C s ca c hc lng t 1

1 Lng tnh sng-ht ca vt cht

Chng ta bit nh sng vn c coi l sng, ri sau , vi cc pht hin ca Planck, Einstein v Compton,
n li c coi l gm cc ht photon. Vy rt cuc nh sng l sng hay l ht? Ngy nay cc nh vt l chp
nhn rng nh sng va l ht, li cng va l sng. Khi cn gii thch cc hin tng nh giao thoa hay nhiu
x, chng ta coi nh sng l sng, cn khi cn gii thch cc hin tng quang in hay tn x Compton, chng
ta li coi nh sng nh cc ht photon. Ni cch khc, nh sng c lng tnh sng-ht.
Th cn cc ht vt cht th sao? C khi no cc vt cht thng thng, m chng ta vn coi l ht, li cng ng
thi l sng khng? l cu hi m De Broglie t ra nm 1924.
1.1 Gi thuyt De Broglie Sng vt cht
tr li cu hi trn, De Broglie a ra gi thuyt sau: vt cht thng thng cng phi c lng tnh sng-
ht nh nh sng, sng tng ng vi vt cht c gi l sng vt cht hay sng De Broglie; mt ht t do
chuyn ng vi ng lng p c bc sng vt cht xc nh bi:
\=
h
p
(1)
trong h = 6,63 10
-34
J.s, l hng s Planck quen thuc.
1.2 Mt s v d v bc sng vt cht
V d 1:
Voi Dumbo nng 1000 kg, bay vi vn tc 10 m/s s c bc sng De Broglie l bao nhiu?
\=
h
p
=
6,6310
34
10
3
10
=10
37
m
Bc sng ny qu nh, v vy ch voi khng th hin tnh sng ca mnh.
V d 2:
Bc sng De Broglie ca mt ht bi nng 10
-9
kg ri vi vn tc 0,020 m/s:
\=
h
p
=
6,6310
34
10
9
0,020
=10
23
m
Mt ln na, bc sng ny cng qu nh c th quan st c.
V d 3:
Mt electron trong mch in hay trong nguyn t c ng nng trung bnh vo khong 1 eV, c bc sng De
Broglie:
\=
h
.2 mK
=
6,63. 10
34
J
.2( 9,11. 10
31
kg)(1,6 . 10
19
J )
=1,610
9
m
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C s ca c hc lng t 2
Bc sng ny vo c kch thc ca nguyn t nn c th quan st c.
Qua cc v d trn y, chng ta nhn thy tnh sng ca vt cht bnh thng l rt "yu", khng th quan st
c, cn cc ht vi m th th hin tnh sng r rt hn.
1.3 Kim chng thc nghim
Th nghim Davisson-Germer (1927): quan st c nhiu x ca electron trn tinh th Nickel, tng t nh
nhiu x ca tia X trn tinh th.
Th nghim Thomson (1927): quan st c cc vn nhiu x hnh trn khi cho chm electron nng lng cao i
qua bt a tinh th hay mng mng kim loi.
Ngy nay, ngi ta c th thc hin c nhiu x ca sng vt cht trn mt khe, hai khe ... nh i vi sng
nh sng vy. minh ha, mi cc bn xem Hnh 1, l nh nhiu x ca mt chm ht neutron trn hai khe.
Ngoi ra, ngi ta cng dng hin tng nhiu x ca cc ht nh electron, neutron kho st cu trc ca vt
cht, ging nh dng nhiu x tia X kho st cu trc tinh th vy.
1.4 Sng vt cht l sng xc sut
Khi ni ti sng, chng ta lin tng ngay n nhng loi sng quen thuc nh sng nc, sng m ... Cc loi
sng ny gn lin vi s dao ng ca mt s ln cc ht (phn t nc hay khng kh), cc ht ny lin kt vi
nhau nn khi mt s ht dao ng th cc ht khc cng dao ng theo, to nn s lan truyn dao ng, tc l
sng. Sng vt cht th hon ton khc hn, ch mt ht vi m ring l cng th hin tnh sng. Tht vy, ngi
ta c th gi tng electron hay photon ring l n mt khe m vn quan st c hin tng nhiu x.
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Hnh 1. Nhiu x neutron trn hai khe: o cng chm ht sau hai khe, ngi ta thu c s phn b cng theo v
tr nh trong hin tng nhiu x. (A. Zeilinger,R. Ghler, C.G. Shull, W. Treimer,and W. Mampe, Reviews of
ModernPhysics, Vol. 60, 1988.)
C s ca c hc lng t 3
Nh vy, bn cht ca sng vt cht l g? Theo Max Born th sng De Broglie tht ra l sng xc sut, y cng
l cch gii thch c chp nhn rng ri nht ngy nay.
ngha ca sng xc sut l nh sau - Gi (x,y,z) l hm sng vt cht ti v tr (x,y,z) ca mt ht vi m, v
dV l mt th tch nh bao quanh v tr ny, ta c:
Xc sut tmthy ht trong thtchdV = 1( x , y , z)
2
dV (2)
i lng 1( x , y , z )
2
c gi l mt xc sut ca ht ti (x,y,z).
Nu ly tng ca (2) trong ton b khng gian chng ta s c xc sut tm thy ht mi ni, v xc sut
y ng nhin l bng n v. V vy chng ta c tnh cht sau y ca hm sng:

V
1( x , y , z )
2
dV=1
(3)
H thc trn y cn c gi l iu kin chun ha ca hm sng vt cht.
2 Phng trnh Schrdinger
2.1 Phng trnh Schrdinger tng qut
Hm sng vt cht (x,y,z,t) ca mt ht khi lng m, chuyn ng trong trng c th nng U(x,y,z,t) tha
phng trnh Schrdinger tng qut sau y:
i
1
t
=
(

2
2m
A+U
)
1 (4)
trong = h/2, i=.1 , v l Laplacian:
A=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
2.2 Phng trnh Schrdinger dng
Trong trng hp dng, khi th nng U khng ph thuc vo thi gian, U = U(x,y,z), th nghim tng qut ca
phng trnh Schrdinger trn y c th vit di dng:
1( x , y , z , t)=exp
(
i
E

t
)
1( x , y , z)
(5)
vi (x,y,z) l hm sng dng, tha phng trnh Schrdinger dng sau y:
(

2
2m
A+U
)
1=E1 (6a)
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C s ca c hc lng t 4
hay:
A1+
2 m

2
( EU)1=0
(6b)
trong E l nng lng ton phn ca ht.
2.3 Hm sng ca ht t do
i vi mt ht t do chuyn ng theo dc trc x, phng trnh Schrdinger dng (6b) tr thnh:

2
1
x
2
+
2m

2
E1=0
vi E by gi l ng nng ca ht. Phng trnh ny c nghim tng qut l:
1=Aexp(i k x)+Bexp(i k x) , vi k =.2m E/
2
=p/
Hm sng ng vi ring s hng th nht trong nghim trn l:
1=exp
(
i
E

t
)
. Aexp
(
i
p

x
)
=Aexp

i
(
E

t
p

x
)

hay:
1=Aexpi (ot k x) , vi o=E/ , k=p/ (7)
y chnh l biu thc ca mt sng phng lan truyn theo chiu dng ca trc x, c tn s gc l v bc
sng l \=2n/ k=h/ p . Kt qu ny ph hp vi gi thuyt De Broglie v bc sng vt cht ca mt ht
t do.
Tng t nh vy, hm sng ng vi s hng th hai trong biu thc ca trn y l hm sng m t mt sng
phng truyn theo chiu m ca trc x.
3 H thc bt nh Heisenberg
3.1 H thc bt nh i vi v tr v ng lng
Gi x l bt nh (hay chnh xc) ca ta x ca mt vi ht, v px l bt nh ca ng lng ht
trn phng x. Theo c hc lng t th gia chng c h thc sau:
Ax . A p
x
> h
(8a)
Ngha l tch ca hai bt nh ca x v px l ln hn hay vo c hng s Planck. Tng t, chng ta cng c
cc h thc bt nh i vi y v py, z v pz.
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C s ca c hc lng t 5
Ay . A p
y
> h , Az . A p
z
> h
(8b)
H qu ca h thc bt nh l chng ta khng th xc nh c chnh xc ng thi ta v ng lng ca
cc vi ht, hay ni cch khc, chng ta khng th xc nh c qu o ca chng. iu ny cng c th hiu
c, v tht ra cc vi ht l sng.
V d 1:
Mt electron c vn tc bng 2,05 10
6
m/s, c o vi chnh xc l 1,5 %. ng lng ca electron l:
p = mv = (9,11 10
-31
kg) (2,05 10
6
m/s) = 1,87 10
-24
kg.m/s
bt nh ca ng lng l 1,5 % gi tr , tc l bng 2,80 10
-26
kg.m/s. Thay px trong (8a) bng gi tr
ny, ta suy ra bt nh v ta :
Ax

>
h
A p
x
=2,410
8
m=24 nm
tc l khong 200 ln ng knh ca nguyn t i vi mt ht vi m th sai s ny l qu ln!
V d 2:
Electron trong nguyn t c bt nh v ta vo khong kch thc ca nguyn t, tc l 0,1 nm. T (8a)
ta suy ra bt nh v ng lng:
A p
x

>
h
Ax
=
6,6310
34
J.s
0,110
9
m
=6,6310
24
kg.m/ s
Chng ta bit ng nng ca electron trong nguyn t l c 1 eV, do ng lng ca electron l:
p
x
=.2mK=.2(9,11.10
31
kg)( 1,6.10
19
J )=5,410
25
kg.m/ s
Ngha l bt nh v ng lng ln gn gp 10 ln ng lng!
V d 3:
Mt qu banh golf c khi lng 45 g ang bay vi vn tc 35 m/s. Vn tc c o vi chnh xc l 1,5 %.
Lm tng t nh trong V d 1, ta suy ra bt nh v v tr ca qu banh:
Ax >=310
32
m
bt nh ny rt nh, ngha l ngi ta vn c th xc nh c chnh xc ng thi v tr v ng lng ca
qu banh. Mt ln na, chng ta thy tnh cht sng ca cc vt v m l rt yu, v vy kho st chuyn ng
ca chng ngi ta vn dng C hc c in.
3.2 H thc bt nh i vi nng lng v thi gian
Gi t l thi gian ht tn ti mt trng thi, v E l bt nh ca nng lng ht trng thi . Gia
chng c h thc bt nh sau:
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C s ca c hc lng t 6
At . AE > h (9)
Hiu ng chui ngm
H thc bt nh ny dn n mt h qu rt c bit Gi s c mt vi ht b giam trong mt chic hp, hay
theo cch ni ca cc nh vt l, l b giam trong mt ging th. Ht khng th ra khi hp c v nng lng
ton phn ca n nh hn su ca ging th. Tuy nhin, nu trng thi ca ht l khng bn v ch tn ti
trong mt khong thi gian rt ngn, t h/U, th trong khong thi gian bt nh nng lng ca ht l:
AE >
h
At
=
h
h/ U
=U
bt nh ny cn ln hn c chiu su ca ging th! iu ny c ngha l ht c th thot ra khi ging th
trong nhng khong thi gian rt ngn, c t h/U, mc d c nng lng trung bnh nh hn su ca ging.
Ngi ta gi l hiu ng chui ngm hay hiu ng ng ngm (Hnh 2).
4 Ht trong ging th v hn mt chiu
4.1 Ging th v hn mt chiu
Ging th v hn mt chiu c xc nh bi:
U=

0 khi 0xa
khi x0 hay xa
trong a l rng ca ging th (Hnh 3). Electron t do trong kim loi l mt v d v ht chuyn ng trong
mt ging th v hn.
4.2 Nng lng b lng t ha
Theo quan im sng, ht trong ging th l mt sng truyn lui ti gia hai vch ging. Sng ti v sng phn
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Hnh 2. Hiu ng chui ngm - Trong nhng khong thi gian rt ngn, ht c bt nh nng lng E ln thot
khi ging th.
E
U
E
C s ca c hc lng t 7
x kt hp vi nhau to nn sng dng, tng t nh sng trn mt si dy n vy. Khi b rng ca ging
th phi l mt bi s ca mt na bc sng:
a=n
\
2
n=1,2,. ..
Bn trong ging th th th nng bng khng nn ht l t do v c bc sng cho bi:
\=
h
p
Suy ra ng lng ht:
p=
h
\
=
h
2 a/ n
=n
h
2a
Do nng lng ca ht l:
E
n
=
p
2
2 m
=n
2 h
2
8ma
(10)
Theo th nng lng ca ht trong ging th v hn thay i mt cch gin on theo n
2
, hay ni cch khc,
nng lng ht b lng t ha. S n c gi l s lng t nng lng. Ngoi ra, mc nng lng thp
nht, ng vi n = 1, l khc khng. Trc y, ngi ta hay ngh l khi nhit tuyt i tin n 0 th cc ht
cu to nn vt cht s ngng chuyn ng, do mc nng lng thp nht ca ht l bng khng. Tuy nhin,
c hc lng t cho thy mc nng lng thp nht ca cc vi ht l khc khng.
4.3 Hm sng
Phng trnh Schrodinger dng ca ht trong ging th:
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Hnh 3. Ging th v hn mt chiu Ht chuyn ng lui ti gia hai vch, to nn sng dng khi b rng ging bng n
ln na bc sng, h qu l nng lng ca ht b lng t ha theo n.
n = 1
n = 3
n = 4
U
0 a x
n = 2
C s ca c hc lng t 8

2
1
x
2
+
2m

2
E1=0
Nghim tng qut ca phng trnh ny c dng:
1( x)=Asin( kx)+Bcos( kx) vi k=.2 mE/ =p/
V ging th l v hn nn ht khng th ra ngoi ging c, hm sng ngoi ging l bng khng. Ngoi ra,
hm sng bin thin lin tc th hai vch ging n cng phi bng khng:
1(0)=0
1( a)=0
Suy ra:
B=0
sin(ka)=0 k=nn/ a n=1,2,. ..
Do hm sng dng cng ph thuc vo s lng t nng lng n:
1
n
( x)=Asin
(
n
n
a
x
)
T iu kin lng t ha trn y i vi k, chng ta cng c th tm li nng lng ca ht nh trong (10):
E
n
=
( k )
2
2m
=n
2

2
n
2
2 ma
2
=n
2 h
2
8 ma
2
Cui cng, chng ta dng iu kin chun ha ca hm sng (3) xc dnh hng s A, kt qu thu c l
A=.2/ a . Vy hm sng dng ca ht trong ging th c dng:
1
n
( x)=
.
2
a
sin
(
n
n
a
x
)
(11)
Hm sng (ph thuc thi gian) s l:
1
n
( x , t )=
.
2
a
exp
(
i
E
n

t
)
sin
(
n
n
a
x
)
(12)
T chng ta tm c mt xc sut ca ht trong ging th v hn:
1
n
( x , t)
2
=1
n
1
n
*
=
2
a
sin
2
(
n
n
a
x
)
(13)
Cc kt qu trn y c minh ha trn Hnh 4.
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C s ca c hc lng t 9
5 Ton t trong c hc lng t
Chng ta bit l trong c hc lng t chuyn ng ca mt ht c m t bng hm sng. Cc bn c th
hi: th cn cc i lng vt l c trng cho ht th sao? Lm th no tm cc i lng vt l nh ng
lng, nng lng v.v..., mt khi chng ta c hm sng? Cu tr li s bt u bng khi nim ton t.
5.1 Ton t l g?
Ton t l mt php bin i bt k c thc hin trn mt hm s.
V d:
Ton t ly o hm theo x, k hiu l

x
, c nh ngha bi

x
f = f / x .
Ton t nhn vi mt s c, k hiu l c , c nh ngha bi c f =c f .
Cc bn lu l thng thng, chng ta thm du ^ trn k hiu ca mt ton t.
5.2 Tr ring v hm ring ca mt ton t
Cho mt ton t bt k , nu tn ti hm sao

A1=a1 , vi a l mt con s, th c gi l hm ring

ca ton t , cn a l tr ring tng ng vi hm ring .
Mt ton t c th c nhiu hm ring v tr ring, tp hp cc tr ring c gi l ph ca ton t. Ph ca
ton t c th l lin tc, gin on hay kt hp c hai.
5.3 Ton t vt l
Trong c hc lng t mi i lng vt l u c t tng ng vi mt ton t, v d:
ng lng trn phng x ton t ng lng trn phng x,

P
x
.
Nng lng ton t nng lng

H .
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Hnh 4. Hm sng dng v mt xc sut ca ht trong ging th v hn mt chiu.
C s ca c hc lng t 10
Ph ca mt ton t vt l chnh l cc gi tr c th c ca i lng vt l tng ng. Chng hn, nu ht
trng thi c hm sng v ta c

P
x
1=p
x
1 , th tr ring px chnh l ng lng ca ht trng thi .
By gi chng ta hy lm quen vi cc ton t vt l thng dng.
i lng vt l Ton t
Ta x, y, z x=x , y=y , z=z
Hnh chiu ca ng lng px, py, pz

P
x
=i

x
,

P
y
=i

y
,

P
z
=i

z
Bnh phng ng lng p
2

P
2
=

P
x
2
+

P
y
2
+

P
z
2
=
2
A
ng nng K
K=

P
2
/ 2m=
2
A/2 m
Nng lng E = K + U

H=

K+U=
2
A/2 m+U
Hnh chiu ca momen ng lx, ly, lz

L
x
=y

P
z
z

P
y
,

L
y
=z

P
x
x

P
z
,

L
z
=x

P
y
y

P
x
Bnh phng momen ng l
2

L
2
=

L
x
2
+

L
y
2
+

L
z
2
V d 1:
Mt ht t do chuyn ng theo chiu dng ca trc x c hm sng l 1=Aexpi (ot k x) , chng ta s
tm ng lng ca ht bng cch tc ng ton t

P
x
ln hm sng :

P
x
1=i
x
1=k 1
Vy ng lng ca ht l
p
x
= k
.
V d 2:
Nng lng ca mt ht c hm sng c xc nh bng cch tc ng ton t nng lng ln hm sng.
Nu:

H 1=(
2
A/ 2m+U )1=E1
th E l nng lng ca ht. y chnh l phng trnh Schrdinger dng.
5.4 Ton t giao hon
Ch khi no hai ton t

A ,

B giao hon vi nhau th hai i lng vt l tng ng A, B mi c th xc nh
c chnh xc ng thi:

B

A=0 A, B xc nh chnh xc ng thi.
V d:
Hai ton t v tr v ng lng khng giao hon nn v tr v ng lng khng th xc nh chnh xc ng
thi (nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg). Tht vy, ta c:
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C s ca c hc lng t 11
( x

P
x

P
x
x)1=ih

x
1
x

( x1)
x

=i 1 x

P
x

P
x
x=i
5.5 Tr ring ca ton t momen ng
Ton t hnh chiu ca momen ng lng trn mt phng no , chng hn

L
z
, c cc tr ring gin on
cho bi:
L
z
=m
l
, m
l
=0,!1,!2,. .. (14)
ml c gi l s lng t t.
Ton t bnh phng momen ng lng

L
2
c cc tr ring gin on cho bi:
L
2
=l (l +1) , l =0,1,2,. .. (15)
l c gi l s lng t qu o.
6 Lm quen vi mt s bi ton c hc lng t
6.1 1d Quantum States Applet
Sau khi hc c hc Newton, cc bn tr nn rt quen thuc vi qu o ca cht im trong mt s bi ton
chuyn ng "kinh in", chng hn nh ri t do, nm xin, dao ng iu ha v.v... Th by gi, sau khi hc
xong phn c s c hc lng t, th hi cc bn c hnh dung c sng vt cht trong mt s trng hp tiu
biu cha?
gip cc bn lm quen vi li gii ca phng trnh Schrdinger dng trong mt s bi ton c hc lng t,
ti xin gii thiu sau y mt Applet do Paul Falstad (http://www.falstad.com/mathphysics.htm) vit. bt
u, cc bn click vo lin kt sau y: 1d Quantum States Applet.
6.2 Gii thch thut ng ting Anh
Nu cn tr gip v thut ng chuyn mn ting Anh dng trong Applet ny, cc bn hy tham kho bng sau
y:
Anh Vit
Infinite well Ging th v hn
Set eigenstate Chn trng thi ring (hay hm ring)
Normalize Chun ha
Ground state Trng thi c bn
Maximize Lm cho (bin hm sng) cc i
Rescale graphs Thay i thang v hnh nh
Simulation speed Tc m phng (s thay i nhanh, chm ca hm
sng)
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C s ca c hc lng t 12
Anh Vit
Resolution phn gii hnh nh
Particle mass Khi lng ht
Well width B rng ging
Energy Nng lng
Position V tr
Momentum ng lng
Wave function Hm sng
Probability Xc sut
Uncertainty, uncertainties bt nh (s t, s nhiu)
State phasor Pha ca trng thi, tc l phn ph thuc thi gian ca
hm sng
6.3 Hng dn
Cc bn lu l applet ny kho st rt nhiu bi ton vi nhiu la chn khc nhau nn cc bn c th thy kh
hiu. Nu vy cc bn c th lm quen vi n theo hng dn sau y:
Trong menu "View", cc bn hy b khng nh du trc cc mc "Momentum", "State Phasors" v
"Expectation Values", ch li "Energy" v "Position". Cng trong menu ny, di mc "Wave
Function" cc bn hy chn "Probability". Lm nh vy applet ch hin th cc mc nng lng, hm
sng v mt xc sut.
Trong danh sch m xung th nht bn phi ca applet, cc bn thy "Setup:Infinite Well", c gi
nguyn nh th v chng ta mun kho st bi ton Ging th v hn.
Trong danh sch m xung th hai bn phi ca applet, cc bn thy "Mouse=Create Gaussian", hy
click vo mi tn m xung m danh sch v chn "Mouse=Set Eigenstate", nh th chng ta chn
trng thi bng cch click vo mt mc nng lng.
nh du vo "Stopped" ngng hiu ng ng theo thi gian, v ngay lc ny chng ta ch mun
coi hm sng dng.
Gim "Well Width" bng cch ko thanh trt tng ng v bn tri, cho n khi thy ch cn mt t
mc nng lng tch ri nhau r rng.
Click vo mt mc nng lng xem hm sng dng v mt xc sut ng vi mc . ng mu
vng l hm sng dng, cn ng cong c t mu trng bn trong l mt xc sut.
Sau khi quen vi mt bi ton, cc bn c th chn mt bi ton khc trong danh sch m xung th
nht bn phi ca applet. Ngoi ra, hy c phn hng dn chi tit ca tc gi Paul Falstad khai
thc ht tnh nng ca applet.
L Quang Nguyn 2005