECTION 1: BROADCAST ADMINISTRATION, STANDARDS, AND TECHNOLOGIES (0.4 m) and the longest x-rays (10 nm);5 that is, from 750 THz (3 eV) to 30 PHz (100 eV). The UV band is further subdivided in frequency into the near and the far6 UV segments (listed by wavelength/frequency/photon energy): Near UV segment, 0.4 m100 nm/750 THz 3 PHz/310 eV Far UV segment, 10010 nm/330 PHz/10 100 eV UV radiation is produced by electron transitions in atoms and molecules, as in a mercury discharge lamp. Radiation in the UV range is easily detected, can cause fluorescence in some substances, and can produce photographic and ionizing effects. In UV astronomy, the emissions of celestial bodies in the wavelength band between 50 and 320 nm are detected and analyzed to study the heavens. The hottest stars emit most of their radiation in the UV band. Millimeter waves,8 30030 GHz/1 mm1 cm (EHF band) Centimeter waves, 303 GHz/110 cm (SHF band) The microwave band usually includes the UHF band from 3 GHz to 300 MHz (10 cm1 m). Microwaves are used in radar, in communication links spanning moderate distances as radio carrier waves in radio broadcasting, and for mechanical heating and cooking (e.g., in microwave ovens).

Radiofrequency (RF) Band

The RF range of the EM spectrum is the wavelength band suitable for utilization in radio communications from 10 kHz to 300 MHz (30 km1 m).9 Some radio waves serve as the carriers of low-frequency audio signals; other radio waves are modulated by video and digital information. The amplitude modulated (AM) broadcasting band uses waves with frequencies between 550 and 1705 kHz; the frequency modulated (FM) broadcasting band uses waves with frequencies between 88 and 108 MHz. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for assigning a range of frequencies (e.g., a frequency band in the RF spectrum) to a broadcasting station or service. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) coordinates frequency band allocation and coordination on a worldwide basis. Radio astronomy uses radio telescopes to receive and study radio waves naturally emitted by objects in space. Radio waves are emitted from hot gases (thermal radiation), from charged particles spiraling in magnetic fields (synchrotron radiation), and from excited atoms and molecules in space (spectral lines), such as the 21 cm line emitted by hydrogen gas.

DC to Light
Below the IR band are the lower frequency (longer wavelength) regions of the EM spectrum, subdivided generally into the microwave, radiofrequency, and power spectral bands (listed by frequency/wavelength): Microwave band,7 300 GHz300 MHz/1 mm1 m Radiofrequency (RF) band, 300 MHz10 kHz/ 1 m30 km Power frequency (PF)/telephony band, 10 kHzDC/ 30 km These regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their frequencies. EM radiation for which the wavelengths are of the order of millimeters and/or centimeters are called microwaves, and those still longer are radiofrequency (RF) or Hertzian waves. Radiation from electronic devices produces EM waves in both the microwave and the RF bands. Power frequency energy is generated by rotating machinery. Direct current (DC) is produced by batteries or rectified alternating current (AC).

Power Frequency (PF)/Telephone Band

The PF range of the EM spectrum is the wavelength band suitable for generating, transmitting, and consuming low-frequency prime power (e.g., electrical power provided by electric utility companies), extending from 10 kHz to DC (zero frequency; 30 km to wavelength). In the United States, most prime power is generated at 60 Hz (some military and computer applications use 400 Hz); in Europe, prime power is generated at 50 Hz.

Microwave Band
The microwave band is the region of wavelengths between the far IR/submillimeter region and the conventional RF region. The boundaries of the microwave band have not been definitively fixed but are commonly regarded as the region of the EM spectrum extending from about 1 mm to 1 m (300 GHz300 MHz). The microwave band is further subdivided into centimeter and millimeter segments (listed by frequency/wavelength):
5 Some reference texts use 4, 5, or 6 nm as the upper edge of the UV band. 6 The far UV band is also referred to as the vacuum UV band, because air is opaque to all UV radiation in this region. 7 Some reference works define the lower edge of the microwave spectrum at 1 GHz.

FREQUENCY BAND DESIGNATIONS

The combined microwave, radiofrequency, and power/telephone spectra are subdivided into the specific bands shown in Table 1.1-1. The U.S. military triservice designations for radio communication bands are shown in Table 1.1-2. Another set of designations
8 Some reference articles consider the top edge of the millimeter region to stop at 100 GHz. 9 Some authors consider the RF band to extend from 10 kHz to 300 GHz, with the microwave band as a subset of the RF band from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.

CHAPTER 1.1: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM TABLE 1.1-1 International Radio Frequency Band Designations and Numerical Designations
Band Name Extremely low frequency Super low frequency Ultra low frequency Very low frequency Low frequency Medium frequency High frequency Very high frequency Ultra high frequency Super high frequency Extremely high frequency Tremendously high frequency
*

Band Designation ELF (1) SLF (2) ULF (3) VLF (4) LF (5) MF (6) HF (7) VHF (8) UHF (9) SHF (10) EHF (11) THF (12)
*

Frequency Range 3 Hz30 Hz 30 Hz300 Hz 300 Hz3 kHz 3 kHz30 kHz 30 kHz300 kHz 300 kHz3 MHz 3 MHz30 MHz 30 MHz300 MHz 300 MHz3 GHz 3 GHz30 GHz 30 GHz300 GHz 300 GHz3 THz

Wavelength Range 100,000 km10,000 km 10,000 km1000 km 1000 km100 km 100 km10 km 10 km1 km 1 km100 m 100 m10 m 10 m1 m 1 m10 cm 10 cm1 cm 1 cm1 mm 1 mm100 m

THF is not a universally accepted designation for this band.

that predate the U.S. tri-service designations are given in Table 1.1-3. The European Community (EC) radar band designations in prior use are listed in Table 1.1-4. An alternative and more detailed subdivision of the UHF (9), SHF (10), and EHF (11) bands is shown in Table 1.1-5. Several other frequency bands of interest (not exclusive) are shown in Tables 1.1-6 and 1.1-7. TABLE 1.1-2 Current U.S. Tri-Service Radar Band Designations
Band Designation A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O Frequency Range 0 Hz250 MHz 250 MHz500 MHz 500 MHz1 GHz 1 GHz2 GHz 2 GHz3 GHz 3 GHz4 GHz 4 GHz6 GHz 6 GHz8 GHz 8 GHz10 GHz 10 GHz20 GHz 20 GHz40 GHz 40 GHz60 GHz 60 GHz100 GHz 100 GHz200 GHz 200 GHz300 GHz Wavelength Range 1.2 m 1.2 m60 cm 60 cm30 cm 30 cm15 cm 15 cm10 cm 10 cm7.5 cm 7.5 cm5 cm 5 cm3.75 cm 3.75 cm3 cm 3 cm1.5 cm 1.5 cm7.5 mm 7.5 mm5 mm 5 mm3 mm 3 mm1.5 mm 1.5 mm1 mm

A comprehensive and informative chart of the U.S. frequency allocations of the radio spectrum has been prepared by the Office of Spectrum Management (OSM) of the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) of the U.S. Department of Commerce (DoC). The chart graphically partitions the radiofrequency spectrum (3 kHz300 GHz) into TABLE 1.1-3 Designations Predating the U.S. Tri-Service Designations
Band Designation I G P L S
* *

Frequency Range 100 MHz150 MHz 150 MHz up to 225 MHz 225 MHz390 MHz 390 MHz1.5 GHz 1.5 GHz3.9 GHz 3.9 GHz6.2 GHz 6.2 GHz10.9 GHz 10.9 GHz36 GHz 36 GHz46 GHz 46 GHz56 GHz 56 GHz

Wavelength Range 3 m2 m 2 m1.33 m 1.33 m76.9 cm 76.9 cm19.4 cm 19.4 cm7.69 cm 7.69 cm48.4 mm 48.4 mm27.5 mm 27.5 m8.33 mm 8.33 mm6.52 mm 6.52 mm5.36 mm 5.36 mm

C X

K Q V W
*

An alternative prior S band designation extended from 1.5 GHz to 5.85 GHz, and similarly a prior X band extended from 5.85 GHz to 10.9 GHz, eliminating the C band in that designation.

SECTION 1: BROADCAST ADMINISTRATION, STANDARDS, AND TECHNOLOGIES TABLE 1.1-4 European Community Radar Band Designations in Prior Use
Band Designation L S C X Ku K
* *

TABLE 1.1-6 Power Band

Band Designation Subsonic band Audio band Ultrasonic band Frequency Range 0 Hz10 Hz 10 Hz10 kHz 10 kHz and up

Frequency Range 12 GHz 24 GHz 48.2 GHz 8.212.4 GHz 12.418 GHz 1826.5 GHz 26.540 GHz 4075 GHz 75110 GHz 110300 GHz

Wavelength Range 30 cm15 cm 15 cm7.5 cm 7.5 cm3.66 cm 3.66 cm2.42 cm 2.42 cm1.67 cm 1.67 cm11.3 mm 11.3 cm7.5 mm 7.5 mm4 mm 4 mm2.73 mm 2.73 mm1 mm

Ka V

over 450 frequency bands and uses distinct colors to distinguish the allocations for 30 different radio services and for 3 different radio activities. The chart presents a graphical summary of the detailed allocations contained in the U.S. Table of Frequency Allocations found in The NTIA Manual (Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management, Chapter 4) The FCC Rules (47 CFR, Part 2) This radiofrequency allocation chart may be viewed online at the Web site (http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ osmhome/allochrt.html), and printed copies of this chart are available for a nominal fee from the U.S. Government Printing Office (telephone: 202-512-1800; Stock No. 003-000-00691-3). In the chart, the radio spectrum is divided into the following three subareas according to radio activity: Government exclusive (NTIA) Government/nongovernment shared (NTIA/FCC) Nongovernment exclusive (FCC) The chart is also subdivided into the following 30 subareas according to radio service: Aeronautical mobile Aeronautical mobile satellite TABLE 1.1-7 RF Band
Band Designation Longwave broadcasting AM broadcasting International broadcasting Shortwave broadcasting (8 bands) VHF TV (channels 24) VHF TV (channels 56) FM broadcasting VHF TV (channels 713) UHF TV (channels 1451)
*

W mm
*

The prior K band sometimes included the Ka band and extended from 18 to 40 GHz.

TABLE 1.1-5 Alternate and More Detailed Subdivision of the UHF (9), SHF (10), and EHF (11) Bands
Band Designation L LS S C(G) XN(J, XC) XB(H, BL) X Ku(P) K V(R, Ka) Q(V) M(W) E(Y) F(N) G(A) R Frequency Range 1.121.7 GHz 1.72.6 GHz 2.63.95 GHz 3.955.85 GHz 5.858.2 GHz 7.0510 GHz 8.212.4 GHz 12.418 GHz 1826.5 GHz 26.540 GHz 3350 GHz 5075 GHz 6090 GHz 90140 GHz 140220 GHz 220325 GHz Wavelength Range 26.8 cm17.6 cm 17.6 cm11.5 cm 11.5 cm7.59 cm 7.59 cm5.13 cm 5.13 cm3.66 cm 4.26 cm3 cm 3.66 cm2.42 cm 2.42 cm1.67 cm 1.67 cm1.13 cm 1.13 cm7.5 mm 9.09 mm6 mm 6 mm4 mm 5 mm3.33 mm 3.33 mm2.14 mm 2.14 mm1.36 mm 1.36 mm0.923 mm

Frequency Range 150290 kHz 5501705 kHz 330 MHz 5.9526.1 MHz 5472 MHz 7688 MHz 88108 MHz 174216 MHz 512698 MHz

* As part of the U.S. transition to digital television, TV channels 52 through 69 (698806 MHz) were removed from the TV band, leaving a core TV band that contains channels 2 through 51.

CHAPTER 1.1: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Aeronautical radionavigation Amateur Amateur satellite Broadcasting Broadcasting satellite Earth exploration satellite Fixed Fixed satellite Inter-satellite Land mobile Land mobile satellite Maritime mobile Maritime mobile satellite Maritime radionavigation Meteorological aids Meteorological satellite Mobile Mobile satellite Radio astronomy Radiodetermination satellite Radiolocation Radiolocation satellite Radionavigation Radionavigation satellite Space operations Space research Standard frequency and time signal Standard frequency and time signal satellite These regions of the EM spectrum are usually described in terms of their photon energies in electron volts. Note that the bottom of the gamma ray band overlaps the top of the X-ray band. Radiation from atomic inner shell excitations produces EM waves in the X-ray band. Radiation from naturally radioactive nuclei produces EM waves in the gamma ray band. X-Ray Band The X-ray band is further subdivided into soft and hard X-rays (listed by photon energy/wavelength/frequency): Soft X-rays, 10 eV10 keV/ 10 nm100 pm/ 3 PHz3 EHz Hard X-rays, 10 keV1MeV /100 pm1 pm/ 3 EHz300 EHz Because the physical nature of these rays was at first unknown, this radiation was named X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen, the German scientist who discovered them (with X being used as the symbol for an unknown quantity). The more powerful X-rays are the hard X-rays, which are of high frequencies and, therefore, more energetic; less powerful X-rays are the soft X-rays, which have lower energies. X-rays are produced by transitions of electrons in the inner levels of excited atoms or by rapid deceleration of charged particles (Brehmsstrahlung, or breaking radiation). An important source of X-rays is synchrotron radiation. X-rays can also be produced when high-energy electrons from a heated filament cathode strike the surface of a target anode (usually tungsten) between which a high alternating voltage (approximately 100 kV) is applied. X-rays are a highly penetrating form of EM radiation, and applications of X-rays are based on their short wavelengths and their ability to easily pass through matter. X-rays are very useful in crystallography for determining crystalline structure and in medicine for photographing the body. Because different parts of the body absorb X-rays to a different extent, X-rays passing through the body provide a visual image (negative) of its interior structure when striking a photographic plate. X-rays are dangerous and can destroy living tissue. They can also cause severe skin burns. X-rays are useful in the diagnosis and nondestructive testing of products for defects. Gamma Ray Band The gamma ray band is subdivided into primary and secondary gamma ray segments (listed by photon energy/wavelength/frequency): Primary gamma rays, 1 keV1 MeV/ 300 pm 300 fm/1 EHz1000 EHz Secondary gamma rays, 1 MeV/300 fm0 m/ 1000 EHz Secondary gamma rays are created from collisions of high-energy cosmic rays with particles in the Earths upper atmosphere. The primary gamma rays are further subdivided into soft and hard gamma ray seg-

Light to Gamma Rays

Above the UV spectrum are the higher frequency (shorter wavelength) regions of the EM spectrum, subdivided generally into the x-ray and gamma ray spectral bands (listed by electron voltage/wavelength/ frequency):10 X-ray band, 10 eV1 MeV/10 nm1 pm/ 3 PHz300 EHz Gamma ray band, 1 keV/300 pm0 m/ 1 EHz
Note that cosmic rays (from astronomical sources) are not EM waves (rays) and, therefore, are not part of the EM spectrum. Cosmic rays are high-energy charged particles (electrons, protons, and ions) of extraterrestrial origin moving through space which may have energies as high as 1020 eV. Cosmic rays have been traced to cataclysmic astrophysical or cosmological events, such as exploding stars and black holes. Cosmic rays are emitted by supernova remnants, pulsars, quasars, and radio galaxies. Cosmic rays that collide with molecules in the Earths upper atmosphere produce secondary cosmic rays and gamma rays of high energy which also contribute to the natural background radiation. These gamma rays are sometimes called cosmic or secondary gamma rays. Cosmic rays are a useful source of high-energy particles for experiments.
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SECTION 1: BROADCAST ADMINISTRATION, STANDARDS, AND TECHNOLOGIES ments (listed frequency): by photon energy/wavelength/ MicrowavesElectromagnetic waves that have wavelengths between approximately 0.3 cm (or 1 mm) and 30 (or 10) cm, corresponding to frequencies between 1 GHz and 100 GHz. Note that there are no well-defined boundaries distinguishing microwaves from infrared or radio waves. Radio wavesElectromagnetic radiation suitable for radio transmission in the range of frequencies from about 10 kHz to about 300 MHz. Ultraviolet (UV) radiationElectromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the range of 0.4 nm (the shortest wavelength limit of visible violet light) to 3 nm (the longest X-rays). A convenient subdivision is as follows: near, 0.4 m to 100 nm; far, 100 nm to 3 nm. X-raysElectromagnetic radiation of short wavelengths (3 nm to 30 pm) produced when cathode rays impinge on matter.

Soft gamma rays, 1 keV300 keV/300 pm 3 pm/1 EHz100 EHz Hard gamma rays, 300 keV1 MeV/3 pm 300 fm/100 EHz1000 EHz Gamma rays are essentially very energetic X-rays. The distinction between the two is based on their origin. X-rays are emitted during atomic processes involving energetic electrons; gamma rays are emitted by excited nuclei or other processes involving subatomic particles. Gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus of radioactive material during the process of natural radioactive decay as a result of transitions from high-energy excited states to low-energy states in atomic nuclei. Cobalt 90 is a common gamma ray source (with a halflife of 5.26 years). Gamma rays are also produced by the interaction of high-energy electrons with matter. Cosmic gamma rays cannot penetrate the Earths atmosphere. Applications of gamma rays are found both in medicine and in industry. In medicine, gamma rays are used for cancer treatment, diagnosis, and prevention. Gamma ray emitting radioisotopes are used as tracers. In industry, gamma rays are used in the inspection of castings, seams, and welds.

Bibliography
Collocott, T. C. and Dobson A. B., Eds., Chambers Dictionary of Science and Technology, rev. ed., HarperCollins, New York, 1983. Condon, E. U. and Odishaw, H., Eds., Handbook of Physics, McGrawHill, New York, 1958. Judd, D. B. and Wyszecki, G., Color in Business, Science and Industry, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. Kaufman, J. E. and Christensen, J. F., Eds., IES Illumination Handbook, Illumination Engineering Society, New York, 1984. Lapedes, D. N., Ed., The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York. Stimson, A., Photometry and Radiometry for Engineers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974. The Cambridge Encyclopedia, Cambridge University Press, London, 1990. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, Columbia University Press, New York, 1993. Websters New World Encyclopedia, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992. Wyszecki, G. and Stiles, W. S., Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data, and Formulae, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982.

Defining Key Terms

Cosmic raysHighly penetrating particle rays from outer space. Primary cosmic rays (particles) that enter the Earths upper atmosphere consist mainly of protons. Cosmic rays of low energy have their origin in the sun, those of high energy in galactic or extragalactic space, possibly as a result of supernova explosions. Collisions with atmospheric particles result in secondary cosmic rays (particles) and secondary gamma rays (EM waves). Electromagnetic spectrumEM radiant energy arranged in order of frequency or wavelength and divided into regions within which the waves have some common specified characteristics (e.g., the waves are generated, received, detected, or recorded in a similar way). Gamma raysElectromagnetic radiation of very high energy (<30 keV) emitted after nuclear reactions or by a radioactive atom when its nucleus is left in an excited state after emission of alpha or beta particles. Infrared (IR) radiationElectromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the range of 0.7 nm (the long wavelength limit of visible red light) to 1 mm (the shortest microwaves). A convenient subdivision is as follows: near, 0.7 m to 25 m; intermediate, 25 m to 10 m; far, 10 m to 1 mm. LightWhite light, when split into a spectrum of colors, is composed of a continuous range of merging colors: red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, indigo, and violet.

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