Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 2: Structure of the Atom A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Atom Smallest particle that can participate in chemical reaction.

Molecule Ion Charged particle. Group of 2 or more atoms which are chemically bonded together.

Melting Point The temperature that remains constant at which a solid changes into a liquid at a particular pressure.

Boiling Point The temperature that remains constant at which a liquid changes into a gas at a particular pressure.

Proton Number The number of proton presence in an atom.

Nucleon Number The total number of proton and neutron in an atom.

Isotopes Atoms of the same element with the same number of proton but different number of neutrons.

Uses of Isotopes Sodium-24: Detect leak in pipes carrying gas Cobalt-60: Radiotherapy for treating cancer Gamma rays of Cobalt-60: Destroy bacteria in food where the food quality doesn t change Phosphorous-32: Fertilizers & to study metabolism of Phosphorous in plants Carbon-14: Carbon dating (estimate age of fossils and artefacts)

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B) nd st nding/ Appli tion/ Analysis

T s s ec se e e e e y s c e ee e c es

c es s se

ve c

ces

Why the temperature remains unchanged during freezing? -

T s s ec se e e ss es e ce cs e e

ce

e e

e e y

Solid Changed into Gas (The Full Process)? Whe s s he e , he c es he s s he e e y v es e s xe s e he c e se e ce e y he c es Whe he c es e ve c e he s ce c e ee he hey y change nto liquid. In liquid form, the particles have a higher amount of kinetic energy than it is in solid and they can move in a more random manner. When it reaches the boiling point, the particles can move freely and in a random manner as it has changed its state into gas which has the highest kinetic energy and the weakest force of attraction between particles.

High Force of attraction between particles

Low Force of attraction between particles articles can move freely and randomly.

Subatomic Particles Proton Neutron Electron

Relative Atomic Mass 1 1 0.0005

Relative Charge +1 0 -1

articles are arranged in orderly manner. otate and vibrate at fixed position only. Main Subatomic Particles of an Atom

Solid Low Kinetic Energy

Q a F IIGFP IIP bR U FHP R GT RRG WH TH W VFHT R R R W b I P TG S F ` I P T GS H T F P FP Y FP G T FP R R R RW V R G T FHT GTUP QFG VT F G UTH UG QPIH FP I P T G S R V R R R R R

Liquid Kinetic Energy is lower than it is in solid and higher than gas Force of attraction between particles are as strong as it is in solid articles are closely packed together but can move in a random manner.

as Low Kinetic Energy

" '

E@167 D87 7 8 0 793 97 38 3 6 1 83B 0 5 5 55 5 5 C 5 3 @ 38 216 A8 9 3 0 0 7 @ 93632 1 A91@947884 0 7 76 3 0 0 43 2 1 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

"  &" ' 

"" #   

) %   $   (   "        %   $   #  "   !             

P aH T H H Q VGFGa R R H X Q F HP P H S Q P P R R R W R Q G P QPI H G F R R

Why th t

p atu

remains unchanged during melting?

e e L s



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a)Neutron number = 14 b)

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Solid Z has a melting point of 65 C Describe a laboratory experiment to determine the melting point of Z. 1. boiling tube is filled with solid Z to a depth of 3cm and a thermometer is put into it. 2. The boiling tube is suspended in a beaker half-filled with water using a retort stand and clamp. The level of solid Z in the boiling tube must be below the level of water in the beaker. 3. The water is heated and the solid Z is stirred slowly with the thermometer. When the temperature of the solid Z reaches 45 C, the stopwatch is started. 4. The temperature and the state of substance Z is recorded at half minute intervals until the temperature of substance Z reaches 80 C. Compound W has a freezing point of 82 C. Describe a laboratory experiment to determinethe freezing point of W. 1. Step 1 to 2 of the above experiment is repeated using compound W instead. 2. The water is heated and the compound W is stirred slowly with the thermometer. When compound W reaches 95 C, the heating is stopped. 3. The boiling tube is removed from the water bath and the outer surface is dried up. Then it is immediately put into a conical flask with half of the top of the boiling tube clamped using a retort stand. The compound W is stirred continuously. 4. The temperature and the state of compound W is recorded at half-minute intervals until the temperature drops to about 75 C.

(*Diagrams refer to appendix

ggr g q ip ffih gg f
e e L

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 3: Chemical Formulae and Equations A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Relati e atomic mass (RAM) Number of times the mass of an atom is greater than 1/12 times of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. The relative mass of carbon-12 atom is 12.000.

Mole An amount of substance that contains as many particle as the number of atoms in e actly 12g of carbon-12.

A ogadro Constant NA

Molar Mass

Molar Volume The volume occupied by one mole of gas.

Chemical Formulae The representation of a chemical substance by using letters for atoms and subscript number to show the number of each type of atoms that are present in the substance.

Empirical Formulae The formula that shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the compound.

Molecular Formulae The formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element that is present in a molecule of the compound. Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

Structural Formula A formula that shows how atoms are bonded together with covalent bonds in a molecule of a compound.

Chemical equation The shorthand description of a chemical reaction.

Mass of 1mol of substance mass of NA (no. of particles) mass of 6.02 1023.

Number of particles in one mole of substance of units molecules or atoms.

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B) nderstanding/ Application/ Analysis Why empirical formula of copper ( ) oxide cannot be determined by heating copper po der in a crucible? This is because copper is not a reactive metal so it will take a long time for it to react with the oxygen in air. Thus, to determine the empirical formula of copper (II) oxide, another method is used. The method uses continuous flowing hydrogen gas to ob tain copper metal from the reduction of copper (II) oxide.

Compare and Contrast

Ethane

Empirical Formula CH3

Molecular Formula C2H6

Molecular Formula of Ethanoic Acid, CH3COOH a) Empirical Formula: CH2O b) Percentage of carbon in ethanoic acid Finding Empirical Formula a)


Carbon Mass (g) No. of Moles (mol) Ratio of Moles 3.6 3.6 12 = 0.3 3

Thus, the empirical formula of the compound is C3H8. b)

Thus, the molecular formula of the compound is C6H16.

e e L Hydrogen 0.8 0.8 1 = 0.8 8

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Equation a)
2

b)No of moles of Cu = 20g ( 64+16)gmol-1

= 0.25mol Ratio of moles Cu : Cu = 1 : 1 So Cu has 0.25mol. Mass of Cu = 0.25mol 64gmol-1 = 16g

C) S nthesis (Experiment) Describe a laborator experiment to determine the empirical formula of Magnesium oxide. (*Refer to Chemistry written practical book Activity 3.5)

Cu +

Cu +

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 4: Periodic Table of Elements A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Periodic Table is arranged according to the increase in proton number. Group 1 Atomic size increases i) When going down the group the number of shells occupied with electrons increases. Density increases i) The increase in atomic mass is bigger than the increase in atomic radius. Melting and boiling point increase i) The metallic bond between the atoms becomes weaker down the group as the atomic radius increase. Thus less heat energy is required to overcome the weaker forces of attraction between the atoms during melting/boiling. Electro positivity of the metals increases i) As atomic radius becomes larger down the group the force of attraction between the nucleus and the single valence electron becomes weaker. ence the elements lose the single valence electron more easily down the group. Reactivity increase i) Reactivity increases because the atomic size increase the valence electron in the outermost shell becomes further away from the nucleus. ence attraction between nucleus and valence electron becomes weaker. Thus the atoms can easily donate the single valence electron to achieve the stable electron arrangement of the atom of noble gas.

Group 17 Reactivity decrease i) This is because the atomic size of halogen increases. Thus the outermost occupied shell of each halogen atom becomes further from the nucleus. Thus the strength to attract one electron into the valence shell by the nucleus becomes weaker.

Group 18 Melting and boiling point increase i) Because atomic size of each element increases down the group force of attraction between the atoms of each element becomes stronger. Thus more heat energy is required to overcome the stronger forces of attraction during melting/boiling. Atomic size increases

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Density increases i) Because the increases in atomic mass is bigger compared to the increase in volume.

Period 3 Atomic size decreases from left to right i) The proton number increases from left to right ii) The nuclei charge positive charge in the nucleus increases iii) Nuclei attraction force between the nucleus and the valence electron increase iv) Valence electron becomes closer to the nucleus v) Thus the atomic size becomes smaller

Transitional Elements The elements from group 3 to group 12 in the periodic table. as high melting and boiling point as high tensile strength Malleable Ductile as shiny surfaces Is a good conductor of heat and electricity E ists as solid state in room temperature

B) Understanding/ Application/ Anal sis State position of element  in periodic table

Element X has an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.2. ence it is positioned at period 4 group 2. (Period= no of shells; Group= valence number)

When across period 3 from sodium to argon, the atomic size decreases. Explain. This is because the number of proton increases from left to right. This causes the positive charge in the nucleus to increase. The nuclei attraction force between the nucleus and the valence electron increase. The valence shell containing valence electron becomes closer to the nucleus. ence the atomic size decreases from sodium to argon.

When across period 3 from sodium to argon, the electronegati it increases. Explain. This is because the number of proton increases from left to right. This causes the positive charge in the nucleus to increase. The increase of proton causes the valence shell containing valence electron to be closer to the nucleus. The more the proton number the stronger the

n m

i)

When going down the group the number of shells occupied with electrons increases.

f f f

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

force to attract valence electron and electrons into the valence shell. ence the electronegativity increases across period 3. Reacti it of Group 1 increases down the group. Explain.

Reacti it of Group 17 decreases down the group. Explain.

Wh helium not reacti e?

X is in Group 1. X burnt in oxygen and the product is dissol ed in water. What is the property of solution formed? Explain. The solution form is an alkaline solution. It reacts with acid to form salt and water. The solution formed has this characteristic because group 1 elements are alkali metals whereby its o ide can dissolve in water to form alkali (X ).

Chlorine gas dissol es in water. What can be obser ed if a piece of blue litmus paper is immersed into the solution formed? Explain. Chlorine water changes the blue litmus paper into red then white. This happens because chlorine gas is an acidic gas and when it dissolves in water its acidic properties are displayed and it becomes hydrochloric acid. The litmus paper then changes into white as the solution has bleaching properties ( Cl). Cl2 + 2 Cl + Cl

W is an element from Group 1. Predict the chemical reaction of W with: water and oxygen (include obser ations and chemical equations involved. Reaction with Water

bservations

W2 +

2W

ygen

It burns brightly with flame. White solid is produced and it dissolves in water. The solution formed changes red litmus paper blue.

4W +

2W2

It reacts quickly with water. The solution formed changes the red litmus paper into blue.

Equations 2W + 2 2W +
2

This is because it is a noble gas which has a stable octet electron arrangement. Thus it does not need to receive or losses any electron making it not reactive.

This is because the atomic size of halogen increases. Thus the outermost occupied shell of each halogen atom becomes further from the nucleus. Thus the strength to attract one electron into the valence shell by the nucleus becomes weaker.

t t

Reactivity increases because the atomic size increase the valence electron in the outermost shell becomes further away from the nucleus. ence attraction between nucleus and valence electron becomes weaker. Thus the atoms can easily donate the single valence electron to achieve the stable electron arrangement of the atom of noble gas

~

s r w v

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Describe a laboratory experiment to compare the reactivity of elements in G1: Li, Na, K. (*Refer to Chemistry written practical book Activity 4.1) Describe a laboratory experiment to compare the reactivity of elements in G17: Cl, Br, I in the reaction with iron wool. (*Refer to Chemistry written practical book Activity 4.2)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 5: Chemical Bond A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Anion Cation A positively charged ion A negatively charged ion

Ionic Bond A chemical bond that involves metal atom and non-metal atom where the metal atom donates electron to form positive ion (cation) while non-metal atom accepts electron to form negative ion (anion). igh Melting and Boiling Point i) The atoms are held together by strong ionic bond. Thus more energy is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces between the atoms. Electrical Conductivity i) Solid- The ionic compound cannot conduct electricity because the ions in the compound are constricted in the crystal lattice and unable to move freely. ii) Molten/Aqueous- The ionic compound can conduct electricity because there are freely moving ions which carry charges.

Covalent Bond A chemical bond that involves only non-metal atoms where electrons are shared to achieve stable duplet or octet electron arrangements.

Low Melting and Boiling Point i) The covalent molecules are held together by weak intermolecular force. Thus less energy is needed to overcome the bonds between the covalent molecules. Electrical Conductivity i) Covalent compound cannot conduct electricity in any form as the molecules present in the compound are neutral. There are no ions present and no charge.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

B. Understanding/ Application/ Analysis Why NaCl conduct electricity in aqueous state but cannot conduct electricity in solid state?

Magnesium chloride and hydrogen chloride are two compounds of chlorine. At room condition, magnesium chloride exists as a solid but hydrogen chloride exists as a gas. Explain. Magnesium chloride Solid Ionic compound igh Aspects of view State at room temperature Type of compound Boiling point Inference Gas Covalent compound Low Covalent compound is held together by weak intermolecular forces (Van-derWaals force). This means that a small amount of heat energy is sufficient to change its state. ence at a moderate room temperature it is in gas state. ydrogen chloride

Formation of ionic bond in sodium chloride, NaCl A sodium atom has 11 electrons and it has an electron arrangement of 2.8.1. This electron arrangement is not stable. It needs to donate an electron to achieve an octet electron arrangement. When a sodium atom donates an electron it will become sodium ion with the electron arrangement of 2.8. Chlorine atom has 17 electrons and it has an electron arrangement of 2.8.7. This configuration is unstable. It needs to receive one electron to become stable and to achieve an octet electron arrangement. When a chlorine atom receive and electron it will become chloride ion with the electron arrangement of 2.8.8. When a sodium atom reacts with a chlorine atom an electron of the sodium atom is given to the chlorine atom. The positively charged ion Na+ will attract to the negatively charged ion Cl- to form an ionic compound sodium chloride NaCl. This force enables the two ions to stick together through ionic bond. (*Refer to appendi )

Ionic compound is held together by a strong bond called ionic bond. This means that more heat energy is needed to break the bonds and change the state of the compound. ence at a moderate room temperature it is in solid state.

This is because in aqueous state the ions that made up sodium chloride are able to move freely in the solution. This means that there are charges moving in the solution. ence it can conduct electricity. owever in solid state the ions are at fi ed position in a lattice. They are unable to move around freely. Thus it cannot conduct electricity.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Describe the formation of covalent bond between element from G14 and G17

(*Refer to appendi )

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Draw electron arrangement of the compound formed from the following elements.

(*Refer to appendi )

a) b) c) d) e) f)

Nitrogen and ydrogen Carbon and ygen Magnesium and Chlorine Carbon and ydrogen ydrogen and Chlorine Sodium and o ygen

E ample of formation: tetrachloromethane CCl4 (Carbon- G14 ; Chlorine- G17) The formula of tetrachloromethane molecule is CCl4. Carbon is in group 14 of the periodic table. It has four electron in its valence shell. In order to achieve the octet electron arrangement each carbon atom needs another four more electrons to form an octet electron arrangement. Chlorine atom is in group 17 of the periodic table. It has 7 valence electron. It needs one more electron to achieve the octet electron arrangement. When one carbon atom share one electron with four chlorine atom both carbon atom and chlorine atom can achieve a stable electron arrangement. This means that each chlorine atom share a pair of electron with a carbon atom. This indicates single covalent bond.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 6: Electrochemistry A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Electrolytes Substances that can conduct electricity when they are in molten or aqueous solution and undergoes chemical changes.

Non- Electrolytes Substance that cannot conduct electricity either in molten or aqueous solution.

Electrolysis A process whereby compounds in molten or aqueous solution are broken down into their constituent element by passing electricity through them.

Anode The electrode that is connected to the positive terminal of a battery The negatively charged terminal of a voltaic cell

Cathode The electrode that is connected to the negative terminal of a battery The positively charged terminal of a voltaic cell

Voltaic Cell An electrochemical cell that produces electrical energy from chemical energy

Daniell Cell Zinc and Copper as electrodes

Porous Pot/ Salt Bridge Avoid the solutions from mi ing and still allow electrical contact between the two solutions.

Factors affecting electrolysis of an aqueous solution Position of ions in the electrochemical series Concentration of ions in electrolytes Types of electrodes used in the electrolysis i) Inert( Carbon/ Platinum) ii) Active (Copper etc.)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

B. Understanding/ Application/ Analysis Hydrogen chloride in water Yes This is because in water hydrogen chloride is in the form of ions as it has dissociated. The hydrogen ion and chloride ion present in the aqueous solution carries positive and negative charges respectively. These charges are able to move freely. ence it is able to conduct electricity. Aspects Conduct electricity Inference Hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene No This is because in methylbenzene hydrogen chloride e ists as neutral molecules. It has no charge. ence it is unable to conduct electricity.

Explain the selective discharge of ions at the electrodes. a) Types of electrodes b) Concentration of the ions (*Refer Chemistry written practical book e periment 6.2 and E periment 6.3) Electrolysis of molten lead bromide A crucible is filled with solid lead (II) bromide PbBr 2 until it is half full. The apparatus are set up as shown. The solid lead (II) bromide PbBr2 is heated until it is completely molten. The circuit is switched on for about 20 minutes. The changes at the anode and the cathode are observed. 5. The circuit is switched off and both electrodes are taken out from the electrolyte. The molten lead (II) bromide is carefully poured into a beaker. 6. What is left at the bottom of the crucible is observed and recorded. (*Diagram refer to appendi ) Extraction of Aluminium from Aluminium oxide 1. Cryolite Na3AlF6 is added to aluminium o ide to lower the melting point to about 850 C. 2. The electrodes are made graphite. 3. In the molten state aluminium o ide will dissociates to aluminium ions and o ygen ions according to the following equation:  4. At the cathode: At the anode: verall Equation:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

5. Oxygen will be formed at the anode. It will burn the graphite electrode to form carbon dioxide. ence the graphite anode needs to be replaced occasionally. 6. The aluminium is siphoned off as molten aluminium.

Daniell Cell 1. The solutions are connected through a salt bridge and porous pot. Negative terminal Zinc Zinc metal becomes thinner because zinc atom from the electrode loses two electrons to form zinc ion. Zinc electrode dissolved. Positive terminal Copper Copper metal becomes thicker because the copper (II) ions in the copper (II) sulphate solution receive two electrons to form copper atoms which are later deposited at the copper electrode.

Overal ionic equation:

The flow of electrons from the zinc electrode to the copper electrode results in the flow of electrical current and thus produces electricity. (*Diagram refer to appendix)

Dry Cell Negative terminal Zinc Zinc metal releases electrons and dissolves to form zinc ions. Positive terminal Carbon Ammonium ions receive electrons to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen gas.

1. Manganese (IV) oxide MNO2 oxidises the hydrogen gas and minimises the formation of gas bubbles at the carbon rod when the cell is in use.  2. The flow of electrons from the zinc metal casing (the external circuit) to the carbon rod results in the flow of electrical current and thus produces electricity.

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Extraction of lead from lead (II) oxide (*Refer to extraction of aluminium)

(*Diagram refer to appendix)

(*Diagram refer to appendix)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Anode


Cathode

Overall ionic equation:

Selective discharge of ions in electrolysis of cooper (II) sulphate solution (*Refer to concentration of ion affecting ion discharge)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 7: Acid and Bases and Chapter 8: Salts A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Acid

Base

Alkalis Water Soluble base

pH The measure of the concentration of H+ and OHThe higher the concentration of H+, the lower the pH The higher the concentration of OH-, the higher the pH

Strength of Acid Depends on the degree of ionization or dissociation of the acid in water

Strong Acid Acid which ionizes completely with water to form hydrogen ion, H+(HCl)

Weak Acid Acid which partially ionized in water (CH3COOH)

Strong Alkali Alkali which ionizes completely with water to form hydroxide ion, OH-(NaOH)

Weak Alkali Alkali which partially ionizes in water to form hydroxide ion, OH-(NH3)

Standard Solution Solution with an accurate concentration

Neutralisation

Help bases to dissociate to produce hydroxide ions OHWithout water acid or base cannot exhibits their properties

Chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydroxide ions OH-

Chemical substance which ionizes in water to produce hydrogen ions

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Reaction of an acid and a base.

Monoprotic Acid One molecule of acid dissociates or ionizes in water to form one hydrogen ion, H+

Diprotic Acid One molecule of acid dissociates or ionizes in water to form two hydrogen ion, H+

Triprotic Acid Salt A compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion. One molecule of acid dissociates or ionizes in water to form three hydrogen ion, H+

Precipitation reaction The method used to prepare insoluble salt where two soluble salt solutions are mixed together.

B) Understanding/ Application/ Analysis Ammonia in water 9(alkaline) This is because ammonia partially dissociates in water to form hydroxide ions. The presence of hydroxide ions causes the pH value to increase. Aspects pH Inference Ammonia in trichlomethane 7 (neutral) This is because ammonia exists as neutral molecules in trichlomethane. There is no presence of either hydrogen ion or hydroxide ion that will change the pH value. Thus it is neutral.

80cm3 of distilled water is added to 20cm3 of 2.0moldm-3 solution of HCl. Find molarity of the diluted solution. M1V1 = M2V2 2.0moldm-3(20/1000dm3) = M2 (100/1000dm3) M2 = 0.4moldm-3

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann Titration, 40cm3 of 0.25moldm-3 potassium hydroxide, KOH solution is needed to neutralise 20cm3 of nitric acid, HNO3. Calculate the molarity of nitric acid.

Why same molarity of different acid needed different volumes in order to neutralise the same amount of alkali/ base? (Example: Nitric acid and sulphuric acid) Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid, when it dissociates in water to produce two hydrogen ions per mole. Nitric acid is a monoprotic acid, each mole of it dissociates to form one hydrogen ion. Thus though same molarity of both acids are used to neutralise the same amount of acid with the same molarity, higher volume of nitric acid would be used as compared to the volume of sulphuric acid used because it nitric acid has half the number of hydrogen ion as compared to sulphuric acid.

C) Synthesis (Experiment)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 9: Manufactured Substance in Industry A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Alloys A mixture of 2 or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major component is metal (elements combined physically)

Aim to produce alloys To prevent or minimise corrosion of metal To improve physical appearance of metal Give the metal a strength boost

Composite materials A structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substances such as metal, alloys, ceramics, glass and polymers Components Steel bars and concrete (cement, sand and small pebbles) Yattrium oxide, barium carbonate, copper(II) oxide Used to Construction of large structures like highways, high-rise buildings, Bridges, oil platforms and airport runners Used in bullet trains, medical magneticimaging like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic energy-storage, generators, transformers, computers, electric cables Transmit data, voice and images in a digital format To make household products like water storage tanks, badminton rackets, small boats, skis, helmets To make optical lenses, car windshields, smart energy efficient windows in buildings, information display panels, lens in cameras, optical switches and light intensity meters Pressure 150-300 atp 1-2 atp 5 atp Production Ammonia Sulphuric acid Nitric acid

Composite materials Reinforcement Concrete

Superconductor

Fibre Optics Fibre Glass

Silica, sodium carbonate, calcium oxide Glass fibre and polyester (a type of plastic) Glass and silver chloride or silver bromide

Photochromic Glass

Processes Haber Process Contact Process Ostwald Process

Catalyst Iron Vanadium(v) oxide, V2O5 Platinum/ Rhodium

Temperature 400- 450 C 500 C 850 C

Polymers Large molecules made up of many identical repeating sub-unit called monomers which are joined together by covalent bond

Monomers

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

A simple compound/ basic unit whose molecules can join together to form polymers

Polymerisation A chemical process that combines several monomers to form a polymer or polymeric compound

Synthetic Polymers, their monomers and uses Monomer Ethene Synthetic Polymer Polythene Uses Shopping Bags, Plastic bags, and insulator for electrical wiring

Propene

Polypropene

Piping and ropes

Chloroethene

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC

Artificial leather

Methylmethacrylate

Prespex

Safety Glass

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid

Terylene

Clothing, ropes

Ethane-1,2-diol

Hexane-1,6-dioic acid

Nylon

Clothing, ropes

Hexane-1,6-diamine

Type of Glass Soda-lime Glass

Components Silicon oxide, sodium oxide, calcium oxide

Characteristics Good chemical durability, high thermal expansion coefficient, easy to make into different shapes, low melting point Soft and easy to melt, high density, high refractive index

Uses Bottles, window panels, mirror, bulbs, flat glass, glass containers

Lead Crystal Glass

Silicon oxide, sodium oxide, lead oxide, potassium oxide, aluminium oxide Silicon oxide, sodium oxide, calcium oxide, Boron oxide, aluminium oxide

Art objects, lens, prisms, chandeliers

Borosilicate Glass

Low thermal expansion Cooking utensils, lab coefficient, resistant to glassware, automobile heat and chemical headlights attack

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Fused Glass

Silicon oxide

High heat resistant, high transparency, high melting point, resistant to chemical attack

Lab glassware, lenses, telescope, mirrors

Ceramic Made from clay, such as kaolin. Uses Building materials Kitchen ware Examples Tiles, pipes Cups, bowls

Properties Strong and hard Rust proof and chemical resistance High melting point

Heat insulator

Lining of oven and furnace, sealing surface of space shuttles Porcelain, pots, souvenirs False teeth and artificial limbs Spark plugs, insulators in toaster and electric iron

Longer lasting and pleasing Hard and not compressible Electric insulators

Decorative items Dental and medical uses Electrical items

B. Understanding/ Application/ Analysis Bronze Tin atoms are added to the copper atoms arrangement. Tin atoms are bigger than copper atoms. As a result, the uniformity of the arrangement of copper atoms is disrupted and this prevents the layers of copper atoms to slide over one another. This made bronze harder than pure copper. Acid Rain 1. Release of sulphur dioxide from chimney of factories, and the burning of petrol in cars. 2. The wind carries the pollutant around the globe. 3. Formation of acid rain: a) Sulphur dioxide in air reacts with water and oxygen to form acid rain. 4. Effects:

Copper Copper atoms are arranged in an orderly manner and are packed close together. Because the copper atoms are all in the same size, it enables the layer of copper atoms to slide over easily when a force is applied. This shows that pure copper is malleable and soft.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

a) Acid rain corrodes buildings and metal structures b) Flows into rivers and lakes causing water pollution i) Lakes and rivers become acidic ii) Fish and other organisms die c) Acid rain destroys trees in forest d) Causes soil pollution i) pH of the soil decreases ii) salts are leached out of the top soil iii) roots of trees are destroyed iv) plants die of malnutrition and diseases Manufacturing Sulphuric acid Process named: Contact process Steps involved: 1. Sulphur is burnt in a furnace together with dry air to produce sulphur dioxide. 2. Sulphur dioxide and air are passed over a converter to be converted to sulphur trioxide with the presence of: a) Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5 b) Temperature: 450-500 C c) Pressure: 2-3 atp


3. Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum.   4. Water is added to oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid

Manufacturing Ammonia Process named: Haber process Steps involved: 1. Nitrogen gas and hydrogen are mixed and scrubbed to get rid of impurities. 2. One volume of nitrogen gas and three volume of hydrogen gas are compressed in the presence of 150-300 atp. 3. Then, it goes to the converter. The conditions are: a) Catalyst: Iron b) Temperature: 400-450 C 4. The mixture of gas leaves the converter and is cooled until ammonia condenses. Only 10% of the mixture will produce ammonia.

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

5. The rest of the unsuccessful nitrogen and hydrogen gas are then pumped back to the converter for another chance to react. 6. The ammonia formed are then liquefied and separated to get a better yield. It is then stored under pressure tanks.

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Preparing Ammonium sulphate 1. Titration (ammonia solution and sulphuric acid) (*Titration- refer to chemistry written practical book Activity 7.11) 2. Preparation of ammonium sulphate a) 25.0cm3 of ammonia solution is pipette into a conical flask without adding indicator. b) From the burette, exactly Vcm3 of sulphuric acid is added to ammonia solution. c) The reacted solution is poured into an evaporating dish. d) The solution is heated gently until two third of the solution has evaporated (saturated). The saturated solution is allowed to cool so that the salt crystallises. e) The solution is filtered to obtain the crystals. f) The crystals are pressed between sheets of filter paper to dry. Comparing the hardness of brass and copper 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A steel ball bearing is stick onto the copper block using a cellophane tape. A 1kg weight is hung at a height of 50cm above the ball bearing as shown in figure. The weight is dropped so that it hits the ball bearing. The diameter of the dent made on the copper block is measured. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated twice on the other parts of the copper block in order to obtain an average value for the diameter of dents formed. 6. Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using a bronze block to replace the copper block. 7. The readings are recorded in a table. (*Diagram refer to appendix)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 10: Rate of Reaction A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Rate of Reaction The change in quantity of the reactant or products per time unit Is a measure of how quickly a chemical reaction happens

Fast Reaction The conversion of reactant to products takes place in a short time

Slow Reaction The conversion of reactant to products takes more time to complete

Observable Change A change that can be observed by our senses

Average Rate of Reaction The rate of reaction over an interval of time

Instantaneous rate of reaction Rate of reaction at any given time

Catalyst A substance that changes the rate of reaction. It does not undergo any chemical change

Decomposition A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler substances

Effective Collision A collision between reactant particles that result in reaction between them

Activation Energy, EA The minimum energy the colliding particles must have before collision between them can result in chemical reaction

Energy Profile Diagram A graph that represents the energy change that occurs in a chemical reaction

Collision Frequency The number of collisions per unit time

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Effective Collision Frequency The number of effective collisions per unit time

Collision Theory Theory used to explain chemical reactions in terms of collisions between particles, effective collisions, and activation energy

B. Understanding/ Application/ Analysis Factor Change Effect Collision Frequency Increase Effective Collision Frequency Increase Rate of Reaction Higher

Size of reactant

Smaller Size

More total surface area exposed for collisions Less total surface area exposed for collisions More reactant particles per unit volume Less reactant particles per unit volume Reactant Particles move faster Reactant Particles move slower More reactant particles per unit volume

Larger Size

Decrease

Decrease

Lower

Concentration of reactant

Increase concentration Decrease concentration

Increase

Increase

Higher

Decrease

Decrease

Lower

Temperature of reaction mixture

Higher temperature Lower temperature

Increase

Increase

Higher

Decrease

Decrease

Lower

External pressure of a reaction mixture containing gaseous reactants

Higher pressure

Increase

Increase

Higher

Lower pressure Catalyst Present

Less reactant particles per unit volume Reaction follows path with lower Ea Reaction follows path with higher Ea

Decrease

Decrease

Lower

Increase

Higher

Absent

Decrease

Lower

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann Why hydrochloric acid of 2.0moldm-3 reacts faster with zinc than hydrochloric acid of 0.5moldm-3? This is because 2.0moldm-3 of hydrochloric acid contains a higher concentration of hydrogen ion and chloride ion per unit volume that is able to react with zinc as compared to 0.5moldm-3 of hydrochloric acid. This means that the reaction between 2.0moldm-3 of hydrochloric acid and zinc has a higher collision frequency, effective collision frequency and rate of reaction as compared to the reaction between 0.5moldm-3 of hydrochloric acid and zinc.

C) Synthesis (Experiment) Describe the laboratory experiment to confirm the smaller the size of the reactant, the higher the rate of reaction by using the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid. (*Refer to Chemistry Written Practical book Form 5 Lesson 3 Activity sheet) Describe the laboratory experiment to show that the presence of catalyst will increase the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. 1. Test tube A and B are filled with 5cm3 of hydrogen peroxide and are placed in a test tube rack. 2. Half a spatula of manganese (IV) oxide is put into test tube B. 3. A glowing wooden splinter is inserted into the mouth of both test tubes. 4. The changes on the glowing wooden splinter is observed and recorded. Describe a laboratory experiment to show that an increase in temperature will increase the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution and sulphuric acid. (*Refer to Chemistry Written Practical book Form 5 Chapter 1 Experiment 3)

Yvonne Choo Shuen Lann

Chapter 11: Carbon Compound A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Carbon Compound A compound that contains carbon, C combined with other elements

Organic Compound A carbon compound found in, produced by, or derived from living organisms

Hydrocarbon An organic compound that contains only carbon, C and hydrogen, H

Saturated Hydrocarbon A hydrocarbon that has only single covalent bonds (Alkane: Butane)

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon Alkane A group of saturated hydrocarbons A hydrocarbon that has double or triple covalent bonds (Alkene: Propene)

Structural Formula A formula that shows which atoms are bonded to each other in a molecule of the organic compound

General Formula A formula that shows the general form of the molecular formula of a homologous series

Straight-chain Alkane An alkane in which the carbon, C atoms are joined in a continuous straight line

Substitution Reaction Alkene A group of unsaturated hydrocarbons A reaction in which one atom replaces another atom within a molecule

Addition Reaction A reaction in which a molecule adds to the two carbon, C atoms of a double bond

Homologous Series

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A group of organic compounds in which each member differs from the next one in the series by a fixed unit of structure

Isomers Compounds with the same molecular formulae but different structural formulae

Isomerism The phenomenon of organic compounds existing as isomers

Alkyl Group Alcohol A homologous series containing the hydroxyl group (-OH) A side-chain containing only carbon, C and hydrogen, H atoms joined by single bonds

Functional Group An atom or a group of atoms that is responsible for the similar chemical properties of a homologous series

Hydroxyl Group The functional group of alcohols

Hydration A reaction in which water is added to a compound

Fermentation The reaction in which yeast converts glucose, C6H12O6, into ethanol, C2H5OH

Distillation The process of extracting a substance by vaporizing it then condensing the vapour

Carboxylic Acid A homologous series containing the carboxyl group (-COOH)

Carboxyl Group The functional group of carboxylic acids

Esterification The reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester and water. The reaction is catalyzed by hydrogen ion, H+

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Ester A homologous series containing the carboxylate functional group

Extraction of Ester To take out the ester from its natural sources (fragrant plants)

Oils and Fats Natural Esters

Fatty Acid A carboxylic acid that has a long chain of about 10 to 20 carbon, C atoms. It has only one carboxyl group

1,2,3-propanetriol/ glycerol An alcohol that has three hydroxyl groups

Saturated Fat Has a higher proportion of saturated fat molecules than unsaturated fat molecules

Unsaturated Fat Has a higher proportion of unsaturated fat molecules than saturated fat molecules

Hydrogenation The addition of hydrogen, H2 to the double bond between two carbon, C atoms

Natural Rubber Polymer obtained from the latex of the rubber tree

Elasticity Latex A milk- like colloid obtained from the rubber tree The ability to return to the original shape after being stretched, compressed, or bent

Coagulation of Latex The separation of rubber particles from the water in the latex

Polymer: Refer to Form 4 Chapter 9: Manufactured Substances in Industry

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Chapter 12: Oxidation and Reduction A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Redox Reaction A reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur at the same time

Oxidation Number/ Oxidation State The imaginary charge of an atom if it exists as an ion

Oxidation A chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen, O; loses hydrogen, H; loses electrons; or undergoes an increase in oxidation number

Reduction A chemical reaction in which a substance loses oxygen, O; gains hydrogen, H; gains electrons; or undergoes a decrease in oxidation number

Oxidizing Agent Oxidizes a substance. It is reduced in the redox reaction

Reducing Agent Reduces a substance. It is oxidized in the redox reaction Reducing agent Chloride ion, ClBromide ion, BrIodide ion, ISulphate (IV) ion, SO42Sulphur dioxide, SO2 gas Hydrogen sulphide, H2S

Oxidizing agent Acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution , KMNO4 Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution, K2Cr2O7 Chlorine water, Cl2(aq) Bromine water, Br2(aq) Iron (III) ion, Fe3+

Corrosion of a Metal The oxidation of the metal through the action of water, air, and/or electrolytes

Rusting of Iron, Fe The corrosion of iron, Fe. It is a redox reaction in which iron, Fe is oxidized to form hydrated iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.3H2O or rust

Reactivity Series of Metals An arrangement of metals in the order of their reactivity towards oxygen, O2

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Vigour of a Chemical Reaction Shows how reactive the reaction is

The Extraction of Metal The process of obtaining a metal from its ore

Electrolytic Cell An electrochemical cell that uses electricity to produce a chemical change

Chemical/ Voltaic Cell An electrochemical cell that produces electricity from a chemical change

B. Understanding/ Application/ Analysis

C) Synthesis (Experiment)

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Chapter 13: Thermochemistry A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Exothermic Reaction A chemical reaction that releases energy (in the form of heat) to the surroundings

Endothermic Reaction A chemical reaction that absorbs energy (in the form of heat) to the surroundings

Energy Level Diagram A graph that shows the energy change of a chemical reaction

Heat of Reaction, H The energy change of a chemical reaction. It is the difference between the energy of the reactants and the energy of the products

Thermochemical Equation A chemical equation with the heat of reaction, H written at the end of the equation

Heat of Precipitation The energy change when one mole of precipitate is formed from its ions

Heat of Displacement The energy change when one mole of metal is displaced from its salt solution by a more electropositive metal

Heat of Neutralization The energy change when one mole of water is formed from the neutralization between one mole of hydrogen ions, H+ from an acid and one mole of hydroxide ions, OH- from an alkali

Heat of Combustion The heat given off when one mole of substance is burnt completely in excess oxygen, O 2

Fuel Value/ Heat Value The amount of energy (measured in kilojoules) that can be obtained when 1g of fuel is burnt

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Chapter 14: Chemical for Consumers A. Knowledge (Definition, meaning and facts) Soap The salt formed when a fatty acid is neutralized by an alkali

Detergent The salt formed when an alkyl hydrogen sulphate is neutralized by an alkali

Additives Substances added to a detergent to increase its effectiveness

Biological Enzyme An organic catalyst

Whitening Agent An additive that makes clothes whiter and cleaner

Saponification The hydrolysis of an ester. The catalyst is an alkali

Hydrolysis A reaction of a compound with water

Surface Tension The attractive force between water molecules. This force prevents water from wetting the surface

Food Additive Any substance that is added to food to preserve it or improve its flavour and appearance

Preservative Food additives that prevent or slow down spoilage of food

Antioxidant Food Additives that prevent oxidation of food

Flavouring Agent Food additives that give flavour to food or enhance its natural flavour

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Stabilizers and Thickening Agents Dyes Drug Any natural or artificial made chemical that is reused as a medicine Food additives that colour food or replace lost colours Food additives that improve the texture and consistency of food

Traditional Medicines Medicines that are derived from plants and animals

Modern Medicines Medicines that are manufactured on a large-scale for consumers

Analgesic Modern medicines that relieve pain

Antibiotics Modern medicines that kill bacteria

Psychotherapeutic Medicine Modern medicines used to treat mental illness

Side Effects of a Drug The undesirable effects that the drug produces in addition to that intended