1/ ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS In this chapter we begin with a review of the basie atomie properties of matter leading to discrete electronic energy levels in atoms, We find that these energy levels are spread into energy bands in a erystal. This band structure allows us to distinguish between an insulator, a semiconductor, and a metal, 1-1 CHARGED PARTICLES The charge, or quantity, of negative electricity and the mass of the electron have been found to be 1.60 X 10- C (coulomb) and 9.11 X 10 kg, respectively. ‘The values of many important physical ‘constants are given in Appendix A, and a list of conversion factors and prefixes is given in Appendix B. Some idea of the number of electrons per second that represents current of the usual order of magnitude is, readily possible. For example, since the charge per electron is 1.60 X 10" C, the number of electrons per coulomb is the reciprocal of this number, or approximately, 6 X 10'* Further, since a current of 1 A (ampere) is the flow of 1 C/s, then a current of only 1 pA (1 pico- ampere, or 10-# A) represents the motion of approximately 6 million electrons per second, Yet a current of 1 pA.is so small that considerable difficulty is experienced in attempting to measure it. ‘The charge of a positive ion is an integral multiple of the charge of the electron, although it is of opposite sign. For the case of singly ionized particles, the charge is equal to that of the electron. For the cease of doubly ionized particles, the ionic charge is twice thet of the electron. ‘The mass of an atom is expressed as a number that is based on the choice of the atomic weight of oxygen equal to 16. The mass of a hypothetical atom of atomic weight unity is, by this definition, one- sixteenth that of the mass of monatomie oxygen and has been ealeu- lated to be 1.66 10" kg. Hence, to calculate the mase in kilograms 12 / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS See. 1-2 of any atom, it is necessary only to multiply the atomic weight of the atom by 1.66 X 10-¥ ky, A table of atomic weights is given in Table 1-1 on p. 12. ‘The radius of the electron has been estimated as 10- m, and that of an atom as 10-* m, ‘These are so small that all charges are considered as mass points in the following sections. Ina semiconductor erystal such as silicon, two electrons are shared by each pair of ionie neighbors. Such a configuration is called a covalent bond. Under certain circumstances an electron may be missing from this structure, leaving 1 “hole” in the bond. ‘These vacancies in the covalent bonds may move from ion to ion in the erystal and constitute @ current equivalent to tha: resulting, from the motion of free positive charges. ‘The magnitude of the charge associated with the hole is that of a free electron. This very brief introduction to the concept of a hole as an effective charge carrier is elaborated upon in Chap. 2. 1-2 FIELD INTENSITY, POTENTIAL, ENERGY By definition, the force (newfons) on a unit positive charge in an electric field is the electric field intensity & at that point. Newton's second law determines the motion of a particle of charge q (coulombs), mass m (kilograms), moving with a velocity v (meters per second) in a field & (volts per meter). a fa ga me a4) ‘The mks (meter-kilogram-second) rationalized system of units is fcund to be most convenient for subsequent studies. Unless otherwise stated, this system of units is employed throughout this book. Potential By definition, the potential V (volts) of point B with respect to point A is the work done against the feld in taking a unit positive charge from ‘A to B. This definition is valid for a three-dimensional field. For a one- dimensional problem with A at z, and B at an arbitrary distance z, it follows that = [fete a2) where & now represents the X component of the field. Differentiating Eq, (1-2) gives e--¢ (3) ‘The minus sign shows that the electric field is directed from the region of higher potential to the region of lower potential. In three dimensions, the electrie field equals the negative gradient of the potential. 1'The symbol = is used to designate “equal to by defiaition.”ietiaitisetiead ‘ See. 12 ENERGY BANDS IN SOUDS / 3 By definition, the potential energy U (joules) equals the potential multiplied by the charge q under consideration, or u=Ww (4) If an electron is being considered, qis replaced by —q (where gis the magnitude of the electronic charge) and U has the same shape as V but is inverted. ‘The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy W, which equals the sum of the potential energy U and the kinetic energy $m, remains constant, ‘Thus, at any point in space, W = U + dmo* = constant (1-5) ‘As an illustration of this law, consider two parallel electrodes (4 and B of Fig. 1-1a) separated a distance d, with B at a negative potential V with respect to A. An electron leaves the surface of A with a velocity vin the direction toward B. How much speed v will it have if it reaches B? From the definition, Eq. (1-2), it is clear that only differences of potential have meaning, and hence let us arbitrarily ground A, that is, consider it to be at sero potential. Then the potential at B is V = —Vs, and the potential energy is U = —gV = gVs. Equating the total energy at A to that at B gives W = dmv? = gro? + aVs (1-6) cel 4 , @ Fig. 1-1 (@) An electron leaves electrode A with an intial speed v. ‘and moves in a retarding field toward plate B; (b) the potenti; (© the potential-energy barrier between electrodes.4. / INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS See. 1-3 This equation indicates that » must be less than v, which is obviously correct since the electron is moving in a repelling field. Note that the final speed © attained by the electron in this conservative system is independent of the form of the variation of the field distribution between the plates and depends only ‘upon the magnitude of the potential difference Vz. Also, if the eleetron is to reach electrode B, its initial speed must be large enough so that # mu? > qV. Otherwise, Eq. (1-6) leads to the impossible result that » is imaginary. We wish to elaborate on these considerations now. The Concept of @ Potentiol-energy Barrier For the configuration of Fig. I-1a with electrodes which are large compared with the separation d, we ‘can draw (Fig, 1-10) a linear plot of potential V versus distance 2 (in the inter- electrode space). The corresponding potential energy U versus z is indicated in Fig. L-le. Since potential is the potential energy per unit charge, curve ¢ is obtained from curve b by multiplying each ordinate by the charge on the electron (anegative number). Since the total energy W of the electron remains constant, it is represented as a horizontal line. ‘The kinetic energy at any distance x equals the difference between the total energy W and the potential energy U at this point. This difference is greatest at O, indicating that the kinetic energy is a maximum when the electron leaves the electrode A. At the point P this difference is zero, which means that no kinetic energy exists, s0 that the particle is at rest at this point, This distanee is the maximum that the electron can travel from A. At point P (where x = 2) it comes ‘momentarily to rest, and then reverses its motion and returns to A. Consider @ point such as S which is at a greater distance than z. from clectrode A. Here the total energy QS is less than the potential energy RS, so that the difference, whieh represents the kinetic energy, is negative. This is ‘an impossible physieal condition, however, since negative kinetic energy (mot < 0) implies an imaginary velocity. We must conclude that the particle can never advance a distance greater than z, from electrode A. The foregoing analysis leads to the very important conclusion that the shaded portion of Fig. I-1c ean never be penetrated by the electron. ‘Thus, at point P, the particle acts as if it had collided with a solid wall, hill, or barrier and the direction of its flight had been altered. Potential-energy tarriers of this sort play important role in the analyses of semiconductor deviers. It must be emphasized that the words ‘collides with” or “rebounds from” potential “hill” are convenient descriptive phrases and that an actual encounter between two material bodies is not implied. 1-3 THE eV UNIT OF ENERGY ‘The joule (J) is the unit of energy in the mks system. In some ergineering power problems this unit is very small, and a factor of 10? or 10! is introduced to convert from watts (1 W = I J/s) to kilowatts or megawatts, resvectively.