Dalton, John

Dalton, John (b. Sept. 6, 1766, Eaglesfield, Cumberland. Eng.- d. July 27, 1844,
Manchester), British chemist and physicist who developed the atomic theory of matter
and hence is known as one of the fathers of modern physical science.
Dalton was the son of a Quaker weaver. When only 12 he took charge of a Quaker school
in Cumberland and two years later taught with his brother at a school in Kendal, where he
was to remain for 12 years. He then became a teacher of mathematics and natural
philosophy at New College in Manchester, a college established by the Presbyterians to
give a first-class education to both layman and candidates for the ministry, the doors of
Cambridge and Oxford being open at that time only to members of the Church of
England. He resigned this position in 1800 to become secretary of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society and served as a public and private teacher of
mathematics and chemistry. In 1817 he became president of the Philosophical Society, an
honorary office that he held until his death
In the early days of his teaching, Dalton's way of life was influenced by a wealthy
Quaker, a capable meteorologist and instrument maker, who interested him in the
problems of mathematics and meteorology. His first scientific work, which he began in
1787 and continued until the end of his life, was to keep a diary - which was ultimately to
contain 200,000 entries - of meteorological observations recording the changeable
climate of the lake district in which he lived. In 1793 Dalton published Meteorological
Observations and Essays. He then became interested in preparing collections of botanical
and insect species. Stimulated by a spectacular aurora display in 1788, he began
observations about aurora phenomena - luminous, sometimes colored displays in the sky
caused by electrical disturbances in the atmosphere. His writings on the aurora borealis
reveal independent thinking unhampered by the conclusions of others. As Dalton himself
notes, "Having been in my progress so often misled by taking for granted the results of
others, I have determined to write as little as possible but what I can attest by my own
experience." In his work on the aurora he concluded that some relationship must exist
between the aurora beams and the Earth's magnetism: "Now, from the conclusions in the
preceding sections, we are under the necessity of considering the beams of the aurora
borealis of a ferruginous (iron-like) nature, because nothing else is known to be magnetic,
and consequently, that there exists in the higher regions of the atmosphere an elastic fluid
partaking of the properties of iron, or rather of magnetic steel, and that this fluid,
doubtless from its magnetic property, assumes the form of cylindric beams."

Some of his studies in meteorology led him to conclusions about the origin of trade winds
involving the Earth's rotation and variation in temperature - unaware, perhaps, that this
theory had already been proposed in 1735 by George Hadley. These are only some of the
subjects on which he wrote essays that he read before the Philosophical Society: others
included such topics as the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, rainfall, the formation

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of clouds, evaporation and distribution and character of atmospheric moisture, including
the concept of the dew point. He was the first to confirm the theory that rain is caused not
by any alteration in atmospheric pressure but by a diminution of temperature. In his
studies with water he determined the point of the maximum density of water to be 42.5° F
(later shown to be 39.16° F. Along with his other researches he also became interested in
color blindness, a condition that he and his brother shared. The results of this work were
published in an essay, "Extraordinary Facts Relating to the Vision of Colors" (1794), in
which he postulated that deficiency in color perception was caused by discoloration of
the liquid medium of the eyeball. Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own
lifetime, the meticulous, systematic nature of his research was so broadly recognized that
Daltonism became a common term for color blindness.

An indefatigable investigator or researcher, Dalton had an unusual talent for formulating

a theory from a variety of data. The mental capacity of the man is illustrated by his major
work that was to begin at the turn of the century - his work in chemistry. Although he
taught chemistry for six years at New College, he had no experience in chemical
research. He embarked on this study with the same intuitiveness, independence of mind,
dedication, and genius for creative synthesis of a theory from the available facts that he
had demonstrated in his other work. His early studies on gases led to development of the
law of partial pressures (known as Dalton's law; q.v.), which states that the total pressure
of a mixture of gases equals the sum of the pressures of the gases in the mixture, each gas
acting independently. These experiments also resulted in his theory according to which
gas expands as it rises in temperature (the so-called Charles's law, which should really be
credited to Dalton). On the strength of the data gained in these studies he devised other
experiments that proved the solubility of gases in water and the rate of diffusion of gases.
His analysis of the atmosphere showed it to be constant in com-position to 15,000 feet.
He devised a system of chemical symbols and, having ascertained the relative weights of
atoms (particles of matter), in 1803 arranged them into a table. In addition, he formulated
the theory that a chemical combination of different elements occurs in simple numerical
ratios by weight, which led to the development of the laws of definite and multiple
proportions. Dalton discovered butylene and determined the composition of ether, finding
its correct formula. Finally, he developed his masterpiece of synthesis - the atomic
theory, the thesis that all elements are composed of tiny, indestructible particles called
atoms that are all alike and have the same atomic weight.

Dalton's studies and writings, many included in his New System of Chemical Philosophy
(part I, 1808; part II, 1810), cast light on the man. Dedicated to scientific research,
independent in his approach, often diffident in seeking help in scientific papers that
would aid him - or misguide him, as he often thought - he was a genius in synthesizing
facts and ideas. Almost a recluse, with few friends, and unmarried, he was deeply
dedicated to a search for the answer to scientific problems. His homemade equipment
was crude, and his data were not usually exact, but they were good enough to give his
alert and creative mind clues to the probable answer. Dalton remained a man of simple
wants and uniform habits, keeping his dress and manners consistent with his Quaker
faith.

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Dalton's record keeping, although remarkable for quantity, often lacked exactness in
dating, probably because he revised his manuscripts as secretary of the Philosophical
Society between the time of the oral presentation and the publication. The exact date of
some of his work, especially the atomic theory, is still in doubt because of this
opportunity for revision. His documents were destroyed during the bombings of England
in World War II. A fellow of the Royal Society, from whom he received the Gold Medal
in 1826, and a corresponding member of the French Academy of Sciences, John Dalton
was also cofounder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. At his
death more than 40,000 people came to Manchester to pay their final respects. (A.B.Ga.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. H.E. Roscoe, John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry (1895), the most
authoritative biography, and with A. Harden. A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (1896),
original material on Dalton's research: D.S.L. Cardwell (ed.), John Dalton and the Progress of Science
(1968); J.B. Conant and L.K. Nash (eds.), Harvard Case Histories in Experimental Science, vol. 1 (1957),
probably the most critical analysis of Dalton's work; Frank Greenaway. John Dalton and the Atom (1966).