BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Introduction: As a professional in a technical field, you always think that the command of your discipline is all what you need for success. This is clearly understood when you applied for this Centre and chose to obtain a Masters Degree. Since then you seemed busy trying to master the subjects of your specialization. But the most important of all is good Communication. Because now and when you leave the Centre to resume your professional career, communicating about your discipline to others in your field and outside it will become increasingly important. What is the role of communication in the practice of scientific and technical professions? Do people in technical fields read, write, speak and otherwise exchange information in ways that differ from others? Almost always communication is the most human of traits. It is crucial to the everyday practice of science and technology. Communication as basic for all disciplines cannot be specialized. This course has been designed to explore systematically the process of communicating technical and professional information.

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
A definition of Technical Business Communication Specialized communication about technical and scientific topics that uses precise written, visual, and oral methods to reach various audiences seeking specific information on those topics. Communication skills are very important. Whatever your field may be, you need to become a professional in a second field, communication. Technical Business communication is considered within three aspects: 1. Terminology : In this course we use the terms technical and scientific as though they were synonyms; but they are not. Science involves asking basic questions; technology involves applications. This course discusses communication that conveys information about and within a given field. The fundamental communication principles and techniques are essentially the same for technical and scientific fields. In the past, theyre "technical writing", "Basic technical writing," but now "Basic technical communication". Hence, we use the words: communication and message over the more specific writing. 2. Communication Forms : In Technical Business communication, several forms of communications are used, depending in part upon the positions (taken by the professionals)
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and in part upon the audiences one seeks to reach. The three basic forms of communication are: (i) Print: Memos, letters, proposals, progress and final reports, brochures, instructions, documentation, research articles, trade, journal, articles and books. (ii) Oral: speeches, oral reports, meetings, and narration for slide shows, and films, and videotapes. (iii) Visual: slides, transparencies, photographic prints, and films. videotapes,

Of course, these categories are not mutually exclusive. Technical reports often contain photographs, line art, or other visual, and presentations mix oral and visual forms. Today, well-equipped professionals understand all forms. 3. Characteristics : Effective Technical Business communication is characterized by the following three factors: (i) Solid content: The content must withstand the critical review of your profession. You should produce well thought out and properly executed content for your reports. (ii) Understanding communication principles: The basics of communication include planning, structuring, executing and evaluating your message. (iii) Polished Appearance: In today's sophisticated world, advertising, television, and all kinds of print media are extremely well produced. Audiences expect polished, professional looking reports, memos, slide presentations, and other communication products. Don't judge a book by its cover may be good advice, but people do judge appearances first. If your work does not confirm to accepted standards, correct grammar, spelling, style, form, your audience may question your professional competence. Example: in a recent Denver, Colorado election, the republican candidate mailed a campaign brochure to 32,000 voters. His democratic opponent obtained a copy and spotted spelling errors, bad grammar, and poor syntax. The Democratic sent a corrected version, along with his own campaign literature to the district's voters. The associated press (1982) quoted the opponent as saying: "The real issue is not spelling or grammar. Instead, this sloppiness reflects poorly on the republican Candidate's overall competence and his ability to represent the district".
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In the end, the sloppy appeal for voter support detracted from the republican's message, and he lost the election. Admittedly, the three above points are more easily enumerated than applied. All are necessary to effective communication. By itself, no single point ensures effective communication.

THE WRITING PROCESS

The process involves three stages: 1. Stage One : Prewriting It is a stage of experimentation and rehearsal developing from experience and observation ideas, details, and suggestions: words and phrases that will become your final piece of writing. The prewriting techniques will usually provide more than enough material for your writing. 2. Stage Two : Writing Once you have gathered enough material that you feel you have something to say, you are ready to enter the second stage of the process writing (gathering on scraps of paper, in your mind, or on neat, lined paper-it doesnt matter). In this stage you will complete your first draft, composing your ideas in sentences and paragraphs. That simply put your thoughts on paper, to be rearranged and organized later. 3. Stage Three : Post writing This includes writing all later drafts and the final piece. It may involve several additional drafts before you arrive at the final product. It also involves proofreading, the cleanup part of writing. Proofreading includes attention to such details as grammar, spelling and punctuation. It helps to cleanup the mistakes than lessen the effectiveness of what you want to say. Conclusion : Its a mistake to think of the writing process as orderly and linear, or to assume that you have to know precisely what you are going to say before you ever put pencil to paper. Writing is a creative process in which you start writing things down from the very beginning-even before your total meaning is clear to you. Then you allow your words gradually to change and evolve. Only at the end will you discover exactly what to say and how you want to say it.

STYLE IN SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS WRITING

The way you present your ideas in scientific and technical writing is quite different from literary writing: 1. No impressionistic detail as in literary writing. 2. Language is obviously not emotive or suggestive. In technical writing we reduce the emotional involvement of the readers response rather than to evoke it. 3. Elaborate prose is rare. Information is transmitted as objectively as possible. Language is full of ambiguity. It is technically important that we cut away at this ambiguity, using mathematics and other symbols when possible, and the language of daily life as the last resort.
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4. Precision and consistency: Scientific and technical writing should be precise and consistent. The language of science is distinguished by translatability (The linguist Leonard Bloomfield). This is because the meaning of many words has been sharply fixed by agreement e.g. absolute-critical fundamental- have precise meanings which do not vary from user to user as they do in popular language. 5. Less is better in scientific writing: more is in vain when less will serve Newton said in his Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy

PROOFREADING
Generally means correcting a manuscript before submitting it to another reader. The process of proofreading is simple but it requires concentration. When you proofread a composition, you examine each line carefully for errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation and style. It is recommended using a ruler to scan a work from the bottom to the top of the page and from right to left. Since proofreading is the final stage in the writing process, its your last chance to make improvements in your manuscript. Here, there is a checklist of Edited Standard English (ESE), which will help you make full use of the proofreading process: 1. Sentence structure is accurate. There are no fragments or run-on sentences. 2. Participial phrases, prepositional phrases, and dependent clauses are clearly attached to the words they modify, to avoid misunderstanding. 3. Verb tenses are correct, and verbs agree with their subjects. 4. Pronouns are the correct subject or object forms and agree with their antecedents. Singular pronouns such as each, anybody, everybody, or nobody are used with singular verbs. 5. Capitalization, punctuation, and spelling are correct. Slang and other inappropriate words are avoided.

AUDIENCE
The nature of the reader or listener is always crucial in writing. There are five basic guidelines to handle the difficulties of audience background and complex subject matter: 1. Consider your audience: (the people you address) what do they know already? How much more do you want them to know? You need to bridge differences in audience background by being specific and clear. 2. Consider your objective: why are you writing the report? List your goals and think about them before you write:

I am writing this for _________ because I want __________

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3. Develop clear, usable, everyday prose : Despite the popular notion that Scientists arent good writers, the literature tells another story. The tools of fine writing are precision and brevity of explication. 4. Be brief : No matter what you are writing brevity is a virtue. 5. Expect to rewrite : The most skilled writers go through two or three drafts of a composition. You cant expect to do much better.

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

When preparing a memo, letter, report or presentation, your purpose will be one or more of the following: 1. To inform 3. To persuade 2. To instruct. 4. To document or record.

Any message may serve several or all functions, but its dominant function heavily influences its form. Form should follow function. 1. The Informational Function : A model of informative communication is the alphabetized format which we entirely take for granted. At its best, communication has several components. You want to draw attention to the information, have it accepted, interpreted correctly, and stored for later use. Accomplishing those objectives can be difficult. 2. The Instructional Function : If you want the user to do something with the information you provide, your function is to instruct, so let that purpose influence your message's form. Example : an IBM instruction sheet (1982) for unpacking and setting up a new typewriter contains 16 photographs and no words. The pictures provide step-by-step procedures for opening the carton and operating the typewriter. When you provide instructions, encourage your audience to practice and use them. 3. The Persuasive Function : Most communicators want to persuade. What increases communicator's persuasiveness is:

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1. When they indicate that they have searched through the relevant literature and know what others have done on the topic. 2. When they estimate the time and cost that will be required and provide the tools and skills necessary for a new approach. As in the law evidence persuades. The more evidence you have, the better its quality, and the better it is organized and presented, the more likely you are to persuade your audience. Evidence usually persuades better than rhetoric. 4. The Documentary Function : Much business communication consists of documenting how something was built, developed, or repaired. A laboratory journal recording how experiments were conducted provides an excellent example of documentation. A caution: in the professional field of business communication, the words documentation and to document often refer to all the messages that accompany a product, including manuals, specifications, and promotional material.

BASIC COMMUNICATION THEORY

Technical communication involves the transfer of specialized information among specialists. The question then is: What are the elements that make that exchange possible? Understanding the communication process and its components has strong practical value. The earliest and most significant thinking about what communication is occurred in the late 1940s at Bell Telephone Laboratories. Engineer Claude Shannon and his colleague Warren Weaver developed a mathematical model of communication (Shannon and Weaver 1949). They were interested in what happens physically when a message is transmitted (as through a telephone wire). The model they came up with for this process describes Human Communication as well. According to them, the communication elements consist of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sender who originates the message, Message itself. Channel means chosen to transmit the message. Noise which interferes with the message, Receiver who accepts the message. Encoding/Decoding the processes of phrasing the message for transmitting and receiving it in understandable form. Recent researchers added two other elements: 7. Interpretation of the message by the receiver. 8. Feedback reaction to the message, itself a new message. By breaking the communication act into its various parts, we can examine the factors that help or hinder understanding.

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Feedback

Noise Receiver

Sender (Encoder) Message Channel

(Decoder)

Feedback

Sender-Receiver Communication Model

Sender : A sender always takes into account his own characteristics in writing a paper or preparing a speech. For example: You might realize that your appearance can help or hurt your cause. Probably you would dress to covey seriousness of purpose. If you know that you are not good at thinking on your feet, you may prepare notes on major points. You might make a note to yourself to smile once in a while. If you know that your are nervous in front of senior people, such as a panel of IT professors, you might rehearse your talk several times. Knowing things about yourself helps you to plan your communication. Message: Phrasing the message in the correct way occupies most people's attention. How should the message be organized? How long should it be? What level of language should it use? What kinds of symbols will best convey meaning? Errors in formulating the message can easily lead the audience to draw unkind conclusions about the intellectual quality of the work. Unsuitable vocabulary, grammar, and style often confuse and embarrass understanding. Channel: It is the means by which a message is transmitted, such as print, videotape, speech and others. Some channels convey certain types of information better than others. Thus mathematicians and chemists use chalk and board or other written channels. Veterinarians usually describe surgical procedures with slides and other visual channels. Noise : It includes mechanical and semantic barriers to a message. Mechanical noise includes static on a radio or telephone line, music and voices in a crowded restaurant, a messily written report, and the missing paragraphs that make a memo impossible to follow. But much more difficult to recognize and deal with is semantic noise. Communication scholars John C. Merrill and Ralph L. Lowenstein (1979) have suggested the following examples: 1. Divergent backgrounds of the participants. 2. Differences in interests in the message. 3. Differences in language.
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4. Differences in education 5. Differences in sex. 6. Differences in intelligence 7. Differences in class. 8. Differences in age 9. Differences in race 10. Lack of skill by sender or receiver. 11. Mental or physical stress at the time of communication. 12. Lack of mutual respect. Many more kinds of semantic noise exist, and all hinder or prevent understanding. Receiver : A message may be perfectly clear to you, but unless you have studied and acted on receiver characteristics, the message may be meaningless to your reader. Understanding your audience (as mentioned earlier) is the most important step in the communication process. All the careful polishing of messages is a waste of time if you don't know your audience. Consider your audience above all else, design your communication for that audience, and you greatly increase your chance of success. Encoding/Decoding: We use symbols-letters, numbers, words, pictures and others in formulating and translating messages. If we don't use symbols that have meaning for the receiver, communication cant occur. Communicators must precisely define terms and possibly even include a glossary. Interpretation: When people communicate technical information, they usually want to send one particular meaning. Most scientific communication strives for one interpretation. Some messages have more complex interpretations and multiple meanings. Great art fiction, poetry, painting, music, drama, or sculpture, has many different levels of meaning. Feedback : Since it is a response from the receiver, feedback provides clues to whether your first message got through and was correctly interpreted. Feedback may come in the form of a puzzled look, vigorous agreement or disagreement, modified Behaviour, radio signals or other responses. Feedback tells you if communication has occurred. The principles of communication theory can help you to formulate, transmit, and diagnose where and why your communication has gone wrong- or hit the mark. LETTER WRITING The four major sections (or parts) of a business letter are: 1. The Heading : The three lines of the heading contain the following information: 1. The writer's street address and apartment number. 2. The writer's city, state and P.O. box or other code. 3. The date on which the letter is written.
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16902 Brushwood Avenue, Apt. 203. St. Paul MN 55110 June 5, 1995 In almost all business letters, the Heading consists of a printed letterhead and a typewritten date line. Letterhead: Almost every company uses stationery with a printed letterhead that includes the firms name, address and telephone number. Sometimes the letterhead contains the addresses of branch offices, the company's slogan and other useful information. Dateline : It consists of the month, day and year. The month must be written in full, not abbreviated or represented in figures. Both of the following styles are acceptable, but most writers prefer the "business style". Business style: December 12, 2008 Military style : 12 December 2008. 2. The Opening : The opening section normally consists of an inside address and a salutation. However, it sometimes includes a personal or confidential notation and an attention line. A. The Inside Address: consists of the name and the title of the person to whom you are writing or the company name, street address, city, state and post office box or other code. Mr. John Chin Director, Summer Programs American Youth Hostels, Inc. 132 Spring Street New York NY 10012 When writing to a person, use either a courtesy title (Miss, Mrs, Ms, or Mr.) or a professional title (Dr. or Prof.). B. The Salutation (or greeting): It comes on the second below the inside address. Its always followed by a colon. If you are writing to a person, the salutation you select will depend upon the relationship between you and the addressee and the general circumstance under which you are writing. Letter to person : Dear Mr. James: Dear Dr. Paul: Dear Madam: Dear Sir: Dear Professor Eltayeb: Dear Miss Mahasin:

In recent years the abbreviation Ms. has become acceptable in addressing a woman when you do not know whether she is married or single: Dear Ms. Sanhoori: Letter to company:
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Ladies and Gentlemen: Gentlemen: (if a firm is composed of men only) Ladies: (if a firm is composed of women only) When you do not know the name of the person who will be reading your letter, you may repeat the title used in the inside address: Dear Credit Manager C. Personal or Confidential Notation: If the message is of a personal or confidential nature, type Personal or Confidential in all-capital letters or in underscored (underlined) capital and small letters on the second line below the date-starting at the left margin. D. Attention Line: When writing to a company, you may direct your letter to specified person (by name or by title) or department by typing an attention line on the second line below the inside address. Instead of using an attention line, many writers now include the appropriate information in the inside address: ATTENTION: Sales Manager ATTENTION: Miss WILMA STONE Attention of the Sales Manager Attention Personnel Department 3. The Body: It begins two spaces below the salutation. Its the basic part of a business letter, and therefore its sometimes referred to as the message or text . It consists of two parts: A. Subject line: If you wish to give the reader advance notice of what the letter is about, type a subject line on the second line below the salutation. Subject: Account No. 577-17-176 SUBJECT: PRICE CHANGES Subject: Changes in Discount Policy B. Message: The text of the letter begins on the second line below the salutation (or if used the subject line). Arrange the message in at least two paragraphs and use single spacing with one blank line between paragraphs. If the message is very short, use double spacing for all parts of the letter. But if the letter is too long to fit on one page, continue the message on a second sheet of plain paper of the same quality and colour. Type the name of the addressee, the page number and the date: Either: Dr. J. R. Bennett Or : Mrs. Maureen Hanley Page2 September 20, 1990 N. B. Paragraphing: you begin a new paragraph when you begin a new topic or thought. In block form all paragraphs begin at the left-hand margin. In semi block form, however paragraphs are indented five spaces (or ten).
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July 15, 1990

4. The closing : This section consists of the following: A. The complimentary closing: On the second line below the message, type a complimentary closing that is appropriate to the general tone of the message. For example : Very truly yours, Respectfully yours, Yours truly, Sincerely yours, Cordially, Yours very truly, N.B. The closing is followed by a comma and that only the first word is capitalized. The closing is always aligned with the heading. B. Writer's Identification: It usually consists of the name and title of the writer; however, it sometimes includes the name of a department or division of the company. This information usually appears on the fourth line below the complimentary closing. If the writer is a woman who prefers a particular courtesy title, she should include that title with her typed name or (in parentheses) with her signature: Cordially yours, Yours very sincerely, Very cordially yours, Yours sincerely, Cordially yours, Sincerely,

David Sampson General Manager

Yours very truly,

Sincerely yours,

Ms. Sara M. Kennedy Senior Vice President

D.L. Hale, Manager, Accounting Department

C. Enclosure Notation: If a cheque, contract or other item is to be enclosed with the letter, type an enclosure notation on the line below the writer's identification: Enclosure Enc. 2 Enclosures: Cheque Contract
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D. Carbon Copy (CC) Notation: If you wish the addressee to know that you are sending a copy of the letter to someone else, type a cc notation on the line below the writer's identification or, if used, the enclosure notation: cc: Miss Thelma Ashford cc: Dr. Barker CC: Mrs. Swanson Mr. Gorbea E. Postscript (PS): If an addition is made to the message of the letter, type a postscript starting on the second line below whatever notation you used last. If two additions are made, use PS: or PS. for the first one and PPS: or PPS. for the second one. If you indent the paragraphs in the message, indent the first line of the postscript; otherwise, begin it at the left margin. SUGGESTION : Reserve the use of the postscripts for information that you wish to highlight not to overcome faulty planning of the content of the message itself: PS: Remember - this special introductory rate expires April I! PS: Effective February 1, our address will be 810 Broadway-no change in Post office Box. Addressing the Envelope : Begin by writing the return address in the upper left-hand corner of the envelope. Write three lines: 1. Your first and last name but no title. 2. Your street address (place of residence) and house number. 3. Your city, state and postal code (if any). Just below the middle of the envelope and slightly to the right, write the name, title, company name, address, city, state, and postal code of the person (or department) you are writing to. Always use a title (Miss, Mrs., Ms., Mr., Dr.) before the name of the person you are addressing:

Alice Morikame 562 Arroyo Drive Amarillo, TX

Mrs. Grace Winover Credit Manager, Department Connors Department Store 428 Old point Avenue Hampton, VA 23669

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The Content of a Business Letter

The content and tone of a business letter are very different from those of a friendly letter or an essay. Keep your writing clear, simple and to the point. The content has three features: 1. Purpose : What do you want the reader to do? (What is the purpose of your letter?) 2. Information : What does the reader have to know in order to do this? (What information do you need to include in your letter so the reader can respond?). 3. Presentation : How can you get the reader to do this? (What is the best way of wording what you want to say?) When writing any kind of a business letter, three rules govern the content: 1. Be complete : Include all of the information the person reading your letter need to know such as: dates, places, sizes, prices, account numbers and so on. You may want to include photocopied bills or other documents that pertain to the business of your letter, Never send the original of any important document-you may need it later. 2. Be clear and concise : Say everything that you need to say as clearly and briefly as you can. Don't confuse the reader with unnecessary information, 3. Be courteous: You should always create a pleasant tone in your business letter if you want to get results from the letter. Put yourself in the place of the reader.

PROOFREADING A BUSINESS LETTER

Before you mail a business letter, proofread it carefully to be certain that it is complete, follows standard form, and is free from errors. Use the following as a guide in proofreading: Form and appearance : 1. The letter is neatly written in ink or typed with no smudges or obvious corrections. 2. The letter is centered on the page, with each part having the correct amount of spacing above and below. 3. The margins are even. 4. Your signature is legible and written in ink. Punctuation : 1. In the Heading and Inside Address, a comma comes between the city and state. There is no comma between the state and postal code.
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2. A comma comes between the day of the month and the year in the heading. 3. A colon follows the salutation. 4. A comma follows the closing. Capitalization : 1. The name of streets, cities and states in the Heading and Inside Address are capitalized. 2. The name of the month in the Heading is capitalized. 3. The title of the person to whom you are writing and the names of the department and company listed in the inside address (or the closing) are capitalized. 4. The word Dear and all nouns in the salutation are capitalized. 5. Only the first word of the closing is capitalized.

THE APPLICATION LETTER

An application letter-the letter you write to apply for a job-probably will be the most important kind of letter you will ever write. Most employers look upon an application letter as an excellent indicator of an applicant's writing and other communication skills. It is usually accompanied by a C.V.(a resume). The main purpose of an application letter is to get you an in-person interview with the prospective employer. If the letter is weak your chances of getting an interview are likely to be nil. However, if the letter is a good one, you can be reasonably certain that you will be granted an interview. Organisation of the letter : An application letter consists of three sections: 1. The Opening Section : In this section you state the particular job or the specific type of work you are applying for. You may also feature your most outstanding qualification for the job: Please consider me an applicant for the position of an administrative assistant that you have advertised in today's ALWIFAG. I have just completed a two-year business administration program at Juba community College and feel that I am fully qualified for this position with your company. 2. The Middle Section : Here, you elaborate on your opening paragraph and emphasize highlights of your education and of your experience. Relate discussion to the requirements of the job. Refer the reader to enclosed C.V. for additional information. If you wish, indicate why would like to work for the reader's company in particular. the the the you

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3. The Closing Section : In the closing paragraph, you request a personal interview. Make it easy for the reader to grant your request by enclosing a self- addressed postcard or by stating the telephone number where you can be reached during business hours. If the employer is some distance away, you might use a closing paragraph similar to the one that follows:

I am planning to be in Khartoum on May 20th and 21st. Would it be possible for you to grant me a personal interview on either of those days? Your notifying me by returning the enclosed postcard would be very much appreciated.
Note : If you have little or no work experience, stress your educational qualifications, mention any special scholastic achievements or honours; describe courses you have taken to prepare yourself for the particular kind of job; list extracurricular activities and hobbies. If you have part-time work experience, be sure to mention it-even if it is not directly related to the job for which you are applying.

How to Complete a Job Application

When you apply for a job you are typically asked to complete an employment application. You may be asked to complete a job application even if you have already submitted a resume and cover letter. That way, the employer has a record of your personal and employment history, verified and signed by the applicant. It's important for your job applications to be complete, correct (no errors) and accurate. Here is the information you will need to complete an application for employment and tips and suggestions for writing applications that make a great impression. Job Application Form Details: Personal Information:

Name Address City, State, Zip Code Phone Number Eligibility to Work for the company Felony convictions If under age, working paper certificate

Education:

Schools/Colleges Attended Major Degree/Diploma Graduation Dates(s)

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Position Applied For Information:

Title of the job you are applying for Hours/days available to work When you can start work

Employment Information:

Names, addresses, phone numbers of previous employers Supervisor's name Dates of employment Salary Reason for Leaving

References

List of three references - names, job title or relationship, addresses, phone numbers

Resume (if you have one) Tips for Completing Job Applications: 1. Complete all requested information. Don't leave anything blank. If you don't know the details, bring the application home and return it when it's completed. 2. Write clearly and neatly, using black or blue ink. 3. Check for spelling and grammatical errors. Proofread your job application form before turning it in. 4. List your most recent job first when completing employment information. 5. List your most recent education first. Include vocational schools and training programs as well as college and high school. 6. References don't necessarily have to be professional. If you have volunteered you can use members of the organizations that you have helped or if you are a student use your teachers. In all cases, ask for permission prior to using the person for a reference. 7. Don't forget to sign your application!

CURRICULUM VITAE (C.V.)

A Resume is written according two styles: 1. British Style : CURRICULUM VITAE Name: Ahmed Omer Hashim Address: Arkweet district Sq. 67, House No. 140. Telephone: 83238750. Personal: Born: May 17, 1967, in Dongla, North State Marital Status: Single. Health: Excellent Height: 5'8" Weight: 160 pounds Identity Card number: 256894
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Education:

Senior at Dongla High School, College preparatory course Grade point average: 3.5 (B+) Member lab program of Cuyahoga Extra Mural Studies for two years. Attended two-week program students, summer 1982. for gifted science

Extracurricular: Activities Skills:

President, Science Club Member, National Honour Society. Member, Debating Team Captain, swimming Team Can handle laboratory animals; can compile and analyze results of laboratory experiments; can operate centrifuge and other lab equipment; can program computer.

Work Experience: Khartoum Teaching Hospital, Khartoum Lab assistant in study of lung diseases, using animals for research summer 1982, after school 1982 Corner Bookshop, down town, Khartoum. Clerk on Fridays from 1983 to date. References: Mr. Hassan Ali Kamil, Lab Director, Khartoum Teaching Hospital, Khartoum, 783491. Mrs. Hala Bushra Karamalla, Owner, Corner Book Shop, Down Town, Khartoum, 7761240. Mr. Mohammed Tajelsir Siddig Director, Extra Mural Studies Center, Khartoum, 772944. 2. American Style : RESUME Mustafa Ahmed Elkhidir Married No Children Elamarat, Street 27 P. O. Box 6794 Tel: 83427650 Email: m ustakh@mailbox.com
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Objective Education 2002 2004

To obtain a position of a Technical Manager with a firm in Khartoum.

Master of Engineering University.

Business Administration, Centre for and Technological Studies, Alazhari

1996 2001

Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, Khartoum University.

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Experience 2002- Present Languages Personal Reference Electrical Engineer, National Electricity Corporation (NEC). Fluent Arabic and English. Interests include: swimming, cooking and entertaining friends. Dr Sami Sharif, Head Department of Electrical Engineering, Khartoum University, P. O. Box 321 Mr. Azam Ahmed Omer, Operation National Electricity Corporation. Manager,

FILLING OUT FORMS

There are many different kinds of forms: applications for jobs, colleges, loans, licenses, insurance, visas and so on. Objectives: 1. To be able to give personal information about yourself. 2. To be able to fill out forms with the appropriate personal information. Before beginning to fill out any form: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Read the directions carefully. Follow the directions exactly. Be sure to fill out the form completely. Don't leave any spaces blank except those designed for office use. Print neatly in ink or use a typewriter so that the information you write is legible.

Cultural Note: In Europe & the United States the first name and middle name are names which parents choose for children at birth. The last name is the family name and is usually the same as the father's last name. When a woman marries she usually replaces her own last name with that of her husband. In recent years many women choose to keep their own last name and just add their husband's name onto the end, for example: Mary Anderson-Smith. A sample form is given. It is similar to many college application forms and applications for financial aid. Use the information on the form to answer the questions that follow: 1. Which section of the form may you choose to fill out or to leave blank? 2. Which tests are required or suggested for application and acceptance to these colleges? 3. Information about education should begin at what grade?

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4. Which years of extracurricular activities are the colleges interested in? Write your extracurricular and personal activities on a separate sheet of paper. 5. How would you fill out the section entitled "Work Experience"? 6. Is writing in blue ink acceptable? 7. If you are applying for financial aid, where on the form do you indicate this? What do you have to do if you are applying for financial aid?

L OGIC AND WRITING

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Bertrand Russell is supposed to have said People would rather die than think and most do. We are not sure whether his generalizations are true, but we agree with the cautionary note implicit in his remark. Each one of us uses logic daily, sometimes in trivial and sometimes in momentous matters. Logicians ask what would be true if we were to assume a certain set of facts or beliefs. They ask what follows from a given set of views or beliefs. Whereas we ask these things about the particular facts and beliefs that are the circumstances of our own lives, they ask these questions more abstractly. As we learn what logic is all about, the relevance of logic to the concerns of our own lives will grow clearer. It will become more and more obvious that the ability to think logically and to analyse arguments logically is of tremendous practical importance. K ey Words:
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What is that to be a really logical person? Is that different from being a reasonable person? How about being sharp? How do all these differ from being an emotional person or, again, from being persuasive? There are answers to these questions. They may not be hard and fast, definite answers, but they are good answers. There are answers because each of the key terms: logical, sharp, reasonable, emotional, persuasive, has a slightly different meaning in our language. T he Differences :
U U

Being logical focuses on following the consequences of an idea. It is logical to ask: If we accept your assumption, what would then be true? When we want to test a hypothesis, we must first be logical enough to see what the hypothesis implies. A logical person recognizes which ideas contradict certain others, which are consistent with others, and which guarantee the implication that the others are true. Being sharp relates to being discerning, discovering solutions, and creating strategies to accomplish goals. Being reasonable relates to knowledge and preliminary assessment of the overall wisdom of certain beliefs or courses of action. It also relates to knowing ones options and being able to tell the absurd ones from the more or less plausible ones. Being emotional relates to using ones own emotions or eliciting the emotions of other people in order to accomplish goals. It also relates to situations, especially stressful ones, with emotion. Being persuasive is being able to get others to believe you. Emotion and logic are both tools used by persuasive people.
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Being logical can be contrasted with each of the characteristics we have been discussing. Being logical means being able to infer the consequences of various views, beliefs, ideas and assumptions. A logical person is one who uses his or her intellectual powers to think through situations, to try to predict the likely outcome of various alternative courses of actions, to anticipate the necessary and probable consequences of believing certain things or acting certain ways. A person can have any of the characteristics we discussed, or a person can fail to have any one of them. Since they are different, a person can have any combination of them. So, for example, one person can be logical, sharp and emotional while another is persuasive and reasonable and still another is logical, unemotional and unreasonable. Exercise In the Space to the left of each question, identify the concern raised by that question? Select your answer from: A. B. C. D. The concern is with being logical The concern is with being reasonable or sharp The concern is with persuasion through appeals to emotion The concern is none of the above

_____ 1. Yes, Senator, but I ask you, what do you take to be the consequence of this mass of evidence? _____ 2. Doctor, please tell me what you do in my situation? _____ 3. Im very sorry but I just havent finished the job. As considerate as you are, Im sure youll give me an extension. _____ 4. When do we eat? Logic is concerned with arguments : Deduction and induction One argument is that there are two kinds of scientific knowledge: Knowledge that something happens: observations of the world Knowledge why something happens: explanations of reasons

Inductive logic is explanations that are derived from observations. Deductive logic is reasoning by proof. Conclusions are obtained by logical arguments, starting with assumptions. Deductive Logic Statements may be a premise or a conclusion. Premise 1 Tokyo Tower is in Japan. Premise 2 I am at Tokyo Tower. Conclusion Therefore, I am in Japan.

The conclusion is valid; however it is true only if the premises are also true. Premises are not necessarily true statements.
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P: Everyone who studies IT at the school of Maths is intelligent. P: Eman studies IT at the school of Math. C: Eman is intelligent. Logic is concerned with the relationship that exists between the premises and the conclusions of arguments. If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. Logic studies relationships : Logic studies the relationship between the stated premises and their conclusion. If the premises entail, imply, strongly warrant, strongly support the conclusion, we say that the argument is logically correct. But if the premises neither entail, nor imply, nor strongly support, nor strongly warrant the conclusion we say that the argument is not logically correct P: Any act performed voluntarily should be subject to either praise or blame. P: Ali voluntarily entered into a contract to redecorate the Family Park. C: So Alis act of entering into the contract should be subject to praise or blame. P: We want to become parents by becoming biological parents or adoptive parents. P: We should not adopt a child unless we both really want to do that. P: We do not both really want to do that at this time in our marriage. C: So we should try to become biological parents rather than adoptive parents at this time. Examples of arguments that are not logically correct : P: I took one course in economics and the Prof was a real bore. C: So all economics Profs must be terrible teachers. Here the premise asserts that only economics Professor is boring, so you can see that there is no basis supplied for the conclusion that all are boring. P: Everyone who goes to the school of Maths is intelligent. P: Adil does not go to the school of Maths. C: Therefore Adil cannot be intelligent. Here the first premise asserts the intelligence of all those who do go to the school of Maths. But no premise says anything about the intelligence of those who dont attend. Thus, the fact that Adil doesnt go, allows us no conclusion about his intelligence. N.B. P: means that the statement that follows is a premise. C: means that the statement that follows is a conclusion. Syllogism: If A=B, and B=C it follows (from you say) that A=C. Premises and Conclusions Finding the Premises : What sentences has the author supplied as the basis from which the conclusion is supposed to be derived?
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Or what assertive sentences are presented as the support or justification for the conclusion? PREMISE INDICATORS Since After all .. Given that .. Whereas . But .. Although . And . Because On the ground(s) that .. Inasmuch as This may be inferred from .. .. This may be deduced from . This is indicated by Finding the Conclusion : Suppose. Assume .. Lets take it that Here are the facts .. Lets begin with This is the evidence .. We all know that .. For This follows from .. This may be derived from This is shown by .. The reason is (that) ..

What did the author of the argument claim to prove? That statement is the arguments conclusion. Here is a list of the words that tell on the presence of the conclusion: CONCLUSION INDICATORS Thus .. This evidence warrants that .. Therefore This supports the view that . So . As a consequence . Hence .. So it seems that . It follows that . And so probably .. Lets conclude . We can deduce that .. This means that . We can justifiably infer that . This implies that .. Lets infer that . These facts indicate This supports believing that . We can now infer , then . Consequently .. In sum As a result .. We may infer that . Accordingly This proves that . I (we) conclude (that) .. From .

Categorical Syllogisms The Structure of Syllogism

A categorical syllogism (i.e. deductive logic) is an argument consisting of three categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice. One of those terms must be used as the subject term of the conclusion of the syllogism, and we call it the minor term of the syllogism as a whole. The major term of the syllogism is whatever is employed as the predicate term of its conclusion. The
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third term in the syllogism doesn't occur in the conclusion at all, but must be employed in somewhere in each of its premises; hence, we call it the middle term. Since one of the premises of the syllogism must be a categorical proposition that affirms some relation between its middle and major terms, we call that the major premise of the syllogism. The other premise, which links the middle and minor terms, we call the minor premise. Consider, for example, the categorical syllogism: No geese are felines. Some birds are geese Therefore, Some birds are not felines. Clearly, "Some birds are not felines" is the conclusion of this syllogism. The major term of the syllogism is "felines" (the predicate term of its conclusion), so "No geese are felines" (the premise in which "felines" appears) is its major premise. Similarly, the minor term of the syllogism is "birds," and "Some birds are geese" is its minor premise. "geese" is the middle term of the syllogism. Standard Form A categorical syllogism in standard form always begins with the premises, major first and then minor, and then finishes with the conclusion. Thus, the example above is already in standard form. Although arguments in ordinary language may be offered in a different arrangement, it is never difficult to restate them in standard form. Once we've identified the conclusion which is to be placed in the final position, whichever premise contains its predicate term must be the major premise that should be stated first. Form and Validity This method of differentiating syllogisms is significant because the validity of a categorical syllogism depends solely upon its logical form. Remember our earlier definition: an argument is valid when, if its premises were true, then its conclusion would also have to be true. The application of this definition in no way depends upon the content of a specific categorical syllogism; it makes no difference whether the categorical terms it employs are "mammals," "terriers," and "dogs" or "sheep," "commuters," and "sandwiches." If a syllogism is valid, it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false, and that can be the case only if there is something faulty in its general form. This suggests a fairly straightforward method of demonstrating the invalidity of any syllogism by "logical analogy." If we can think of another syllogism which has the same mood and figure but whose terms obviously make both premises true and the conclusion false, then it is evident that all syllogisms of this form, including the one with which we began, must be invalid. Diagramming Syllogisms The modern interpretation offers a more efficient method of evaluating the validity of categorical syllogisms. By combining the drawings of individual propositions, we can use Venn diagrams to assess the validity of categorical syllogisms by following a simple three-step procedure:

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1. First draw three overlapping circles and label them to represent the major, minor, and middle terms of the syllogism. 2. Next, on this framework, draw the diagrams of both of the syllogism's premises. o Always begin with a universal proposition, no matter whether it is the major or the minor premise. o Remember that in each case you will be using only two of the circles in each case; ignore the third circle by making sure that your drawing (shading or ) straddles it. 3. Finally, without drawing anything else, look for the drawing of the conclusion. If the syllogism is valid, then that drawing will already be done. Consider now how this could be applied, step by step, to an evaluation of a the following syllogism: No M are P. Some M are S. Therefore, Some S are not P. First: we draw and label the three overlapping circles needed to represent all three terms included in the categorical syllogism:

Second: we diagram each of the premises:

Since the major premise is a universal proposition, we may begin with it. The diagram for "No M are P" must shade in the entire area in which the M and P circles overlap. (Notice that we ignore the S circle by shading on both sides of it.) Now we add the minor premise to our drawing. The diagram for "Some M are S" puts an inside the area where the M and S circles overlap. But part of that area (the portion also inside the P circle) has already been shaded, so our must be placed in the remaining portion.

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Third: we stop drawing and merely look at our result. Ignoring the M circle entirely, we need only ask whether the drawing of the conclusion "Some S are not P" has already been drawn. Remember, that drawing would be like the one below, in which there is an in the area inside the S circle but outside the P circle. Does that already appear in the diagram above? Yes, if the premises have been drawn, then the conclusion is already drawn.

Now consider the following statements and conclusion: (1) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are aggressive Conclusion: Some men are aggressive

This seems to be a reasonable conclusion, but then consider the following: (2) Statement 1: All men are animals Statement 2: Some animals are female Conclusion: Some men are female

Now the conclusion appears to be ridiculous and false - yet the reasoning is exactly the same as in the first example. The first example thus has a false conclusion. The animals who are aggressive are not necessarily men. What is happening here is that we are using what we know to be true as a substitute for the logic of the statement. In less certain situations, we use the same unspoken assumptions and beliefs to less acceptable ends.

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Using Venn diagrams The diagram below is a valid drawing that explains the first two statements in the example.

The conclusion of the example falls into the traps of making the assumption that the 'aggressive animals' and 'men' subsets necessarily overlap, whereas there is no necessity for this in statements one and two. Although the conclusion could be true it does not have to be true.

So what?
Beware of making linked assertions that seem reasonable but in fact are logically incorrect. You can, of course, make such assertions deliberately, using logic that seems valid to persuade. If you do this, of course, you run the risk of the other person exposing your false logic.

DERIVATION OF WORDS
A word that cannot be reduced to a simpler form is called a primitive word; as, true, sun, A word formed by means of a prefix or a suffix is called a derivative word; as, untrue, sunny, A syllable added to the beginning of a word, to vary its meaning, is called a prefix; as, unkind, not kind. A syllable added to the end of a word, to vary its meaning, is called a suffix; as fearless, without fear. When a word is made up of two or more elements, the principal element is called the base of the word; as, kind, in unkind. The base of a derivative word is not always a word. It may be a significant element called a stem; as, flect, in reflect, A word formed by uniting two or more simple words is called a compound word; as, rainbow, steamboat. 1. Using prefixes look at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below with one of the prefixes in this list. co co-chairman co-worker
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mid over under re self sub un

midnight overact undercharged rebuild self-help subnormal untie arrange

midair overpaid underpaid reappear self-contained subway undo

midweek overdone redone

Afternoon fold marry wrap

button charge control done morning screw service standard

driver way

excited winter

2. Using negative prefixes Look at these examples and fill each gap with more examples, using the root words below with one of the negative prefixes in this list. un in il ir im dis mis unkind untidy indirect indecent illegal illegible illiterate irregular irrelevant immature impossible immoral disagree dissatisfied misunderstand misbehave spell

accurate approve comfortable convenient expected familiar known like lucky obey patient personal popular probable pronounce tolerant visible 3. Using suffixes: Adjectives

Look at these examples and fill the gaps with more examples, using the root words below + one of the suffixes in this list. - al - ical - able - ful - less - ish -y regional biological acceptable careful painless childish hairy national ------------------------------------geographical ---------------------------reliable -----------------------------------fearful ------------------------------------thoughtless -------------------------------whitish ------------------------------------woolly ---------------------------------------

alphabet break bump care colour comfort draught enjoy fear fool grammar grey hope mathematics music noise obtain old pain profession rain rest sleep small smell success sun tall thought tradition use wash young. Remember that these words end in ( ible) not (- able): (in) credible (in) edible (in) flexible (im) possible (ir) responsible (in) visible eligible horrible indelible negligible terrible 4. Using suffixes: Actions and people Look at these examples of verbs. Add more of your own, using the root words below with one of the suffixes in this list.
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-ise / -ize -en -ify Central summary

modernise summarise widen loosen classify

sterilise symbolize strengthen sharpen clarify. less

centralise harden soften

individualise lengthen tighten flatern lessen

flat individual symbol tight

loose

pure

sharp

simple

soft

Notice that these verbs dont have a suffix: raise heat cure lift warm heal lower melt drop cool chill freeze

These are examples of personal nouns: Employer, employee, etc. add more examples, using the root words below. - er employer (= someone who employs) - ee employee (= someone who is employed) - or inventor conductor - ant participant immigrant servant - ist chemist biologist motorist art assist broadcast clean cycle direct manage science sing ski teach type Notice that these words all end in ( ent): absent evident violent ancient efficient correspondent independent frequent resident confident patient convenient student

inhabit visit

inspect

instruct

5. Using suffixes: Abstract nouns i. Nouns from verbs Add more examples, using the root words below with these suffixes: - ation pronunciation qualification ------- ------- ------- ion prediction description depression -------- ------ ment arrangement replacement ------- -------- al arrival refusal -------- --------- --------- ance performance appearance ---------- --------accept approve assist associate astonish connect demonstrate disappear embarrass encourage improve object propose reflect remove starve survive translate

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ii. Nouns from adjectives and nouns Look at these examples and add more of your own, using the root words below with one of these suffixes. Use a dictionary to check your spelling, if necessary: - ness - ity -y - ship - hood kindness ability honesty friendship childhood friendliness -------- --------- --------- ---possibility --------- --------- --------- -----frequency --------- --------- --------- ---relationship --------- --------- --------fatherhood --------- --------- --------- ---

accurate available blind careless cheerful confident efficient fluent intelligent leader member mother owner parent patient photograph probable real sad selfish shy silent sportsman suitable Notice the following associated adjectives and nouns: Anxious anxiety strong strength delighted delight wise wisdom bored boredom proud pride hungry hunger thirsty thirst

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