192 Complex- Variable Theory which is 0 gf _ inai = — etnat é f wri de Pmt 7. (5.167) Now the sum of all these contour integrals is zero because it is a closed contour that encloses no singularity. So o=(1-e*) 14 2miae™ (5.168) or a mao (6.169) 5.15 Cauchy’s Principal Value Suppose that f() is differentiable or analytic at and near the point « and that we wish to evaluate the integral Keim f dae f@ f(e) (5.170) |g aie for a > 0 and b > 0. First, we regulatize the pole at x = 0 by using a method devised by Cauchy: 2 ‘ 5 Ha toy [in ( to LO [ae DL) + aod ee [ese Fr rs In the first and third integrals, since |x| > 6, wo may set ¢ = 0 K= tn 3 (fa ie) + fe se £2.) 4 1m umf ae t@. 6.172) sb sd |g eke K + (6.71) We'll discuss the first two integrals before analyzing the last one. ‘Tho limit of the first two integrals is called Cauchy’s principal value ’ 6 pf dof) = tm ( de uo + fet). (5.173) Le I, pe If the function f(x) is nearly constant near © = 0, then the large negative values of 1/2 for z slightly less than zero cancel the large positive values of Ve for 2 slightly greater than zero. ‘The point x = 0 is not special; Cauchy's principal value is more generally defined by the limit i LO) Sta) ( : mee #): oe Pf ao l@ 25§.18 Cauchy's Principal Value 193 Using Coty’ nial ae, we my ite he quay Kat ae 2 + lim lim feed Ste) (6.175) 3 . ‘o evaluate the lasting, we uso diferentabliy of f(s) near # = 0 to write f(a) = f(0) 17 and then extract +10) from the integral lim im fi de LO < tim tim [ae £0 +2f0 Bay pf fami = Ba ate = £(0) Jim, Ym [ae (6.176) a0 0 nie Now sinee 1/(z Stom= je) is analytic, we may deform the straight contour from a= into the tiny semicircle wozsdbe for x<0<2m (5.17) which avoids the point x = 0 ’ K=P f dL) + 500) tim ip de (6.178) Pee a ee eee! 2) 2 K=P fac f2 fi 2 + F(0) lim 3 [ ibe a9 P el cy (6.179) Recalling the defini (6 170) of K,, we have f(a) * £2) dee tin f "a £2 = lL + inf(0). (5.180) for any function f(z) that is differentiable at 2 = ‘This trick is of wide applicability. Physicists write it as pL + ind(2) (6.181) Tt has a brother ~ in6(2) (5.182) rte and cousins Find(e—y). (6.183) ag194 Complex-Variable Theory Examples of Cauchy’s Trick We may use trick (5.182) to evaluate the integral eee le el log ie L +a? (6.184) as fe a Pl tra in fr de (6.185) Because the function 1/f0(1 + 2%)] is odd, the principal part is zero, The integral over the delta function gives unity, so we have I=~in. (6.186) Example: To compute the integral dk I= — sin 5. f a sink (5.187) which we used to derive the formula (3.126) for the Green’s function of the laplacian in three dimensions, we first express it as an integral along the whole real axis dh (ie tk) [aR iw [ ab (ete) = [see (6.188) and then add a ghost contour along the path & = Rexp(i9) for @ = 0 — ‘in the limit R — oo A oa wf to Bomar f me (6.189) in which we interpret the integral across the point k = 0 as Cauchy's prin- cipal value. Using Cauchy's trick (5.182), we have ds dk dk TP) ae oe f ik, : Ee Berg +f Hirde (5.190) ‘The first integral vanishes because the pole is below the real axis leaving the desired result, I [Fome=5 (6.191) as stated in (3.125), ‘Example—The Feynman Propagator: Adding +ie to the denomina- tor of a pole term of an integral formula for a function f(x) can slightly shift the pole into the upper or lower half plane, causing the pole to contribute if 20