POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN

for High-Frequency Circuit Design Elective

by Michael Tse

September 2003

Contents
Scattering Parameters Relationship with voltage and current Meanings of s-parameters Intuitive Stability Issues Gain Definitions of Power Amplifiers Transducer Power Gain of Two-Port Circuits Using s-parameters Signal Flow Graph Reduction Matching for Maximum Transducer Power Gain Stability of Amplifier Conditions for Stability Conditional and Unconditional Stability Determining Stability Regions Rollett Criteria Stabilizing Amplifiers by Neutralization via y-parameters

M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Scattering Parameters
When a wave arrives at a circuit, its energy is being scattered and partitioned into many possible outgoing waves. Scattering parameters of a circuit describe how a set of incoming waves is scattered. a1 b1 a2 b2
an: incident wave at port n bn: reflected wave at port n

B = SA
b1 b2 M bn a1 a2 M an

a8 b8

a3 b3

[S]
a7 b7 a4 b4

S is called scattering matrix

a6 b6

a5 b5
3

M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Two-port Scattering Parameters

Suppose a1 is the incident wave at port 1, b1 is the reflected wave at port 1; b2 is the incident wave at port 2, b2 is the reflected wave at port 2. a1 b1 a2

[S]

b2

b1 s11 = b2 s21

s12 a1 s22 a2

or

b1 = s11a1 + s12 a2 b2 = s21a1 + s22 a2

s11, s12, s21 and s22 are called scattering parameters. They completely characterizes the two-port circuit.

M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Relationship with voltage and current

a1 = a2 = V1 + Z o I1 2 2Z o V2 + Z o I2 2 2Z o b1 = b2 = V1 - Z o I1 2 2Z o V2 - Z o I2 2 2Z o
Note: Zo is the normalization factor such that aa* and bb* give the incident and reflected powers.

Special case: a one-port scattering parameter is simply the reflection coefficient! z -1 Z s=G= where z = L z +1 Zo Similarly, for n-port circuits,

[S] = [Z 1][Z + 1]1

unit matrix
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Meanings of s-parameters
Suppose port 2 is matched with a resistor. So, there is no reflection back into the circuit, i.e., a2 = 0. a1 b1

[S]

b2

In this case, the reflected wave at port 1 is s11a1, and the wave transmitted to the load resistor is s21a1. So, basically, s11 and s21 tell how power is split between the possible output ports (here port 1 and port 2 are possible output ports). If this circuit is a good amplifier, we want a small s11 and a large s21. Also, if the circuit is lossless and gainless, input power must equal output power, so |s11|2 + |s21|2 = 1.
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Intuitive Stability Issues

Lets look at a one-port circuit. There is only one s-parameter which is s11. If this s11 is large (say >1), then it actually reflects more power or it has a reflection gain. Stability can be a problem. If this one-port is connected to a load (say a transmission line) of reflection coefficient g1 and if |s11g1| > 1, the circuit will oscillate. This is just the same Barkhausen criterion for oscillation, which says that if the round trip gain is one and phase shift is 2, oscillation occurs. Lets look at a two-port circuit. A large s11 or s22 can cause instability for some source impedance or load impedance.

G = g1

s11

round-trip gain = |s11g1|

G = g1

[S]

G = g2

Normally, an amplifier has large s21 (of course). If it has small s12 and a mismatched input or output, the circuit may oscillate if the round trip gain exceeds one. Typically, if the input reflection coefficient is g1 and output reflection coefficient is g2, then MORE instability occurs if |s21s12g1g2| > 1.
M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

round-trip gain = | s21s12g1g2 |

DETAILS LATER
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Gain Definitions in Power Amplifiers

Power Gain = power dissipated in load Z L power delivered to amplifier Available Gain =

amplifier output power available power from generator source

Exchangeable Gain =

output exchangeable power input exchangeable power

where exchangeable power of source =

V 4Re[ Z G ]

Insertion Gain =

output power power dissipated in load if the amplifier were absent power delivered to load available power from source
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Transducer Power Gain =

Transducer Power Gain of Two-Port Circuit

Using z-parameters
ZG VG

I1
+

I2

V1

[Z]
z12 z21 z22 + Z L
2

V2

ZL

Z in = z11 Power available from source =

VG 8Re[ ZG ]

Power delivered to load =

2

1 2 I2 Re[ Z L ] 2

Transducer Power Gain

GT =

4Re[Z L ]Re[ZG ] z21

( ZG + z11)(Z L + z22 ) - z21z12

M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Using s-parameters
ZG VG GG Gi bG a1 b1 a2 b2

[S]

ZL

1 2 bG Suppose the circuit is matched, i.e., GG = Gi* The available power Pa is Pa = 2 2 1- GG

Power delivered to load PL is PL = Transducer power gain is

1 2 2 b2 1- GL 2

2 G

GT =

b2 bG

2 2

(1- G )(1- G )
2 L

Problem: can we express |b2/bG| in terms of s-parameters?

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Signal Flow Graph (SFG) Reduction

Rule 1:

= =

XY

X+Y

Rule 2:

Y Y

Rule 3:

X 1- Y

11

Rule 4:

We can use these rules to find |b2/bG|.

M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

SFG for the s-parameter circuit

bG= a1

GG

a1

s21 s22 s12

b2

b2 GL

bG 1- GG s11

s21 1- GL s22

s11 b1

b2

21

G G 1- GG s11

1- GL s22

a2

From the reduced SFG, we get

bG s21 1- GG s11 b2 = s21s12GL GG 1- GL s22 1(1- GL s22 )(1- GG s11 )

s12

Transducer power gain is

GT =

b2 s21 = bG (1- GL s22 )(1- GG s11 ) - s21s12GL GG

s21 1- GG
2

)(1- G )
2 L 2

(1- GL s22 )(1- GG s11 ) - s21s12GL GG

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Extensions:
Unilateral power gain

Gu = GT

s12 = 0

s21 1- GG

)(1- G )
2 L 2

(1- GL s22 )(1- GG s11)

Maximum unilateral power gain occurs when s12 = 0, GG = s11* and GL = s22*.

Gu,max =

s21
2 11

2 2

(1- s )(1- s )
22

NOTE: s12 = 0 means there is no internal feedback within the two-port. This is that impossible to achieve at Ghz range. For practical transistors, s12 is very small but never 0. The above does not really exist in practice.

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Matching for Maximum Power Gain

Maximum power gain occurs when both terminals are matched.

ZG

2-port
GG Gi Go GL

ZL

The conditions are

s21s12GL 1- GL s22 s s G * and Go = GL = s22 + 21 12 G 1- GG s11

* Gi = GG = s11 +

(a) (b)

We want to find GG and GL that satisfy the above conditions.

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Putting (b) in (a), we get

* GG = * * * s11 (1- GG s11 ) - D(s* - GG D* ) 22 * * * * * 1- GG s11 - s22 + s22D GG
2 2 2

2 * GG (s* D - s11 ) + GG (1- s22 + s11 - D ) - s11 + D* s22 = 0 22

2 -GG C1 + GG B1 - C1* = 0

where C1 = s11 - Ds* 22

B1 = 1+ s11 - s22 - D
2 2 2

and D is the determinant of [S].

find G , we need to solve the above quadratic equation. The answer is To G

GG =

C1* 2 B B12 - 4 C1 2 1 2 C1
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M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Similarly, we get GL as

GL =
* where C2 = s22 - DS11

* C2 2 2 B2 - 4 C2 2 B2 2 C2

B2 = 1+ s22 - s11 - D

To choose the appropriate sign in the above formulae, we simply check

whether B1 and B2 are positive or negative. If Bi > 0, we take the sign.

Otherwise, we take the + sign. Finally, the matching impedances can be found using 1+ GG ZG = Z 0 1- GG 1+ GL ZL = Z0 1- GL
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Stability of Amplifier
Problem: unwanted oscillation may occur if there is a feedback loop.

Amplifier

feedback

External circuit Feedback parasitic elements Internal feedback path, e.g., C

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Conditions for Stability

Requirement:

Gi 1 and

Go 1
Hence, the stability boundary is represented by circles corresponding to

Gi

2-port
Go

Gi = 1 and

Go = 1

Go = 1

(un)stable

GL = 0 Gi = 1
(un)stable (un)stable

Smith chart

(un)stable

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The condition Gi = 1 is equivalent to

s11 - DGL =1 1- GL s22
* * * (1- GL s22 )(1- GL s* ) = (s11 - DGL )(s11 - D*GL ) 22

Mathematical manipulation gives 2 * s12 s12 D* s11 - s* * Ds11 - s22 22 GL + GL + = 2 2 2 2 2 2 s22 - D s22 - D s22 - D

which is a circle equation with

centre

cL =

s11D* - s* 22 2 2 D - s22

and radius rL =

s12 s12

(s

22

-D

)
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M. Tse: Power Amplifier Design

Similar, for the input side, we have the stability circles centre and radius given by

cG =

* s22D* - s11 2 2 D - s11

and

rG =
GL = 0

s21s12 2 D - s11
2

Go = 1

(un)stable

Gi = 1
(un)stable (un)stable

(un)stable

Smith chart

Question: Which side is stable?

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Determining Stability Regions

Simple trick:
We know that when the load (or input) side is matched, we have GL = 0 (or GG = 0) which is the centre of the Smith chart. But, when the load is matched, we have Gi = s11. So, if | s11 | < 1, then we know that the centre of the Smith chart is stable, and so is the whole region that covers the centre. Similar reasoning applies for the input side. Zo GL = 0

stable if |s11| < 1

unstable if |s11| < 1

Smith chart
load stability circle

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Unconditional Stability
The amplifier is unconditionally stable if the stability circles are outside the unit circle (Smith chart boundary) and |s11|<1 and |s22|<1.

load stability circle unstable if |s11| < 1 stable if |s11| < 1

|Gi| = 1

input stability circle

|Go| = 1

unstable if |s11| < 1

Smith chart

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Conditional Stability
The amplifier is conditionally stable if the stability circles overlap with the unit circle (Smith chart boundary) and |s11|<1 and |s22|<1. We should only operate the amplifier with terminal impedances located further away from the stability circles.

unstable if |s11| < 1

stable if |s11| < 1

load stability circle

|Gi| = 1

input stability circle

|Go| = 1

unstable if |s11| < 1

Smith chart

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Stability Criteria in Algebraic Form

It can be shown mathematically that the unconditional stability criteria can be translated to the following equivalent form:

k=
and

1- s11 - s22 + D 1 2 s12 s21

D 1

The above is called the Rollett criteria, and k is called the stability factor, sometimes called the k-factor.

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Stabilizing a Transistor by Neutralization

A transmitter can be inherently unstable due to internal feedback of C. Suppose a transistor has the following scattering parameters:
0.73 -102 0.10 48 [S] = 2.21 104 0.47 48

Hence, we can find the stability factor and determinant as

k = 0.752 and |D| = 0.294.

So, Rollett criteria are not satisfied, and the amplifier is NOT unconditionally stable! That means, the amplifier can be unstable for certain load and input impedances. How can we make it unconditionally stable?
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One way to solve this problem is to use a shunt feedback to neutralize the internal feedback. This method is okay up to VHF range and is valid for narrowband only.
Amplifier [Ya]

YG

YL

=
external feedback circuit [Yf]

YG

[YT]

YL

Since the feedback is shunt-shunt type, y-parameters should be more conveniently used in analysis. The overall [YT] is [YT] = [Ya] + [Yf]
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Suppose a simple feedback circuit is used:

yfb

y -y fb [Y f ] = fb -y fb y fb

Also, from the s-parameters, we can find the y-parameters of the amplifier:

5.5307 10-3 + j1.9049 10-2 S 3.9086 10-4 - j2.3092 10-3 S [Ya ] = -2 -2 -3 -3 4.7114 10 - j2.1376 10 S 5.4445 10 + j5.184110 S

Thus, the overall y-parameters are

5.5307 10-3 + j1.9049 10-2 + y fb S 3.9086 10-4 - j2.3092 10-3 - y fb S [YT ] = -2 -2 -3 -3 4.7114 10 - j2.1376 10 - y fb S 5.4445 10 + j5.184110 + y fb S

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Our aim is to neutralize the internal feedback using the external feedback yfb. Obviously, if we set yfb = j2.3092 S, then the internal feedback is cancelled. This gives
5.5307 10-3 + j1.6739 10-2 S 3.9086 10-4 - j0 S [YT ] = -2 -2 -3 -3 4.7114 10 - j1.9067 10 S 5.4445 10 + j2.8750 10 S

We can now convert it back to s-parameters, and find the stability factor and determinant again. We get k = 2.067 and |D| = 0.4037. These satisfy the Rollett criteria and the amplifier becomes unconditionally stable.

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