1

CHNG 1: TNG QUAN V X L NH

1.1 -X l nh l g?
Con ngi thu nhn thng tin qua cc gic quan, trong th gic ng vai tr quan
trng nht. Nhng nm tr li y vi s pht trin ca phn cng my tnh, x l nh v
ho pht trin mt cch mnh m v c nhiu ng dng trong cuc sng. X l nh
v ho ng mt vai tr quan trng trong tng tc ngi my.
Hnh nh chim 80% thng tin con ngi thu nhn c. Vi chc nm gn y
x l nh pht trin mnh do cng ngh my tnh, kh nng lu tr p ng c cc h
thng x l nh.
nh s l g:
nh to bi cc im nh, im nh biu din v vn th, v d nh; nh chn
dung, nh X-quang, nh thn nhit. im nh c trng cho mt gi tr no l mt
hm n bin. nh trong thc t l mt nh lin tc v khng gian v v gi tr sng.
c th x l nh bng my tnh cn thit phi tin hnh s ho nh l qu trnh bin i
tn hiu lin tc sang tn hiu ri rc thng qua qu trnh ly mu (ri rc ho v khng
gian) v lng t ho thnh phn gi tr m v nguyn tc bng mt thng khng phn
bit c 2 im k nhau.
nh c 2 loi: dng tn hiu tng t (analog), dng tn hiu s(digital)
im nh hay cn gi l pixel (picture element, pels, image element) c xem
nh du hiu hay cng sng ti mt to trong khng gian ca i tng.
nh c xem nh mt tp hp cc im nh. Khi c s ho n thng c
biu din l ma trn 2 chiu a[i][j] m mi phn t c mt gi tr nguyn hoc l mt vc
t cu trc mu.
a l gi tr o (hay sng) ca im nh ti v tr c to l ( i, j)



2
Mc xm (gray level): l kt qa ca s m ho tng ng mt cng sng ca
mi im nh vi mt gi tr s- kt qu ca qu trnh lng ho.
nh S bit/pixel S mu
nh en trng 1 2
nh a cp xm 8 256
nh RGB 24 256
3

nh 32 bit 32 256
4

K thut x l nh: l qu trnh bin i mt hnh nh thnh mt hnh nh khc
bng my tnh in t mt cch t ng ph thuc vo mc ch ca ngi s dng.
Qu trnh x l nh c xem nh l qu trnh thao tc nh u vo nhm cho ra
kt qu mong mun. Kt qu u ra ca mt qu trnh x l nh c th l mt nh tt
hn hoc mt kt lun.





Hnh 1.2. Qu trnh x l nh

-H thng x l nh trn my tnh: l tp hp cc k thut x l nh phc v cho
mt mc ch ng dng no .
- ho my tnh thin v tng hp hnh nh, cn x l nh thin v phn tch
hnh nh.
ho my tnh:
u vo: l nh hoc khng l nh
u ra: l mt nh trn my tnh
X l nh:
u vo: l nh
u ra: l nh tt hn (theo ngha ca ngi s dng) hoc mt c im hoc
mt dy c im.
Trong ho my tnh, i tng x l l 2 hoc 3 chiu. Cn x l nh khng
ch lm vic vi d liu 2 chiu hay 3 chiu c khi nhiu hn.
- Th gic my: l mt h x l nh hon chnh bao gm thu nhn nh, tng cng
cht lng nh, nhn dng.



X L NH
nh
nh
Tt hn
Kt lun

3
1.2- Cu trc ca h thng x l nh

-Thu nhn nh: nh c a vo trong my tnh
nh c th thu nhn qua camera (nh thu nhn c tn hiu l tng t hoc l tn
hiu s), t v tinh qua cc b cm ng (sensor), hay nh, tranh c qut trn scanner.
Vi cc nh l tn hiu tng t s c s ho bin i tn hiu tng t sang
tn hiu ri rc (ly mu) v s ho bng lng t ho.
- Tin x l (preprocessing): lm tt nh nh xo nhiu, tng cp sng, lm trn
cc bin, lc, tng tng phn, khi phc nh, nn chnh hnh hc
Do nhng nguyn nhn khc nhau: c th do cht lng thit b thu nhn, do
ngun sng hay do nhiu nh c th b suy bin, do vy cn phi tng cng v khi
phc li nh lm ni bt mt s c tnh chnh ca nh, hay lm cho nh gn ging
nht vi trng thi gc- trng thi trc khi nh b bin dng.
C 2 loi nhiu c bn trong qu trnh thu nhn:
+ Nhiu h thng: c trng ca nhiu h thng l tnh tun hon. Do vy, c th
tch c loi nhiu ny bng vic s dng php bin i Fourier v loi b cc im
nh (peaks).
+ Nhiu ngu nhin: l nhiu khng r nguyn nhn, khc phc bng cc gii php
lc, phng php ni suy.
Chnh mc xm: y l cc k thut nhm chnh sa tnh khng ng u ca
thit b thu nhn hoc tng tng phn gia cc vng nh.
Chnh tn x: nh nhn c t cc thit b in t hay quang hc c th b nho.
Phng php bin i da trn tch chp ca nh vi hm tn x cho php gii quyt
c bi ton hiu chnh ny.
Photoshop dng giai on ny.
-Trch chn du hiu (Feature Extracting): pht hin cc c tnh nh bin,
phn vng nh, trch chn cc c tnhtu thuc vo tng ng dng.
Mi i tng nh c c trng ring ph thuc phng php nhn dng, mt
ng dng c nhiu phng php nhn dng, mi phng php nhn dng c nhiu
phng php chn du hiu. D liu nh ln nhng khng phi lc no cng quan tm
ti ton b nh, ch quan tm n mt s vng m thi.
Mt s c im ca nh:
+ c im khng gian: phn b mc xm, phn b xc sut, bin , im un
Thu nhn nh Tin x l Trch chn du hiu
Hc
Nhn dng
Hu x l
Lu tr

4
+ c im bin i: Cc c im loi ny c trch chn bng vic thc hin
lc vng
+ c im bin: Cc c im ny c th c trch chn nh ton t gradient,
ton t Laplace,
Vic trch chn hiu qu cc c im gip cho vic nhn dng cc i tng nh
chnh xc vi tc tnh ton cao v dung lng b nh lu tr gim xung.
-Nhn dng: l qu trnh lin quan n cc m t i tng m ngi ta mun c
t n.
Nhn dng t ng (automatic recognition), m t i tng, phn loi v phn
nhm cc mu l nhng vn quan trng trong th gic my, c ng dng trong nhiu
ngnh khoa hc khc nhau. Tuy nhin, mt cu hi t ra l: mu (pattern) l g?
Watanabe, mt trong nhng ngi i u trong lnh vc ny nh ngha: Ngc li
vi hn lon (chaos), mu l mt thc th (entity), c xc nh mt cch ang ng
(vaguely defined) v c th gn cho n mt tn gi no . V d mu c th l nh ca
vn tay, nh ca mt vt no c chp, mt ch vit, khun mt ngi hoc mt k
tn hiu ting ni. Khi bit mt mu no , nhn dng hoc phn loi mu c
th:
Hoc phn loi c mu (supervised classification), chng hn phn tch phn bit
(discriminant analyis), trong mu u vo c nh danh nh mt thnh phn ca
mt lp xc nh.
Hoc phn loi khng c mu (unsupervised classification hay clustering) trong
cc mu c gn vo cc lp khc nhau da trn mt tiu chun ng dng no . Cc
lp ny cho n thi im phn loi vn cha bit hay cha c nh danh.
H thng nhn dng t ng bao gm ba khu tng ng vi ba giai on ch yu sau
y:
1
o
. Thu nhn d liu v tin x l.
2
o
. Biu din d liu.
3
o
. Nhn dng, ra quyt nh.
Bn cch tip cn khc nhau trong l thuyt nhn dng l:
1
o
. i snh mu da trn cc c trng c trch chn.
2
o
. Phn loi thng k.
3
o
. i snh cu trc.
4
o
. Phn loi da trn mng n-ron nhn to.
Trong cc ng dng r rng l khng th ch dng c mt cch tip cn n l
phn loi ti u do vy cn s dng cng mt lc nhiu phng php v cch tip cn
khc nhau. Do vy, cc phng thc phn loi t hp hay c s dng khi nhn dng v

5
nay c nhng kt qu c trin vng da trn thit k cc h thng lai (hybrid system)
bao gm nhiu m hnh kt hp.
Vic gii quyt bi ton nhn dng trong nhng ng dng mi, ny sinh trong cuc
sng khng ch to ra nhng thch thc v thut gii, m cn t ra nhng yu cu v tc
tnh ton. c im chung ca tt c nhng ng dng l nhng c im c trng
cn thit thng l nhiu, khng th do chuyn gia xut, m phi c trch chn da
trn cc th tc phn tch d liu.
Nhn dng: nhn dng ch, vn tay, ch vit, khun mt, mng mt,
1.3 - Cc mc ca h thng x l nh
-Mc thp: ch bit s dng cc k thut x l nh n gin, thun tu, khng
c tri thc nh cc thao tc tin x l nh.
-Trung bnh: c mt cht v tri thc (tr tu nhn to) c nhim v tch v c
trng ha cc thnh phn trong mt nh nhn c t qu trnh x l mc thp nh
cc thao tc phn on nh.
-Cao: nhn dng, phn tch nh, ra quyt nh. Cn kin thc v s hiu bit.
1.4- Thu nhn nh v m hnh th hin nh
1.4.1 Thu nhn nh
Cc thit b thu nhn nh thng thng gm camera cng vi b chuyn i tng
t s AD(Analog to Digital), scanner, sensor.
Thu nhn nh c th c ly t nhiu ngun
V nh sng l sng in t cho nn c th m t n bng tn s hay bc sng.
nh sng mt tri truyn i mi tn s trong di nhn thy to ra nh sng trng. Khi
nh sng trng chiu ln i tng: mt vi tn s phn x, mt s khc b hp th. T
hp ca cc tn s phn x hnh thnh ci gi l mu i tng
Th d: Nu tn s thp chim u th -> mu ...
Tn s (bc sng) chim u th c gi l Color/Hue hay Light
Khi ta quan st ngun sng, mt ta p ng mu v hai cm gic khc
Luminance (Brightness, Intensity): Lin quan n cng (nng lng) nh
sng: Nng lng cng cao -> ngun sng cng chi.
Purity (Saturation): tinh khit ca mu sng
Ba c tnh: Tn s, chi v tinh khit
-Cc thit b thu nhn nh c 2 loi chnh ng vi 2 loi nh thng dng l Raster
(Scaner, camera) v vector (sensor, bn s ho, hoc c chuyn t nh Raster).
-Nhn chung cc h thng thu nhn nh thc hin hai qu trnh:
+ Cm bin: bin i nng lng quang hc thnh nng lng in (giai on ly
mu)
+Tng hp nng lng in thnh nng lng nh (giai on lng t ha)

6
Trong qu trnh s ho, ngi ta bin i tn hiu lin tc sang tn hiu ri rc
thng qua qu trnh ly mu v lng t ho thnh phn gi tr. Nh vy im nh c th
xem nh s biu din v cng sng hay mt du hiu no ca nh ti mt to
no v nh l tp hp cc im nh (pixel)
a) Giai on ly mu
Ngi ta s dng b cm bin hoc my qut bin tn hiu quang ca nh thnh
tn hiu in lin tc. Phng php s dng my qut ph bin hn. My qut s qut
theo chiu ngang to ra tn hiu in ca nh, kt qu cho ra mt tn hiu in hai
chiu f(x,y) lin tc.





Xt nh lin tc c biu din bi hm f(x, y), gi x l khong cch gia hai
im c gi li theo trc x, gi l khong cch gia hai im c gi li theo trc
y, x
,
c gi l chu k ly mu theo trc x v y.
Giai on ly mu s bin hm lin tc f(x,y)f(n, m). Vi m, n l nguyn.
Theo SHANON m bo khng xy ra hin tng chng ph, cho php ti to
li nh gc t nh s ha:
- Gi fx =
x
1
l tn s ly mu theo trc x.
- Gi fy =
y
1
l tn s ly mu theo trc y.
khng xy ra hin tng chng ph th tn s ly mu phi t nht phi ln hn
hoc bng 2 tn s cao nht ca tn hiu nh. Tc l:
fx >= 2fx
max

fy >= 2fy
max

Trong fx
max
, fy
max
l tn s cao nht ca tn hiu theo trc x, y.
b) Lng t ha
nh sau khi ly mu s c dng f(m,n) vi m, n l nguyn nhng gi tr f(m, n) vn
l gi tr vt l lin tc. Qu trnh bin i gi tr f(m,n) thnh mt s nguyn thch hp
lu tr gi l lng t ho. y l qu trnh nh x mt bin lin tc u vo bin ri rc
u* thuc tp hu hn [u
1
, u
2
,..u
L
] xc nh trc, L l mc lng t ho c to ra.
V d:
+ To nh a cp xm th L=256, f(m,n) = g [ ] 255 , 0
+ To nh 2
24
th L=2
24
, f(m, n) = g [ ] 1 2 , 0
24


Dng tn hiu nh
nh
cha
tn hiu
quang
hc

7
1.4.2 Biu din nh
nh trn my tnh l kt qu thu nhn theo cc phng php s ho c nhng
trong cc thit b k thut khc nhau. Qu trnh lu tr nh nhm 2 mc ch:
Tit kim b nh
Gim thi gian x l
Vic lu tr thng tin trong b nh c nh hng rt ln n vic hin th, in n v
x l nh c xem nh l 1 tp hp cc im vi cng kch thc nu s dng cng
nhiu im nh th bc nh cng p, cng mn v cng th hin r hn chi tit ca nh
ngi ta gi c im ny l phn gii.
Vic la chn phn gii thch hp tu thuc vo nhu cu s dng v c trng
ca mi nh c th, trn c s cc nh thng c biu din theo 2 m hnh c bn.
1.4.2.1. M hnh Raster
y l cch biu din nh thng dng nht hin nay, nh c biu din di dng
ma trn cc im (im nh). Thng thu nhn qua cc thit b nh camera, scanner. Tu
theo yu cu thc th m mi im nh c biu din qua 1 hay nhiu bt
M hnh Raster thun li cho hin th v in n. Ngy nay cng ngh phn cng cung
cp nhng thit b thu nhn nh Raster ph hp vi tc nhanh v cht lng cao cho
c u vo v u ra. Mt thun li cho vic hin th trong mi trng Windows l
Microsoft a ra khun dng nh DIB (Device Independent Bitmap) lm trung gian.
Hnh 1.4 th hnh quy trnh chung hin th nh Raster thng qua DIB.
Mt trong nhng hng nghin cu c bn trn m hnh biu din ny l k thut
nn nh cc k thut nn nh li chia ra theo 2 khuynh hng l nn bo ton v khng
bo ton thng tin nn bo ton c kh nng phc hi hon ton d liu ban u cn nu
khng bo ton ch c kh nng phc hi sai s cho php no . Theo cch tip cn
ny ngi ta ra nhiu quy cch khc nhau nh BMP, TIF, GIF, PCX
Hin nay trn th gii c trn 50 khun dng nh thng dng bao gm c trong
cc k thut nn c kh nng phc hi d liu 100% v nn c kh nng phc hi vi
sai s nhn c.


Qu trnh hin th v chnh sa, lu tr nh thng qua DIB


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1.4.2.2. M hnh Vector
Biu din nh ngoi mc ch tit kim khng gian lu tr d dng cho hin th v
in n cn m bo d dng trong la chn sao chp di chuyn tm kim Theo nhng
yu cu ny k thut biu din vector t ra u vit hn.
Trong m hnh vector ngi ta s dng hng gia cc vector ca im nh ln cn
m ho v ti to hnh nh ban u nh vector c thu nhn trc tip t cc thit b
s ho nh Digital hoc c chuyn i t nh Raster thng qua cc chng trnh s
ho
Cng ngh phn cng cung cp nhng thit b x l vi tc nhanh v cht lng
cho c u vo v ra nhng li ch h tr cho nh Raster.
Do vy, nhng nghin cu v biu din vect u tp trung t chuyn i t nh
Raster.



S chuyn i gia cc m hnh biu din nh
Thng tin v nh

Chiu rng: s pixel/ dng ( s byte/dng)
Chiu cao: s dng
phn gii: s pixel/inch
s bit/ pixel
s bit/ pixel 8 phi c pallete mu (bng mu)
> 8 dng mu trc tip
Pal:palette
Pal[index].R, Pal[index].G, Pal[index].B,

Nu s bit/pixel >1 ta c nh cp xm (gray level image), nu =1 ta c nh nh phn vi 2
cp xm v d nh en v trng.
16 bit/pixel

5 6 5
R G B

24 bit/pixel, mi phn mu l mt byte

8 8 8
R G B


RASTER

VECTOR

RASTER
Vecter
ha
Raster
ha

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// Hun thm:
Megapixel l n v o phn gii ca thit b quang ( nh l s im trong bc nh )
c bit trong Camera s . Gi tr Megapixel c tnh bng nhn rng vi chiu cao im
nh .

V d nh c phn gii l 1280 x 1024 c phn gii l 1.310.720 nh im ( pixel ) hoc
1.3 Megapixel . Bng di y cho ta thy nhng phn gii chung v gi tr ny mang tnh
gn ng : camera c 1.9 megapixel khi bn c gi l 2 megapixel .


Resolution (width x height)..........Resolution (Megapixel)

1152x864...................1 Megapixel

1280x960...................1 Megapixel

1280x1024....................1.3 Megapixel

1600x1200.....................1.9 (2) Megapixels

2048x1536......................3.1 Megapixels

2272x1704.......................3.8 (4) Megapixels

2560x1920........................4.9 (5) Megapixels

2592x1944..........................5 Megapixels

3008x1960...........................5.8 Megapixels

3088x2056.............................6.3 Megapixels

3072x2304................................7 Megapixels

Mt iu bn cn ch khng nn ngh Camera c phn gii cao hn th cht lng Camera
tt nht .
Cht lng ca hnh nh ph thuc vo mt vi yu t khc nh : thu knh , b cm bin
chp nh v qu trnh x l hnh nh ( bc nh sau khi chp c c nh mc ca mu , cn
bng trng ... ) .


10
C bao nhiu bc nh c lu tr trong th nh

Thng thng khi mua Camera s , chng ta lun lun c mt cu hi liu th nh ca mnh c
th lu tr c bao nhiu nh trong .

l mt cu hi chng ta khng bao gi c mt cu hi chnh xc , bi v bc nh c lu tr
dng JPEG , c dng nn d liu , ph thuc vo kch thc ca mt vi c tnh khc .
Nhng chng ta cng c mt quan im chung .

Trong bng di y chng ta ch ra kch thc trung bnh ca bc nh c mt vi phn gii
khc nhau v s liu l tng i . Camera c phn gii 3 megapixel , th nh dung lng
64MB s lu tr khong 53 bc nh .
Approximate Number of Images per Capacity

Camera Type:


File Size.( MB).... 32... 64...128...256...512...1GB... 2GB....4GB

2 Megapixel Camera: 900KB 35 ...71142..284....5681,137...2,275...4,551

3 Megapixel Camera: 1.2MB 2653...106...213....426...853 ...1,706 ...3,413

4 Megapixel Camera: 2MB. 16....32....64....128.....256512...1,024....2,048

5 Megapixel Camera: 2.5MB 12...25...51....102.....204....409....819....1,638

6 Megapixel Camera: 3.2MB 10...20....40....80......160......320....640....1,280

Mt s vn chung

* Zoom : c hai kiu Zoom - Zoom quang ( Optical ) v Zoom s ( digital ) . Zoom quang l
zoom thc , chng trnh bn trong camera lm zoom s . Ni chung tng s Zoom thng bo s
cng hoc s nhn ca hai kiu Zoom . V d : trong Camera c ghi Zoom 3x Optical hoc 2x
Digital c ngha phng to gp 3 ln bng thu knh , hoc bc nh c phng to hai ln thng
qua phn mm - kt qu khng c tt .
* Kh mt : khi khng c phn ny nhiu khi chp nh trong mt ngi c chp s c mt
chm ngoi mong mun .
* Cn bng trng : Cho php bn thay i cng sng ca cnh chp . Nu cnh chp c
nh sng nng hoc lnh , c bc nh c nh sng ng phi ngn nh sng cho ph hp

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bc nh khng qu xanh hoc qu mu cam . Thng thng chng ta ch ny l Auto
(AWB, Auto White Balance) hoc theo nh sng m chng ta s dng nh nh sng ban ngy ,
nh sng hunh quang , nh sng c my , nh sng Vonfram , nh sng n Flash . C nhiu
iu kin thun li nu Camera c th iu khin bng tay chc nng ny .
* CCD Charge-Coupled Device : tn ca cng ngh dng cho cm ng trong Camera s
chuyn i tn hiu analog sang digital . Ngy nay cht lng nh c cao ngi ta s dng
nhiu n cng ngh CMOS trong thit b cm ng .
* Nightframing : Cho php bn xem trn mn hnh LCD hnh nh ca nh chp thm tr c
trong ch ti . Trong c im ny phi dng cm ng hng ngoi , bc nh c chp bng
cch s dng n Flash.
* Nightshot : Cho php bn xem bc nh ti ni khng c nh sng m khng bt n Flash .
Trong my Camera ca Sony dng infrared nightshot (IR nightshot) c tn hi khc .
* Mc Flash : C mt s Camera thay i c mc ca n Flash .
* SLR: Means Single Lens Reflex , bn c th xem hnh nh qua cng thu knh . H thng ny
s dng cho chp nh chuyn nghip v bn chuyn nghip m khng phc v cho ngi dng
thng thng .
//// Ht

nh c 3 gi tr R=G=B l nh a cp xm khng cn lu gi tr palatte v bn
thn n l gi tr im nh (pallete ng bng ch s gi tr im nh).
Vi nh c rt nhiu nh dng nh khc nhau, thc hin bin i nh ta phi
hiu c cu trc ca tng nh, tc ng ln tng im nh. Cc nh dng nh ph
bin:
+ JFEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
phn m rng: .jpeg, .jfif, .jpg, .JPG, .JPE
+ PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
phn m rng png hoc PNG
PNG-8, PNG-4
+GIF(Graphics Interchange Format)
Ch h tr 256 mu, l d liu nn d liu c bit hu ch cho vic truyn hnh
nh qua ng truyn lu lng nh.
+TIFF (Tagged-Image File Format)
ui l .tif
+ Bitmap
phn m rng l .bmp
Ngoi ra cn c cc nh dng khc nh: .pcx, .pcf, .pcd, .pbm, .pgm, .pct, .ppm,
.svg, .svgz,.tga, wbmp, wmf, .xbm, .xpm, .cgm, .cm, .cpi, .dpx, .dxf, .exr, .fpx,.

12
//Huan Thm:
Hnh nh ha trn my tnh chia lm hai loi: vector v raster.

II. phn gii nh (image resolution)
phn gii nh l s im nh (pixel) c trn 1 n v chiu di ca hnh nh .
phn gii nh c tnh bng n v ppi (pixels per inch) hoc dpi (dots per inch).
V d: mt hnh nh c kch thc 1 inch x 1 inch v c phn gii 72 ppi s cha tng cng
72 x 72 = 5.184 pixels. Hnh nh c kch thc tng t nhng vi phn gii 300 ppi s cha
tng cng 300 x 300 = 90.000 pixels.

Hnh bn tri c phn gii 72 ppi, hnh bn phi 300 ppi

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Hnh nh c phn gii cng cao th cng sc nt v mu sc cng chnh xc. V khi , dung
lng file cng s tng theo, i hi nhiu b nh v a cng hn.
1. Hnh nh s dng cho thit k web ch cn c phn gii 72 ppi.
2. Trng hp hnh nh dng cho thit k ha in n th bn cn nh hai quy tc sau:
Nu l nh nt (line art) hoc n sc (monochrome) th nh nn c phn gii l 1,200
ppi.
Nu l nh chp mu (color photograph) hoc nh chp en trng (black and white
photograph) th nh nn c phn gii 300 ppi.
3. ra nh k thut s th hnh nh cn c phn gii 300 ppi.
4. Nu in nh hi-flex vi kch thc ln ( qung co ngoi tri chng hn) th hnh nh cn c
phn gii khong 72 ppi n 100 ppi.



14
1.4.3- M hnh mu
*Cm nhn mu
Cu to ca mt:
Mt c dng gn hnh cu vi ng knh trung bnh khong gn 20nm. Mt bao
gm 3 lp: gic mc(cornea), vng mc(scleria) v m mc (choroid) v thu knh. Gic
mc trong sut, bao bc pha ngoi mt. Vng mc bao bc pha trong mt. M mc bao
gm mt mng mch mu nh li ti, n l ngun nui mt chnh. M mc gip l gim s
lng nh sng i vo mt. Trng mt co v dn iu tit lng nh sng i vo mt.
m ca trng mt thay i vi ng knh 2-8nm. Mt trc ca trng mt bao gm
sc t nhn ca mt.
Thu knh mt tp trung lng nh sng vo cc t bo thn kinh mt (hong
im)
Mng hong im (retina) c to nh nu nh mt nhn nh sng hi t t vt
th bn ngoi mt. C 2 loi t bo nhn nh sng l dng hnh nn (cones) v que (rod).
T bo hnh nn mi mt gm 6-7 triu. N nm ch yu trung tm hong im v
nhy vi mu sc. Mt ngi nhn bit cc chi tit nh nh t bo hnh nn gi l nhn
thy nh sng mnh. S lng t bo hnh que 75-150 triu, phn b trn b mt hong
im. Cc t bo hnh que cho mt hnh nh chung v trng chiu sng, n khng nhy
vi mu sc m nhy vi nh sng c mc thp gi l nhn thy nh sng ti.
nh trn vng mc c nh x s cp trong vng hong im. Vic thu nhn nh
ny do s kch thch ca cc phn t thu nhn nh sng m n bin i nng lng bc
x thnh cc xung in v c no gii m.
nh sng (Light) l bc x in t kch thch s nhn ca chng ta, c biu din bi
phn b nng lng L(), l bc sng c gii hn t 350nm n 780nm.
Mu sc ca mt tia nh sng l cm gic mu m tia sng gy nn mt ngi.
Mu sc ca cc vt th l mu sc ca nh sng do chng pht x ra (nu l vt nng
sng) hay phn x t chng t mt ngun chiu sng (nu coi vt l khng nng sng).
nh sng m con ngi nhn bit (hay mu khc nhau) l di tn hp trong quang
ph in t

15

Trong x l nh v ha, m hnh mu l mt ch s k thut ca mt h ta
mu 3 chiu vi tp cc mu nh thnh phn c th trng thy c trong h thng ta
mu thuc mt gam mu c trng. V d nh m hnh mu RGB (Red, Green, Blue): l
mt n v tp cc mu thnh phn sp xp theo hnh lp phng ca h trc ta
cc.
Mc ch ca m hnh mu l cho php cc ch s k thut quy c ca mt s loi
mu sc thch hp vi cc mu sc ca mt s gam mu khc. Chng ta c th nhn thy
trong m hnh mu ny, khng gian mu l mt tp hp nh hn ca khng gian cc mu
c th nhn thy c, v vy mt m hnh mu khng th c s dng nh r tt c
c th nhn thy. Sau y, ta xem xt mt s m hnh hay c s dng nht.

Hai hay 3 mu c s dng m t cc mu khc c gi l primary colors.
Thc t l s primary colors l khng gii hn. Tuy nhin ch 3 mu c s cho phn
ln cc ng dng.
1.4.3.1 . M hnh mu RGB (Red, Green, Bule)
3 mu c s l: R(Red), G(Green), B(Blue), s dng m hnh mu cng tnh
M hnh mu RGB c biu din bi lp phng vi cc trc R, G, B
Gc biu din mu en
Ta (1, 1, 1) biu din mu trng.
Ta trn cc cnh trc biu din cc mu c s.
Cc cnh cn li biu din mu b cho mi mu c s


16
.











ng cho t (0, 0, 0) n (1, 1, 1) l biu din mu xm.
Biu RGB thuc m hnh cng:
Pht sinh mu mi bng cch cng cng mu c s
Gn gi tr t 0 n 1 cho R, G, B
Red+Blue -> Magenta (1, 0, 1)

Nhn xt
+ M hnh ny khng th biu din mi mu trong ph nhn thy
+ Mn hnh my tnh v TV s dng m hnh ny
+Ph thuc vo thit b
1.4.3.2 M hnh mu CMY , CMYK
Cc mu c s:
C (Cyan): xanh l, M(magenta): hng sm, Y(yellow); vng.
M hnh CMY l b ca m hnh RGB.
L phn b tng ng cho cc mu , lc, lam v chng c s dng nh nhng b lc
loi tr cc mu ny t nh sng trng. V vy CMY cn c gi l cc phn b loi tr
ca mu gc. Tp hp mu thnh phn biu din trong h ta -cc cho m hnh
Black (0,0,0)
Green (0,1,0)
Cyan (0,1,1)
White (1,1,1)
Magenta (1,0,1)
Red (1,0,0)
Blue (0,0,1)
yellow (1,1,0)

17
mu CMY cng ging nh cho m hnh mu RGB ngoi tr mu trng (nh sng trng),
c thay th mu en (khng c nh sng) ti ngun sng. Cc mu thng c to
thnh bng cch loi b hoc c b t nh sng trng hn l c thm vo nhng
mu ti
Biu CMY thuc loi m hnh tr.
Hn hp ca cc mu CMY l tng l loi tr (cc mu ny khi in cng mt ch trn
nn trng s to ra mu en).



Khi b mt c bao ph bi lp mc mu xanh tm, s khng c tia mu phn
chiu t b mt . Mu xanh tm loi b phn mu phn x khi c tia sng trng,
m bn cht l tng ca 3 mu , lc, lam. V th ta c th coi mu Cyan l mu trng
tr i mu v cng l mu lam cng mu lc. Tng t nh vy ta c mu thm
(magenta) hp th mu lc, v th n tng ng vi mu cng mu lam. V cui
cng mu vng (yellow) hp th mu lam, n s bng mu cng vi lc.
Khi b mt ca thc th c bao ph bi xanh tm v vng, chng s hp th ht
cc phn mu v xanh lam ca b mt. Khi ch tn ti duy nht mu lc b phn x
t s chiu sng ca nh sng trng. Trong trng hp khi b mt c bao ph bi c 3
mu xanh tm, vng, thm, hin tng hp th xy ra trn c 3 mu , lc v lam. Do
, mu en s mu ca b mt. Nhng mi lin h ny c th c miu t bi:
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

B
G
R
Y
M
C
1
1
1

Hnh . S bin i t RGB thnh CMY

CMYK ch m hnh mu loi tr.

18
K=Key (trong ting Anh nn hiu theo ngha l ci g then cht hay ch yu
m ch mu en mc d mu ny c tn ting Anh l black do ch B c s dng
ch mu xanh lam (blue) trong m hnh mu RGB.
Nguyn l lm vic ca CMYK l trn c s hp th nh sng. Mu m ngi ta
nhn thy l t phn ca nh sng khng b hp th.
CMYK, K=min (C, M, Y )

=
=
=
K Y Y
K M M
K C C

Mc ch: dng trong in n
1.4.3.3 M hnh mu HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value)
Cc m hnh mu RGB, CMY c nh hng cho phn cng tri ngc vi m
hnh mu HSV ca Smith hay cn c gi l mu HSB vi B l Brightness ( sng),
c nh hng ngi s dng da trn c s nn tng v trc gic v tng mu, sc
v sc thi m thut.
H thng ta c dng hnh tr v tp mu thnh phn ca khng gian bn trong
m hnh mu c xc nh l hnh nn hoc hnh chp su cnh nh trong hnh 1.7.
nh hnh chp l su cnh khi V= 1 cha ng mi quan h gia cc mu sng v
nhng mu trn mt phng vi V= 1 u c mu sng.
H (Hue) bc sng gc ca nh sng
S (Saturation) thc o tinh khit nh sng gc
Biu din t l tinh khit ca mu s chn vi tinh khit cc i
V (value) cng hay chi nh sng
M hnh HSV suy din t m hnh RGB
Hy quan st hnh hp RGB theo ng cho t White n Black (gc) -> ta c
hnh lc gic
S dng lm nh hnh nn HSV
Sc mu (hue) hoc H c o bi gc quanh trc ng vi mu l 0
o
, mu lc
l 120
o
, mu lam l 240
o
(xem hnh 1.7). Cc mu b sung trong hnh chp HSV 180
o

i din vi mu khc. Gi tr ca S l mt tp cc gi tr i t 0 trn ng trc tm
(trc V) n 1 trn cc mt bn ti nh ca hnh chp su cnh. S bo ha c o
tng i cho gam mu tng ng vi m hnh mu ny.
M hnh mu dng hnh chp su cnh ny ng cao V vi nh l im gc ta
(0,0). im nh l mu en c gi tr ta mu V= 0, ti cc im ny gi tr ca
H v S l khng lin quan vi nhau. Khi im c S= 0 v V= 1 l im mu trng, nhng
gi tr trung gian ca V i vi S= 0 (trn ng thng qua tm) l cc mu xm. Khi S=
0 gi tr ca H ph thuc c gi bi cc quy c khng xc nh, ngc li khi S khc
0 gi tr ca H s l ph thuc.

19
Nh vy mt mu no V= 1, S= 1 l gig nh mu thun khit trong m thut
c s dng nh im khi u trong cc mu pha trn. Thm mu trng ph hp
gim S (khng c s thay i V) to nn s thay i sc thi ca gam mu. S chuyn
mu c to ra bi vic gi S= 1 v gim V to nn s thay i sc v tng mu
to thnh bi vic thay i c hai S v V.

1 , 0
360 0
V S
H

V=0,mu en. nh lc gic c mu cc i
Red=(0
0
, 1, 1)
Green=(120
0
, 1, 1)
Blue=(240
0
, 1, 1)
M hnh HSV trc gic hn m hnh RGB
+ Bt u t Hue (H cho trc v V=1, S=1)
+ Thay i S: B sung hay bt trng

20
+ Thay i V: B sung hay bt en
+ Cho n khi c mu mong mun


Mt ngi c th phn bit 128 Hues, 130 tints v cc i 30 shades (Yellow):
128 x 130 x 30 = 382 720 mu khc nhau
H 130 mc
S, V 23 mc
T hp mu 130x23x23 l khong 16 triu mu. C th truyn theo knh tivi bng
HSV nhng nhing trn mn hnh l RGB.
Chuyn i t RGB sang HSV
Hm RGB_HSV_Conversion
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
Max: Hm ly gi tr cc i
Min: Hm ly gi tr nh nht
{
//Xc nh gi tr cng sng
V= Max(R,G,B)
//Xc nh bo ha
Temp= Min(R,G,B)
If V=0 than
S= 0
Else
S= (V-Temp)/V
End
//Xc nh sc mu
IF s=0 THEN
H= Undefined
Else

21
Cr= (V-R)/(V-Temp);
Cg= (V-G)/(V-Temp);
Cb= (V-B)/(V-Temp);
// Mu nm trong khong gia vng (Yellow) v ta (Magenta)
If R=V then
H= Cb-Cg
// Mu nm trong khong gia xanh tm (cyan) v vng (yellow)
If G= V then
H= 2+Cr-Cb
// Mu nm trong khong gia ti (magenta) v xanh (cyan)
If B=V then
H= 4+ Cg Cr
H= 60*H // Chuyn sang
//Loi cc gi tr m
If H < 0 then
H= H+360
}
Chuyn i t HSV sang RGB
Hm HSV_RGB_Conversion()
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
{
//Kim tra trng hp nh sng khng mu
If S=0 then
If H=Undifined then
R= V
G= V
B= V
Endif
Else
If H=360 then
H= 0
Else
H= H/60
endif
I= Floor(H)

22
F= H-I
M= V*(1-S)
N= V*(1-S*F)
K= V*(1-S*(1-F))
//(R,G,B)=(V,K,M) R= V; C= K; B= M
If I=0 then
(R,G,B)=(V,K,M);
If I=1 then
(R,G,B)=(N,V,M);
If I=2 then
(R,G,B)=(M,V,K);
If I=3 then
(R,G,B)=(M,N,V);
If I=4 then
(R,G,B)=(K,M,V);
If I=5 then
(R,G,B)=(V,M,N);
}
1.4.3.4 M hnh mu HLS
M hnh mu HLS c xc nh bi tp hp hnh chp su cnh i ca khng
gian hnh tr. Sc mu l gc quanh trc ng cu hnh chp su cnh i vi mu ti
gc 0o. Cc mu s xc nh theo th t ging nh trong biu CIE khi ranh gii ca
n b xoay ngc chiu kim ng h: Mu , mu vng, mu lc, mu xanh tm, mu
lam v thm. iu ny cng ging nh th t sc xp trong mu hnh chp su cnh
n HSV.











Hnh M hnh mu HLS

23
Chng ta c th xem mu HLS nh mt s bin dng cu mu HSV m trong
mu ny mu trng c ko hng ln hnh chp su cnh pha trn t mt V= 1. Nh
vi mu hnh chp su cnh n, phn b sung ca mt mu sc c t v tr 180
o

hn l xunh quanh hnh chp su cnh i, s bo ha c o xung quanh trc ng, t
0 trn trc ti 1 trn b mt. sng bng khng cho mu en v bng mt cho mu
trng.
Chuyn i t RGB sang HLS
Hm RGB_HLS_Conversion()
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
Max: Hm ly gi tr cc i
Min: Hm ly gi tr nh nht
{
//Xc nh sng
M1= Max(R,G,B)
M2= Min(R,G,B)
L= (M1+M2)
//Xc nh bo ha
If M1=M2 //Trng hp khng mu
S= 0
H= Undefined
Else
If L <= 0.5 then //Trng hp mu
S= (M1-M2)/(M1+M2)
Else
S= (M1-M2)/(2-M1-M2)
Endif
//Xc nh sc
Cr= (M1-R)/(M1-M2)
Cg= (M1-G)/(M1-M2)
Cb= (M1-B)/(M1-M2)
if R=M1 then
H= Cb-Cg
If G=M1 then
H= 2+Cr-Cb
If B=M1 then

24
H= 4+Cg-Cr
H= H*60
if H<0 then
H= H+360
endif
}
Chuyn i t HLS sang RGB
Hm HLS_RGB_Conversion()
H: Sc mu [0-360] vi mu ti im 0
S: bo ha [0-1]
V: Gi tr cng sng [0-1]
{
If L <= 0.5 then
M2= L*(1+S)
Else
M2= L+S-L*S
Endif
M1= 2*L-M2
//Kim tra bo ha = 0
If S=0 then
If H=Undefined
R=L
G=L
B=L
Else //Error: D liu nhp sai
Endif
Else //Xc nh gi tr ca RGB
RGB(H+120, M1,M2,Value)
R= Value
RGB(H, M1,M2,Value)
G= Value
RGB(H-120, M1,M2,Value)
B= Value
Endif
}

//Hm iu chnh gi tr ca H cho ph hp khong xc nh

25
Hm RGB(H, M1, M2, Value)
{
If H < 0 then
H= H+360
If H < 60 then
Value= M1+(M2-M1)*H/60
If H >=60 and H < 180 then
Value= M2
If H>= 180 and H < 240 then
Value = M1+(M2-M1)*(240-H)/60
If H > 240 and H <= 360 then
Value= M1
Return
}
1.4.3.5. Biu mu CIE
Nm 1931: CIE (Commision Internationale de lclairage) xy dng mu c s
chun quc t:
Biu mu CIE c xy dng da trn cc mu XYZ tng tng khng th
nhn ra mt cch vt cht, chng c to ra trn c s l thuyt thun tu v v th
khng ph thuc vo thit b nh cc khng gian mu RGB hay CMYK. Tuy nhin cc
mu s cp o ny c la chn sao cho tt c cc mu c th c nhn bit bi mt
ngi trong phm vi khng gian mu ny.
H thng XYZ c xy dng da trn cc ng cong phn ng ca cc t bo
cm nhn ba mu RGB trong mt, ba mu s cp ny c coi l gn bng vi cc tng
mu Red, Green, Blue. a v mt phng mu 2 chiu XY qua vic a ra 3 to mu
CIE: x, y, z nh sau:
x = X/(X+Y+Z)
y = Y/(X+Y+Z)
z = Z/(X+Y+Z)
vi x+y=z=1
gi tr z bt k ca mt mu no c th tm c da trn cng thc: z=1-x-y
Khi v cc gi tr x, y ca mu trong ph nhn thy -> Biu CIE l ng cong
hnh li (cn gi l biu kt ta CIE Chromaticity Diagram)
Biu CIE l phng tin lng ha tinh khit v bc sng tri:
tinh khit ca im mu C
1
: c xc nh bng khong cch tng i ca
on thng ni C vi ng cong qua C
1

26


1.5-ng dng ca x l nh
Vn phng: h thng nhn dng ch, form
ImageTable + Text + Image : nhn dng c ch, nh, bng
Imageform
Nhn dng ch OCR (Optical charater Recognition)
Nhn dng nhn OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
-Nhn dng ting Anh
Omnipage 12.0 ca hng Scansoft
Fine Reader 6.0 ca hang ABBRY.
-Nhn dng ting vit
VN Docr 4.0 ca Vin CNTT.
Image Scan ca cng ty Tcapro
Kim tra sn phm
So snh mu ca sn phm mu vi sn phm mi
Kim tra trn ca chai/l
Nhn dng cng nghip
Thng mi
iu tra khong sn
a l: vc t ho bn .
Cc phn mm chuyn i nh Raster sang nh vector
R2V ca hng Able
C
C
2
C
1
C
3

C
4

C
5

C
6

C
7

C
9

C
8


27
MapScan ca Vin CNTT
TrixSystem R2V v V2R
Hot hnh: bin i hnh hc, bp mo hnh hc (morph)

Qun s
D bo thi tit, chy rng, l lt, su bnh, khong sn.
An ninh
Nhn dng vn tay
Water Marking
Nhn dng khun mt ngi
Nhn dng ti phm
Du thng tin trong nh
Chng bo lc: dung camera pht hin ra s an ton ni cng cng
Siu th
bar code: nhn dng m vch
Cc robot t ng phc v.
Th vin
Dng camera iu khin robot.
Ngoi ra c ng dng trong y hc lm ni cc nh, trong thin vn hc khi
phc li nh do tc ng ca kh quyn hay nn nh trong truyn i xa hoc lu tr.

28

CHNG 2: CC PHP BIN I KHNG PH THUC VO
KHNG GIAN V CC PHP TON TRN A NH
2.1. Gii thiu
Cc php ton khng ph thuc khng gian l cc php ton ton cc khng ph
thuc vo v tr ca im nh. Hay cn gi l ton t x l im nh dng cc nh x
nhm bin i gi tr ca mt im nh ch da vo gi tr ca chnh n m khng quan
tm n gi tr ca im nh khc.
Mt cch ton hc nh x c nh ngha:
v(m,n) = f(u(m,n))
u(m,n) l gi tr cng sng ti to (m,n)
v(m,n) l gi tr cng sng thu c sau php bin i
f l hm bin i.



Mt s php ton
+ Tng gim sng
+ Hiu chnh tng phn
+ Php ton thng k
+ Tch theo ngng v chng nhiu nh
2.2- Cc php ton khng ph thuc khng gian
nh ngha: (Histogram) Lc mc xm
Lc mc xm l mt biu cung cp tn sut xut hin ca mi mc xm
trong nh
Tn sut ca cp xm g l s im nh c mc xm g trong nh
h(g): s im nh c gi tr bng g
h(g)= # {P| I(P)= g}
gi s ta c nh I=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
4 3 2 1 0
3 3 2 1 1
5 2 3 4 1
5 7 2 3 1

G 0 1 2 3 4 5 7
h(g) 1 5 4 5 2 2 1



29

Nu pht trin n 256 mu cc im s lin k nhau, to thnh ng cong.
i vi nh mu, th s c 3 lc xm tng ng vi 3 mu Red, Green, Blue.
Lc xm cung cp rt nhiu thng tin v phn b mc xm ca nh.








nh ti nh sng




nh c tng phn thp nh c tng phn cao
Thut ton xy dng lc xm:
H l bng cha lc xm (l vecto c N phn t)
Khi to: t tt c cc phn t ca bng l 0
To bng: vi mi im nh I(x,y) tnh H[I(x,y)]=H[I(x,y)]+1
K thut 1: Tng gim sng ca nh
Cng vo mi im nh mt gi tr C
F(I(x, y)) = I(x, y) + C

30
C > 0 nh sng ln
C< 0 nh ti i.
V d: nh b ti i v sng ln


Ch : khi cng vt qua 255 th quay li t 0
*K thut 2: Tng gim tng phn
tng phn biu din s thay i sng ca i tng so vi nn. nh vi
tng phn thp c th do iu kin sng khng hay khng u, thiu phm vi ng
trong b cm bin nh.
I(x,y) = I (x,y) +
, l cc hng s
>1 tng phn tng
<1 tng phn gim

K thut 3: Ko dn tng phn
Ko dn histogram t [0, 255]

>

<
=
high x
high x low
low high
low x
low x
x output
255
) ( * 255
0
) (

low v high l gi tr cp xm cao nht v thp nht trong nh

31
* K thut 4: Hiu chnh gamma
f(I(x, y))=(I(x, y))

= e
ln (x, y)

V d:

* K thut 5: Tch ngng
>0 : ngng
Max nu I(x, y)
I(x, y)=
Min nu I(x, y) <
chuyn nh a cp xm v nh nh phn. Chia nh thnh 2 phn nn v vng. Nu
Max=1, Min=0 th ta c nh en trng
tn ti sai s
sai s: g nn, xp g vo vng nh (dnh, bt nhm)
g nn, xp g vo nn (t nt, b st)
Nhc im: C th xy ra cc sai st nn thnh nh hoc nh thnh nn lm cho nh b
t nt.

* K thut 6: B cm -bunching ( tch theo nhiu ngng)
Mc ch: gim bt cp xm ca nh bng cch nhm li cc cp xm gn nhau thnh
cp xm mi. Trong trng hp hai nhm th chnh l tch ngng
Cho mt tp cc ngng theo th t tng dn
1
,
2
,,
k

i
nu
i-1
I(x,y)
i
I(x, y)= 0 nu I(x, y) <
1

Max nu I(x, y) >
k









e

g
h(g)
0

32





Thng thng c nhiu nhm vi kch thc khc nhau, tng qut khi bin i ngi
ta s ly cng kch thc.
Cch lm:
Chia cc nhm u nhau c cng kch thc l bunch size
size bunch
size bunch
y x I
y x I _ *
_
) , (
) , ( =

y l php chia ly phn nguyn
V d:
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
2 1 2 1 4
1 9 6 2 7
5 4 3 1 2
7 6 4 2 1
I
bunch_size=3, khi ta thu c
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
0 0 0 0 3
0 9 6 0 6
3 3 3 0 0
6 6 3 0 0
I
[0, 1, 2] [3, 4, 5] [6, 7, 8] [9, 10, 11]
0 3 6 9
*K thut 7: Tch ngng t ng
Chia dy cp xm thnh 2 phn: tm chia nh thnh 2 phn.
K thut nhm tm ra ngng da vo Histogram mt cch t ng theo nguyn l vt
l. Vt th tch lm 2 phn nu tng lch trong tng phn l ti thiu.
Vt l: Khi tch ra 2 phn th xut hin lc hp dn.
Cho =[1, 255] th ci no c lc ht yu nht b tch ra, do tm v tr c lc
ht yu nht.
Mmen qun tnh: v tr lm cho momen quay nh nht.
Hm: gi tr cc tr a phng
Thng k: v tr m momen bc 2, bc 3 histogram bng nhau.
Thng tin: entropy cc i,

p
i
log p
i
Max (E nn + E vng max, s cc
im l cc i cho 2 phn

33
lch:
1
+
2
min

1
lch cc pixel nn

2
lch cc pixel vng
ng cong
im chia l im li hoc lm ca ng cong.
Gi t(g) s im nh c gi tr g
G l s mc xm c xt k c khuyt thiu.
P l s im nh c xt.
m(g) gi tr trung bnh cc im nh g
m(g) = (

=
g
i
i ih
0
) ( )/t(g)
i.h(i) l momen qun tnh ca im i
m(g) l moment qun tnh trung bnh ca cc im c mc xm g.
A(g)=t(g)/(P-t(g))
B(g)=[m(g)-m(G-1)]
2

F(g)=A(g)*B(g)-1.
Tm sao cho f()= max {f(g), vi g G-1}
V d: G=9 hy tch ngng t ng nh ny

1 4 2 8 5 7
4 2 8 5 7 1
0 8 5 7 1 4
0 0 7 1 4 2
0 0 0 4 2 8
0 0 0 0 8 5
0 0 0 0 0 7
P=42

g h(g) t(g) g*h(g) sum(i*h(i)) m(g) A(g) B(g) f(g)
0 15 15 0 0 0 0.56 9.14 4.08
1 4 19 4 4 0.21 0.83 7.91 5,54
2 4 23 8 12 0.52 1.21 6.26 6.58
4 5 28 20 32 1.14 2 3.53 6.08
5 4 32 20 52 1.63 3.2 1.96 5.26
7 5 37 35 87 2.35 7.4 0.45 2.35
8 5 42 40 127 3.02 #### 0 ####


34
F(2) cho gi tr ln nht v vy ngng t ng l 2

V d 2:
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
1 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 0
3 2 1 0 0
4 3 2 1 0
I G=5, P=20

g hg tg g*h(g) sum(i*h(i)) m(g) A(g) B(g) f(g)
0 10 10 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 4 14 4 4 0.2857 2.3333 0.5102 0.1905
2 3 17 6 10 0.5882 5.6667 0.1696 -0.0392
3 2 19 6 16 0.8421 19 0.0249 -0.5263
4 1 20 4 20 1 #DIV/0! 0 #DIV/0!

F(1)=0.19 c gi tr ln nht do vy 1 chnh l ngng t ng

* K thut 8: Cn bng histogram
Cn bng l tng: vi mi g, g: g g th h(g)=h(g).
Trong trng hp khng cn bng, chia Histogram thnh cc on v cc vng chia l
xp x bng nhau (v s im trong Histogram)


nh v histogram trc khi cn bng


35


nh v histogram sau khi cn bng

T(g): l s im nh g
T(g)= Sum( h(i); 0 i g)
M, N l kch thc ca nh I
New level: l s mc xm cn cn bng.
F(g)= max (0, round((t(g)/(M*N))*new_level-1))
t TB=(M*N)/new_level
Khi f(g) = max (0, round(t(g)/TB-1))

V d 1: Cho I v new_level=6, hy cn bng hstogram
1 4 2 8 5 7 g h(g) t(g) f(g)
4 2 8 5 7 1 0 15 15 1
0 8 5 7 1 4 1 4 19 2
0 0 7 1 4 2 2 4 23 2
0 0 0 4 2 8 4 5 28 3
0 0 0 0 8 5 5 4 32 4
0 0 0 0 0 7 7 5 37 4
8 5 42 5


V d2: Cho I v new_level=4, hy cn bng histogram
0 1 2 3 4 g h(g)

t(g)

f(g)
0 0 1 2 3 0 10 10 1
0 0 0 1 2 1 4 14 2
0 0 0 0 1 2 3 17 2
3 2 19 3
4 1 20 3

36

K thut 9: nh m bn
I(x,y)=L-I(x,y) (x,y)
I(x,y)[0, L]
nh m bn c mu sc l cc mu b ca nh gc.
K thut 10: S dng bng tra
Look up table (LUT)
LUT n gin l mt mng s dng cc gi tr im nh hin ti lm ch mc ti cc gi
tr mi c lu trong bng. Khi trnh c cc tnh ton lp cn thit.
V d:
nh u vo LUT nh u ra
7 7 5 4 2 0 0 5 5 3 2 1
7 6 4 3 0 1 0 5 4 2 1 0
7 6 4 3 1 2 1 5 4 2 1 0
6 6 4 2 0 3 1 4 4 2 1 0
5 5 3 1 0 4 2 3 3 1 0 0
5 3
6 4
7 5

2.3-Thao tc trn a nh
K thut 1: tr hai nh
Cho hai nh I
1
, I
2
. Ta ly hiu hai nh bng cch tr tng to ca I
2
cho I
1
. Ch ra s
khc bit gia nh I
1
v nh I
2

I(P)=I
2
(P)-I
1
(P) P (P l to )







ng dng: nn nh, tch nh khi nn, truyn nh, nhn dng
Trong an ninh bo ng k t nhp: c sau khong thi gian t th t ng chp nh, sau
tr i nh trc, nu nh mi khc 0 th bo ng.
Cho P l to
Cc kt qu ca tr nh c th l:

37
I
2
(P)-I
1
(P)
Abs(I
1
(P)-I
2
(P))
Max-abs(I
2
(P)-I
1
(P))
1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7
4 2 8 5 7 0 4 2 8 5 7 0
I1= 2 8 5 7 0 0 I2= 2 8 5 7 0 0
8 5 7 0 0 0 8 5 7 0 1 1
5 7 0 0 0 0 5 7 0 1 1 1
7 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 8 8 8 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 8 8 8 8 8
|I1-I2| 0 0 0 0 0 0 8-|I1-I2|= 8 8 8 8 8 8
0 0 0 0 1 1 8 8 8 8 7 7
0 0 0 1 1 1 8 8 8 7 7 7
0 0 1 1 1 1 8 8 7 7 7 7


*K thut 2: K thut cng nh
gi s ta c 2 nh I
1
, I
2
c cng kch thc v thuc tnh. K thut cng nh nhm to ra
nh mi lai ghp gia I
1
v I
2
cng c kch thc v thuc tnh ging 2 nh ban u.
I

[i, j] =(1-)I
1
[i, j]+ I
2
[i, j]
[0,1]
ng dng: trong hot hnh, ti to hnh nh.
*K thut 3: Lc trung v a nh
nh ngha1:
Cho dy x
1
; x
2
...; x
n
n iu tng (gim). Nu n l th trung v ca dy l x
[(n+1)/2]

Nu n chn th trung v ca dy l (x
n/2
+ x
[n/2]+1
)/2
Hay chng ta c th c nh ngha khc
nh ngha 2:
X l trung v ca dy x1, x2, .., xn
#{k| x x
k
}=#{k| x x
k
}
V d: Trung v ca dy 1, 4, 5,2, 6,8, 7 l 5.

Mnh 1
Cho dy x1, x2,..,xn

38

n
k
k
x x
1
min ti trung v
Chng minh
+ Xt trng hp n chn
t
2
n
M =
Ta c:

=
+
= =
+ =
M
i
i M
M
i
i
n
i
i
x x x x x x
1 1 1


( )

=
+
=
+
+ =
M
i
i i M
M
i
i M i
x x x x x x
1 1


( ) ( ) [ ]

=
+
+ =
M
i
i M M M
x x x x
1
1


{ } ( ) { } ( )

= =
+
+ =
M
i
M
i
i i i i M
x Med x x Med x
1 1


{ } ( )

=
=
n
i
i i
x Med x
1

+ Nu n l:
B sung thm phn t { } ( )
i
x Med vo dy. Theo trng hp n chn
ta c:

{ } ( ) { } ( )
i i
n
i
i
x Med x Med x x +

=1
min ti Med({x
n
})

n
i
i
x x
1
min ti Med({x
n
})
Cho trc dy nh I1, I2,,In. nh trung v ca dy nh l I
Tv
trong mi I
Tv
(P) l
trung v ca dy I1(P), I2(P),..,In(P).

V
d
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3
I1= 4 5 6 I2= 1 2 3 I3= 7 8 9
7 8 9 7 8 9 4 5 6

1 2 3
Lc trung v = 4 5 6
7 8 9

39


K thut 4: Lc trung bnh a nh
Cho dy x
1
, x
2
,.., x
n
khi trung bnh ca dy l:

=
=
n
i
i
x
n
x
1
1

Cho trc dy nh I
1
,I
2
, ,I
n
c cng kch thc v thuc tnh. nh trung bnh ca dy
l nh I
TB
(P) l trung bnh ca dy I
1
(P)

,I
2
(P), ,I
n
(P). P l to ca nh.

=
=
n
k
k TB
I
n
I
1
1

ng dng: ly nh c trng trong dy nh.
Mnh 2
Cho dy x
1
, x
2
,.., x
n
.
( )

=
n
k
k
x x
1
2
min ti gi tri trung bnh
chng minh
( )
2
1
) (

=
=
n
k
k
x x x


( )


= =
=
= =
= =
n
k
k
n
k
k
n
k
k
x
n
x x nx
x x x
1 1
1
1
0 2 ) ( '

min
ti
{ } ( )
i
x TB x =


V d:
|
|
|

\
|
=
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
1
I
|
|
|

\
|
=
9 8 7
3 2 1
6 5 4
2
I
|
|
|

\
|
=
6 5 4
9 8 7
3 2 1
3
I
|
|
|

\
|
=
8 7 6
6 5 4
4 3 2
TB
I

*K thut 5: Trung bnh quy


=

= =

+ = + =
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
*
1 1 1
n
k
k
n
k
n
k
n
k
n
k
I
n n
n
n
I
I
n n
I
I
n

Trung bnh quy
TB
new
I
n
n
n
I
Itb
1
+
gi s c dy I
0
, I
1
,..,I
n



40
V d:
gi s c dy I
1
, I
2
, I
3
, I
4
N=2
B1: I
TB
khi to =I
1

B2:
2 2
2
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =
B3:
2 2
3
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =
B4:
2 2
4
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =
N=3
B1: I
TB
khi to =I
1

B2:
3 3
2
2
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =
B3:
3 3
2
3
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =
B4:
3 3
2
4
I I
I
TB
TB
+ =






41

CHNG 3: CC PHP TON PH THUC KHNG GIAN
Cc php ton ph thuc khng gian l cc php ton cc b ph thuc vo v tr
ca im nh. Thng ph thuc vo cc ln cn ca im nh

Cc php ton cun trn ca s, cc thao tc tch cnh
Cc php bin i hnh hc hai chiu: quay tnh tin (co dn), x dch, bin i
aphin
3.1- Php nhn chp v mu
Cho nh c kch thc MxN
Mu c kch thc mxn << MxN

Thng thng mu c kch thc 3x3, 5x5, 7x7
Gi s ta c nh I kch thc M N, mu T c kch thc m n khi , nh I nhn
chp theo mu T c xc nh bi cng thc.

( ) ( ) j i T j y i x I y x T I
n
j
m
i
, * , ) , (
1
0
1
0


=

=
+ + =
(2.1)
Hoc
( ) ( ) j i T j y i x I y x T I
n
j
m
i
, * , ) , (
1
0
1
0


=

=
=
(2.2)



nh MxN
Mu mxn
j
1
0
0 1
i
i
-1
j
0
-1 0 1
1

42

















V d1:

T=
|
|

\
|
1 0
1 1
I=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
2 2 1 1
7 6 4 3
8 6 4 2
7 5 3 1


|
|
|
|
|

\
|
2 2 1 1
7 6 4 3
8 6 4 2
7 5 3 1
*
|
|

\
|
1 0
1 1
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
2 4 3 2
7 15 12 8
8 21 16 10
7 20 14 8

VD2:
1 2 4 5 8 7
2 1 1 4 2 2
I = 4 5 5 8 8 2
1 2 1 1 4 4
7 2 2 1 5 2
T = 1 0
0 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 1 * 1 , 1 0 , 0 * , , * , ) , (
1
0
1
0
T y x I T y x I j i T j y i x I y x T I
j i
+ + + = + + =

= =

Input image
I0 I1 I2
I3 I4 I5
I6 I7 I8

ca s cun
M0 M1 M2
M3 M4 M5
M6 M7 M8

mt n cun
I0*M0
I1*M1
I2*M2
I3*M3
I4*M4
I5*M5
I6*M6
I*M6
I7*M7
I8*M8 +

New pixel
output image

43
( ) ( ) 1 , 1 , + + + = y x I y x I
2 3 8 7 10 *
7 6 9 12 4 * Tnh theo (2.1)
I T = 6 6 6 12 12 *
3 4 2 6 6 *
* * * * * *
Tnh theo cng thc 2.2
* * * * * *
* 2 3 8 7 10
I T = * 7 6 9 12 4
* 6 6 6 12 12
* 3 4 2 6 6
* Nhn xt:
- Trong qu trnh thc hin php nhn chp c mt s thao tc ra ngoi nh, nh
khng c xc nh ti nhng v tr dn n nh thu c c kch thc nh hn.
- nh thc hin theo cng thc 2.1 v 2.2 ch sai khc nhau 1 php dch chuyn
n gin ta s hiu php nhn chp l theo cng thc 2.1
a s cc php ton trong x l nh u dng php nhn chp (hay php cun)
Cc mu thng dng
T
1
=
|
|
|

\
|
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
T
2
=
|
|
|

\
|
1 3 1
31 16 3
1 3 1
T
3
=
|
|
|

\
|

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0

T
1
dng lc nhiu T
2
dng lc trn b mt T3 dng tch cnh
(lc thng thp) (lc thng trung bnh) -pht hin ra cc im
c gi tr thay i hn

so vi cc gi tr bn cnh
I T
1
* I
5 8 8 5
1 1 1 1 10 17 17 10
1 2 2 1 10 17 17 10
1 4 4 1 7 12 12 7
1 1 1 1


T
2
* I T
3
* I

44
24 31 31 24 2 0 0 2
33 63 63 33 0 0 0 0
37 93 93 37 -2 8 8 -2
26 39 39 26 2 -2 -2 2

gim nhiu, vt m ta dng lc thng thp(ch cho tn s thp i qua): lc trung v,
lc trung bnh.
lm nh sc nt dng lc thng cao (ch cho tn s cao i qua).
Mt s mt n lm nh sc nt.
|
|
|

\
|

0 1 0
1 5 1
0 1 0

|
|
|

\
|



1 1 1
1 9 1
1 1 1

|
|
|

\
|

1 2 1
2 5 2
1 2 1

Mu tch cnh
A=
|
|

\
|

1 1
1 1
B=
|
|

\
|
1 1
1 1

Theo chiu dc theo chiu ngang

I=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
3 3 3 0 0 0
3 3 3 0 0 0
3 3 3 0 0 0
0 0 0 3 3 3
0 0 0 3 3 3
0 0 0 3 3 3
A*I=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

0 0 6 0 0
0 0 6 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 6 0 0
0 0 6 0 0
B*I=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
6 6 0 6 6
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

A*I+B*I=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

0 0 6 0 0
0 0 6 0 0
6 6 0 6 6
0 0 6 0 0
0 0 6 0 0


3.2- Cc php ton trn ca s
* K thut 1: San nn (ground remove)
Chia nh thnh cc khi B
kl.
Cng vo tng khi cc hng sao cho sau khi cng gi tr
trung bnh cp xm tng khi bng nhau.

B
kl


45

.
)
' '
(
) (
) (
) (
' '
l k
B card
B p
P I
k
B card
B p
P I
l k kl

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
7 8 9 2 5 5 7 8 9 2 5 5
5 4 1 5 6 5 1 5
3 2 7 8 4 5 4 3 7 8 5 5


* K thut 2: Lc trung v
Vi mi P, ly ca s W(P)
Tnh trung v TV(P)= trung v W(P)
I(P)= I(P) nu | I(P)- TV(P)|
TV(P) nu ngc li
>0 l mt ngng cho trc
Lc trung v l lc phi tuyn. Cho 2 dy x(m) v y(m).
Trung v{x(m)+y(m)}Trung v{x(m)} + Trung v{y(m)}
Cc ca s lc trung v c rt nhiu dng khc nhau













V d:
1 2 3 2
4 16 2 1
x



x





x





x




46
I = 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
W(3 3); = 2
1 2 3 2
4 2 2 1
I
kq
= 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
Gi tr 16, sau php lc c gi tr 2, cc gi tr cn li khng thay i gi tr.
* K thut 3: Lc trung bnh
Vi mi P, ly ca s W(P)
Tnh trung bnh TB(P) trong ca s W(P)
I(P)= I(P) nu | I(P)- TB(P)|
TB(P) nu ngc li
> 0 l mt ngng cho trc
Vic tnh nh trung bnh chnh l thc hin cun vi mt n vi cc phn t c trng s
bng nhau v bng 1/mxn
V d vi mt n 3x3 trng s mi phn t bng 1/9
V d:
1 2 3 2
4 16 2 1
I = 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
W(3 3); = 2
1 2 3 2
4 4 2 1
I
kq
= 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
Gi tr 16 sau php lc trung bnh c gi tr 3, cc gi tr cn li gi nguyn sau
php lc.
|
|
|

\
|
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
9
1

V d; Cho nh I, thc hin lc trung bnh v trung v cho bit ca s W
3x3
, =3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 4 2 8 5 7 0
0 4 2 8 5 7 1 0
I = 0 2 8 5 7 1 4 0

47
0 8 5 7 1 4 2 0
0 5 7 1 4 2 8 0
0 7 1 4 2 8 5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
nh trung v |TV(P)-I(P)| nh lc trung v
0 2 2 5 5 0 1 2 0 3 0 7 1 4 2 8 5 0
2 4 5 5 5 1 2 2 3 0 2 0 4 2 8 5 7 1
2 5 5 5 4 1 0 3 0 2 3 3 2 8 5 7 1 4
5 5 5 4 4 2 3 0 2 3 0 0 8 5 7 1 4 2
5 5 4 4 4 2 0 2 3 0 2 6 5 7 1 4 2 2
0 1 1 2 2 0 7 0 3 0 6 5 0 1 4 2 2 0

nh trung bnh |TB(P)-I(P)| nh lc trung bnh
1 2 3 4 4 2 0 2 1 4 1 5 1 4 2 4 5 2
2 4 5 5 5 3 2 2 3 0 2 2 4 2 8 5 7 1
3 5 5 5 4 2 1 3 0 2 3 2 2 8 5 7 1 4
4 5 5 4 4 2 4 0 2 3 0 0 4 5 7 1 4 2
4 5 4 4 4 3 1 2 3 0 2 5 5 7 1 4 2 3
2 3 2 2 3 3 5 2 2 0 5 2 2 1 4 2 3 5
Tc dng ca lc trung v v lc trung bnh: lm trn nh, gim nhiu, hiu qu vi vic
gim nhiu Gaussian.
* K thut 4:Lc trung bnh theo k gi tr gn nht
gi s ta c nh I, im nh P, ca s W(P), ngng v s k. Khi lc trung bnh theo
k gi tr gn nht bao gm cc bc sau:
B1: tm k gi tr gn nht vi I(P)
{I(q)| q W(P)}{k gi tr gn I(p) nht}
B2: tnh trung bnh {k gi tr gn I(P) nht} TB
k
(P)
B3: tnh gi tr
I(P) nu |I(P)-TB
k
(P)|
I(P)=
TB
k
(P) nu ngc li
V d: W(3, 3), =2, k=3

x



48
1 2 3 2
I= 4 16 2 1
4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1
TB
k
(P) |I(P)-TB
k
(P)| nh kt qu
0 2 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 3 2
3 8 2 1 1 8 0 0 4 8 2 1
3 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 4 2 1 1
2 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 1

Nhn xt:
Nu k kch thc ca s W th k thut ny tr thnh lc trung bnh
Nu k=1 th nh kt qu khng thay i.
Cht lng ca k thut ph thuc vo s phn t la chn k.
* K thut 5: Gi trung bnh
TB(P)=0,5 {max I(q) + min I(q)| q W(P)}
* K thut 6: Lc cc i, lc cc tiu
I(P) = max {I(q)| qW(P)}
hoc I(P) = min {I(q)| qW(P)}

49

CHNG 4: PHN ON V PHT HIN BIN
4.1-Gii thiu
Xc nh cc i tng trong nh l c bn i vi hu ht cc ng dng lin quan n
x l nh bng my tnh. Cng vic ny c gi l phn on nh, phn on nhm
phn chia i tng cn kho st ra khi phn ni dung ca nh: phn tch nhng i
tng tip gip nhau v phn tch cc i tng ring bit thnh cc i tng con
phc v cho nhng bc tip theo.
V lng thng tin trong nh l ln, trong khi a s ng dng ch cn mt s thng tin
dc trng no , phn on nh l qu trnh lm gim lng thng tin khng l m vn
gi c cc c trng cn thit.
-Phn on (Segmentation)
Phn on nh nhm phn tch nh thnh nhng thnh phn c cng tnh cht no
da theo bin hay cc vng lin thng. Tiu chun xc nh cc vng lin thng c
th l cng mc xm, cng mu hay cng nhm
Cc k thut phn on:
+ Phn on da theo min ng nht
+ Phn on da vo bin
+ Phn on da vo ngng bin
+ Phn on theo kt cu (texture)
-Pht hin bin
Bin l vn quan trng trong trch chn c im nhm tin ti hiu nh. Cho
n nay cha c nh ngha chnh xc v bin, trong mi ng dng ngi ta a ra cc
o khc nhau v bin, mt trong cc o l o v s thay i t ngt v cp
xm.
Bin l g:
Mt im nh c coi l bin nu c s thay i t ngt v mc xm.
Tp hp cc im bin to thnh bin hay ng bao ca nh (boundary). Th d
trong mt nh nh phn, mt im c th gi l bin nu l im en v c t nht mt
im trng ln cn. Pht hin bin mt cch l tng l xc nh c tt c cc ng
bao trong i tng.
Vic nhn dng i tng ph thuc rt nhiu vo cc c trng trch chn v cc
c trng ny ch yu c trch chn t bin.
Pht hin bin phc v cho mc ch phn on v nhn dng
Ngi ta thng s dng 2 phng php pht hin bin sau:
+ Phng php pht hin bin trc tip:

50
Phng php ny lm ni bin nh s bin thin mc xm ca nh, k thut ch
yu y l k thut o hm. Nu ly o hm bc nht ca nh ta c k thut gradian,
nu ly o hm bc hai ca nh ta c k thut Laplace.
+ Phng php pht hin bin gin tip:
Nu bng cch no ta phn c nh thnh cc vng, ranh gii gia cc vng
chnh l bin. K thut d bin v phn vng nh l hai bi ton i ngu nhau. V d
bin thc hin phn lp i tng m khi phn lp xong ngha l phn vng nh
c phn lp thnh cc i tng ta c th pht hin c bin.
Phng php pht hin bin trc tip t ra kh hiu qu v t chu nh hng ca
nhiu, xong nu s bin thin sng khng t ngt, phng php ny t ra km hiu
qu.
Phng php d bin gin tip tuy kh ci t song li p dng kh tt cho s bin
thin sng nh.
Cch phn loi khc ca pht hin bin:
Pht hin bin c in
Tuyn tnh
o hm bc 1
o hm bc 2
Phi tuyn
Cc phng php la bn
Chp t gic
Ni lng
Pht hin bin nng cao
Canny
Shen v Castle
Hildrich


Mt s cc nh ngha
- Cc im 4 v 8-lng ging
Gi s (i,j) l mt im nh, cc im 4-lng ging l cc im k trn, di, tri,
phi ca (i,j):
N
4
(i,j) = {(i,j) : |i-i|+|j-j| = 1},
v nhng im 8-lng ging gm:
P3 P2 P1
P4 P P0
P5 P6 P7
0
1
2 3
4
5
6
7

51
N
8
(i,j) = {(i,j) : max(|i-i|,|j-j|) =1}.
P
0
, P
1
,..., P
7
l cc 8 lng ging ca P
P
0
, P
2
,P
4
, P
6
l cc 4 lng ging ca P
N
4
={I(i-1, j), I(i+1, j), I(i, j-1), I(i, j+1)}
N
8
=N4 {I(i+1, j-1), I(i-1, j-1), I(i-1, j+1), I(i+1, j+1)}
Chain Code (M xch)
Cc vecto gia cc im bin lin tip c m ho, s dng 8 hng (t 0-7),
mi hng c m ho bi 3 bit. M xch cha im bt u theo sau bi chui cc t
m.






A 111 110 000 001 000 110 101 100 011 001
4.2-Cc phng php phn on
4.2.1- Phn on nh da theo ngng bin
Cn gi l k thut phn ngng
L qu trnh phn loi im nh l im nh nn hay im nh i tng da trn
mt ngng cho trc, kt qu cho ra nh nh phn, cc im i tng c gi tr l 1,
cc im nn c gi tr l 0
Xt i tng sng trn nn ti, cho ngng T, cc im nh c gi tr cp xm
trn ngng T s l im i tng, cn cc im nh c gi tr cp xm nm di
ngng T s l im nn (lm ngc li vi nh c i tng ti trn nn sng.)

<

=
T y x in
T y x in
y x out
) , ( 0
) , ( 1
) , (
Mt ngng c chn ph thuc vo d liu ca nh. Vi nh c tng phn
cao bin thin t 0 n 255, T=128 lm vic kh tt.
Chn ngng da vo histogram
Vi histogram c nhiu nh v thung lng th ta chn khe gia 2 nh lm
ngng.




T
A
7
6
0
1
0
6
5
4
3
1

52




Vic la chn ngng ti u vn cn l mt vn kh khn.
4.2.2- Phn on theo min ng nht
Cc tiu chun v min ng nht hay c dng l s thun nht v mc xm,
mu sc i vi nh mu, kt cu v chuyn ng.
Ngi ta c th dng logic v t lm tiu chun nh gi phn vng
Cho nh I, phn thnh n vng R
1
, R
2
,..,R
n
v logic v t c dng P(R)
I=
U
n
i
i
R
1 =

R
i
R
j
=
P(R
i
)=true vi i=1, 2,,n cho bit cc pixel trong vng tho tiu ch t ra.
P(R
i
R
j
)=false cho bit vng R
i
v R
j
l khc nhau.
C 3 cch tip cn ch yu trong phn on theo min ng nht
+ Phng php tch cy t phn
+ Phng php hp
+ Phng php tch hp.
Mc hiu qu ca phng php l ph thuc vo vic chn tiu chun nh gi
thun nht. Trn thc t ngi ta hay s dng trung bnh s hc m
i
v lch chun
i

cho vng Ri c n im:

=
Ri l k
i
l k I
n
m
) , (
) , (
1

=
Ri l k
i i
m l k I
n
) , (
2
) ) , ( (
1

Hai vng R
i
v R
j
c th hp nht nu |m
i
-m
j
| < k
i
Vng thun nht
Gi tr cp xm trong vng nh
lch chun < hoc
|Max-Min|<
l ngng
Max, Min l gi tr mc xm ln nht v nh nht trong min ang xt.
4.2.2.1 Phng php tch cy t phn (Quadtree code)
V nguyn tc, phng php ny kim tra tnh thun nht trn min ln ca nh.
Nu tiu chun c tho, vic phn on trn min coi nh kt thc, trong trng

53
hp ngc li, ta chia min ang xt thnh 4 min nh hn. Vi mi min nh, ta li p
dng mt cch quy phng php trn cho n khi tt c cc min u tho.
iu kin dng:
+Chiu cao cy t phn
+ o thun nht
+Kch thc hnh vung
Tuy ton ny to nn mt cy m mi nt cha c 4 nt con mi mc tr mc
ngoi cng, v th cy ny c tn l cy t phn. Mt vng tho tiu chun s to nn mt
nt l, nu khng n s to nn mt nt trong v c 4 nt con tng ng vi vic chia
lm 4 vng. Cc nt l ca cy biu din s vng phn theo tiu chun
v d:
1
1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Cu trc cy t phn ca nh:

Cy t phn dng cu trc d liu: danh sch mc ni
Biu din cy t phn theo vn phm
Vn phm phi ng cnh G=(N, T, P, S)
N={S} (tp khng kt thc)
0 1
03
02 01
101
10
103 102
2
3
31 32 33 34
104
13
12
11
00

54
T ={g: g gi tr cp xm} (tp kt thc)
P (tp lut)
S-> (SSSS)
S-> g
K t khi to S
S->(SSSS)|g
y g l gi tr cp xm ca nh
S->(SSSS)->((SSSS) (SSSS) S (SSSS)
->((SSSS) ((SSSS) SSS) S (SSSS))
->((1 0 1 1) ((1 0 0 1) 0 1 1) 0 (1 1 0 0))
Quay cy t phn mt gc 90
0

T = T
0
T
1
T
2
T
3
th Rot
90
(T) = Rot
90
(T
0
) Rot
90
(T
1
) Rot
90
(T
2
) Rot
90
(T
3
)
T cy t phn c th tnh c din tch v chu vi ca tng vng.
So snh 2 nh ging nhau suy ra cu trc cy t phn ging nhau. V vy ngc
li, c hai cu trc cy t phn ging nhau c th xp x thnh hai nh ging nhau.
C th ghp cc thnh phn lin thng thnh cc vng lin thng.
4.2.2.2 Phng php phn vng bi hp
tng ca phng php ny l xem xt nh t cc min nh nh nht ri hp
chng nu tho tiu chun c mt min ng nht ln hn. Ta li tip tc vi cc
min thu c cho n khi khng th hp c na. S min cn li cho ta kt qu phn
on. Min nh nht ca bc xut pht s l im nh.
Tiu chun ghp 2 vng:
+ Hai vng phi p ng tiu chun, th d cng mu hay cng mc xm.
+ Phi k cn nhau



W1, W2 : 2 vng nh

55
(P
1
, P2) W
1
x W
2

P
1
, P2 l 4 lng ging
(P
1
, P2) c gi l cc khp ca W1xW2 (Crack)
KHOP (P1, P2)- tp cc im khp W1 v W2

1 nu | I(P
1
) - I(P2) |
1

T (P
1
, P
1
') =
0 nu ngc li.

+ Kh nng hp vng

=
) 2 , 1 ( ) 2 , 1 (
)) 2 ( ), 1 ( min( / ) 2 , 1 ( ( ) 2 , 1 (
w w KHOP p p
w b w b P P T w w
trong b(w): s im bin ca w
ly ngng
2
2 ) 2 , 1 ( w w
v d:

I=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
4 4 2 2 2
4 4 2 2 2
3 4 1 1 1
3 3 3 1 1
3 3 3 1 1
ngng =3, lng ging 4
Vng A bin vi A vi B vi C vi D
A 7 - 3 3 1
B 6 3 - 0 2
C 7 3 0 - 3
D 5 1 2 3 -

A l vng cha 1 ; Vi A l cc lng ging 4 vi A, tng t vi B, C, D
B l vng cha 2
C l vng cha 3
D l vng cha 4
Kh nng hp
A B C D
A -
6
3

7
3

5
1

B
6
3

- 0
5
2


56
C
7
3

0 -
5
3

D
5
1

5
2

5
3

-
T s cng cao kh nng hp cng ln
Phi xt ngng khi xt bng trn, nu 2 vng m chnh lch mu qu ngng
1 th chc chn khng hp c, cn li th xt tip t s v so snh vi ngng 2
K thut : t mu
Lan mu ra xa tm cc i tng cng tnh cht.
P(x, y)



Bt u t im xut pht P(x,y), t mu cho im ny, sau ta xt cc ln cn
ca im ny (ln cn 4), nu im ln cn ny c cng tnh cht vi P(x,y) v cha t
mu th thc hin t mu im ny. Thc hin quy cho cc im khc cho n khi
duyt ton b nh. Kt qa ta thu c vng mu nhng im c cng tnh cht. Lp li
thut ton cho nhng im cha c t. Kt qu cui cng ta s thu c cc vng nh
c cng tnh cht.
Nhc im: nu nh ln c th trn b nh.
4.2.2.3 Phng php tch hp
Hai phng php va xt trn c mt s nhc im. Phng php tch s to nn
mt cu trc phn cp v thit lp mi quan h gia cc vng. Tuy nhin n thc hin
vic chia qu chi tit. Phng php hp cho php lm gim s min lin thng xung ti
thiu, nhng cu trc hng ngang dn tri, khng cho ta thy r mi lin h gia cc
min. Chnh v nhng nhc im ny ngi ta ngh n vic phi hp c 2 phng
php. Trc tin dng phng php tch to nn cy t phn, phn on theo hng
t gc n l. Tip theo tin hnh duyt cy theo chiu ngc li v hp cc vng c
cng tiu chun. Vi phng php ny ta thu c mt miu t cu trc ca nh vi cc
min lin thng c kch thc a.
4.3-Cc phng php pht hin bin
4.3.1-Cc phng php pht hin bin trc tip
4.3.1.1- Phng php pht hin bin Gradient
Gradient l mt vecto c cc thnh phn biu th tc thay i gi tr ca im
nh theo 2 hng x v y.
gradient (f(x, y)) = j
y
f
i
x
f
y
f
x
f
r r

=
|
|

\
|

,
P

57
y
y x f y y x f
y
y x f
x
y x f y x x f
x
y x f

) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (

Trong x, y l khong cch (tnh bng s im) theo hng x v y.
* Nhn xt:
Tuy ta ni l ly o hm nhng thc cht ch l m phng v xp x o hm bng
cc k thut nhn chp v nh s l tn hiu ri rc nn o hm khng tn ti.
ly x=y=1 hoc x=y=-1
) 1 , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) 1 , (
) , (
) , 1 ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , 1 (
) , (
+

y x f y x f y x f y x f
y
y x f
y x f y x f y x f y x f
x
y x f

Do , mt n nhn chp theo hng x l A= ( ) 1 1
v hng y l B=
|
|

\
|
1
1

Chng hn:
0 0 0 0
0 3 3 3
I = 0 3 3 3
0 3 3 3
Ta c,
0 0 0 * 0 3 3 *
I A = 3 0 0 * ; I B= 0 0 0 *
3 0 0 * 0 0 0 *
* * * * * * * *
0 0 0 *
I A + I B= 3 0 0 *
3 0 0 *
* * * *
Vi mt nh lin tc f(x,y) cc o hm ring ca n cho php xc nh v tr cc
i cc b theo hng ca bin.
Hng cc i ca n:
tg = |

\
|

|
|

\
|

x
f
y
f
/
=arctg
(

x
f
y
f
/

58
ln cc i ca vecto gradient
2
2
) , ( ) , (
|
|

\
|

+ |

\
|

y
y x f
x
y x f

Thng gim thi gian tnh ton, ngi ta cn tnh gradient theo cc chun sau:
A
1
=|f
x
+f
y
|
hoc A
2
=max(| f
x
|,| f
y
|)
cho trc ngng
) , ( y x gradient th (x, y) l im bin
Nhn thy rng vic ly o hm mt tn hiu c xu hng lm tng nhiu trong tn hiu
. nhy cm ny c th lm gim xung nh thao tc ly trung bnh cc b.
a) K thut Prewitt
K thut s dng 2 mt n nhp chp xp x o hm theo 2 hng x
v y l:
-1 0 1
H
x
= -1 0 1
-1 0 1
-1 -1 -1
H
y
= 0 0 0
1 1 1
Cc bc tnh ton ca k thut Prewitt
+ Bc 1: Tnh I H
x
v I H
y

+ Bc 2: Tnh I H
x
+ I H
y

V d:
0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 5 0 0
5 5 5 5 0 0
I = 5 5 5 5 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 -10 -10 * *
0 0 -15 -15 * *
I H
x
= 0 0 -10 -10 * *
0 0 -5 -5 * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *

59

15 15 10 5 * *
0 0 0 0 * *
-15 -15 -10 -5 * *
I H
y
= -15 -15 -10 -5 * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *
15 15 0 -5 * *
0 0 -15 -15 * *
I H
x
+ I H
y
=-15 -15 -20 -15 * *
-15 -15 -15 -10 * *
* * * * * *
* * * * * *

b) K thut Sobel
y l mt trng hp ca o hm bc nht
S
x
=
|
|
|

\
|

1 0 1
2 0 2
1 0 1
S
y
=
|
|
|

\
|
1 2 1
0 0 0
1 2 1

Bc 1: S
x
* I, S
y
* I
Bc 2: | S
x
* I(x, y) | +| S
y
* I (x, y) | x, y
Bc 3: Tch ngng theo
1 nu | S
x
* I(x, y) | + |S
y
* I(x,y) |
I(x, y) =
0 nu ngc li
S
x
* I(x, y) ~ 8
x
y x I

) , (

S
y
* I(x, y) ~ 8
y
y x I

) , (

| S
x
*I(x,y) |+| S
y
*I(x,y)|~ 8
|
|

\
|

y
I
x
I

v d:
I S
x
*I

60

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
7 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 7 0 0 0 0 0
5 6 7 0 0 0 0
4 5 6 7 0 0 0
3 4 5 6 7 0 0
2 3 4 5 6 7 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

7 20 7 0 0 0 0
20 17 20 7 0 0 0
24 0 17 20 7 0 0
20 8 0 17 20 7 0
16 8 8 0 17 20 7
12 8 8 8 0 17 20
7 6 6 6 6 2 19

S
y
*I | S
x
* I | + | S
y
*I |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

19 20 7 0 0 0 0
6 17 20 7 0 0 0
6 0 17 20 7 0 0
6 8 0 17 20 7 0
6 8 8 0 17 20 7
6 8 8 8 0 17 20
7 12 16 20 24 20 7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
26 40 14 0 0 0 0
26 34 40 14 0 0 0
30 0 34 40 14 0 0
26 16 0 34 40 14 0
22 16 16 0 34 40 14
18 16 16 16 0 34 40
14 18 22 26 30 22 26

=34
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c) -K thut la bn
Vi mc ch nghin cu cc mt n cho kt qu tt hn, ngi ta ngh n vic xem xt
cc ln cn theo nhiu hng (8 hng)
Cho T l mu.
t T
0
=T , T
i
nhn c t T bng cch quay gc i*/4:
A(x, y) = max { | T
i
* I(x, y) | i=0,1,2,..,7}
Ton t Robinson bc 5
S=
|
|
|

\
|

1 0 1
2 0 2
1 0 1
, S
1
=
|
|
|

\
|

2 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 2
S
2
=
|
|
|

\
|
1 2 1
0 0 0
1 2 1
S
3
=
|
|
|

\
|

0 1 2
1 0 1
2 1 0

S
4
= - S, S
3
= -S
1
, S
6
= -S
2
, S
7
= -S
3

Ton t Kirsh


;
3 3 3
5 0 3
5 5 3
;
3 3 3
3 0 3
5 5 5
;
3 3 3
3 0 5
3 5 5
;
3 3 5
3 0 5
3 3 5
3 2 1 0
|
|
|

\
|

=
|
|
|

\
|

=
|
|
|

\
|

=
|
|
|

\
|

= H H H H

61







Cc mu tch cnh, tng cc phn t bng 0
Php ton lm ni bin, tng cc phn t bng 1
V d:
I |T0*I|
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 4 2 8 5 7 0 6 5 7 2 5 12
0 4 2 8 5 7 1 0 14 8 6 2 8 13
0 2 8 5 7 1 4 0 15 6 2 8 6 12
0 8 5 7 1 4 2 0 20 2 8 6 2 7
0 5 7 1 4 2 8 0 13 8 6 2 8 14
0 7 1 4 2 8 5 0 8 7 2 5 7 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

|T1*I|
|T2*
I|

10 11 17 15 7 6 14 15 20 13 8 10 11
11 12 9 3 12 5 8 6 2 8 7 11 12
17 9 3 12 9 7 6 2 8 6 2 17 9
15 3 12 9 3 2 2 8 6 2 5 15 3
7 12 9 3 12 5 8 6 2 8 7 7 12
4 15 7 1 3 12 13 12 7 14 10 4 15

A(x,y) Nguong=14

10 14 17 20 13 12 0 1 1 1 0 0
14 12 9 3 12 15 1 0 0 0 0 1
17 9 3 12 9 12 1 0 0 0 0 0
20 3 12 9 3 7 1 0 0 0 0 0
13 12 9 3 12 14 0 0 0 0 0 1
;
3 5 5
3 0 5
3 3 3
;
5 5 5
3 0 3
3 3 3
;
5 5 3
5 0 3
3 3 3
;
5 3 3
5 0 3
5 3 3
7 6 5 4
|
|
|

\
|

=
|
|
|

\
|


=
|
|
|

\
|

=
|
|
|

\
|

= H H H H

62
12 15 12 7 14 18 0 1 0 0 1 1

Nu cc |T
i
* I(x,y)| cso gi tr gn nh nhau th cc thng tin ny khng ng tin cy
xc nh I(x,y) l im bin.
4.3.1.2- K thut pht hin bin Laplace
Cc phng php gradient trn lm vic kh tt khi m sng thay i r nt.
Khi mc xm thay i chm, min chuyn tip tri rng, phng php cho hiu qu hn
l phng php s dng o hm bc hai m ta gi l phng php Laplace. Ton t
Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:
2
2
2
2
2
y
f
x
f
f

=

( ) ) , ( ) , 1 (
2
2
y x f y x f
x x
f
x x
f
+

\
|

[ ] [ ]
) , 1 ( ) , ( 2 ) , 1 (
) , 1 ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , 1 (
y x f y x f y x f
y x f y x f y x f y x f
+ +
+

Tng t,
( ) ) , ( ) 1 , (
2
2
y x f y x f
y y
f
y y
f
+

|
|

\
|

[ ] [ ]
) 1 , ( ) , ( 2 ) 1 , (
) 1 , ( ) , ( ) , ( ) 1 , (
+ +
+
y x f y x f y x f
y x f y x f y x f y x f

Vy:
2
f= f(x+1,y) + f(x,y+1) - 4f(x,y) + f(x-1,y) + f(x,y-1)
Dn ti:

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0
H
|
|
|

\
|
=

Kt qu nghin cu cho thy phng php o hm bc hai rt nhy cm vi
nhiu.



y l ton t Laplace
L=
|
|
|

\
|

0 1 0
1 4 1
0 1 0

f(x)
dx
df

o hm bc 2
Double edge
Zero crossing

63
L*I=2I(x, y)-I(x-1,y)-I(x+1,y)
+2I(x,y)-I(x,y-1)-I(x,y+1)
=[I(x,y)-I(x-1,y)]-[I(x+1,y)-I(x,y)]
+ I(x,y)-I(x,y-1)-[I(x,y+1)-I(x,y)]
) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) 1 , ( ) , ( ) , 1 (
2 2
2
2
2
2
y x I
y
I
x
I
y
y x I
x
y x I
y
y x I
y
y x I
x
y x I
x
y x I
=
|
|

\
|

Phn ngng: | L*I | theo > 0
1 nu | L* I(x, y) |
I(x, y) =


0 nu ngc li

I L*I
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
6 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 6 0 0 0 0 0
4 5 6 0 0 0 0
3 4 5 6 0 0 0
2 3 4 5 6 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|

19 12 0 0 0 0 0
4 14 12 0 0 0 0
3 0 14 12 0 0 0
2 0 0 14 12 0 0
1 0 0 0 14 12 0
0 0 0 0 0 14 12
2 0 1 2 3 4 19

=14
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1

K thut ny cho ng bin mnh, tuy nhin rt nhy cm vi nhiu do o hm
bc hai thng khng n nh

64

nh gc nh qua lc Laplace
Trong thc t ngi ta thng dng 1 s bin dng khc nhau ca ton t Laplace

|
|
|

\
|



=
|
|
|

\
|

=
1 1 1
1 8 1
1 1 1
3
1 2 1
2 4 2
1 2 1
2 L L

4.3.1.3. K thut Canny
y l mt thut ton tng i tt, c kh nng a ra ng bin mnh, v pht
hin chnh xc im bin vi im nhiu.
Thut ton
+ Bc 1: Lm trn nh
Tnh I H, vi:
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
2 4 5 4 2
4 9 12 9 4
5 12 15 12 5
4 9 12 9 4
2 4 5 4 2
115
1
H
Gi G l kt qu lc nhiu: G= I H
+Bc 2: Tnh gradient ca nh bng mt n PreWitt, kt qu t vo G
x
,G
y
.
G
x
= G H
x
, G
y
= G H
y

+ Bc3: Tnh gradient hng ti mi im (i,j) ca nh. Hng ny s c
nguyn ha nm trong 8 hng [0..7], tng ng vi 8 ln cn ca mt im nh.
+ Bc 4: Dng rng buc loi b nhng im khng phi l cc i xa b
nhng im khng l bin. Xt (i,j), l gradient hng ti (i,j). I1, I2 l hai im ln cn
ca (i,j) theo hng . Theo nh ngha im bin cc b th (i,j) l bin nu I(i,j) cc i
a phng theo hng gradient Nu I(i,j) > I1 v I(i,j) > I2 th mi gi li I(i,j),
ngc li xa I(i,j) v im nh nn.
+ Bc 5: Phn ngng. Vi cc im c gi li, thc hin ly ngng gradient
bin ln cui xc nh cc im bin thc s.

4.3.1.4-Phng php Kim t thp

65





















I
0
=I
I
k+1

= =
+ + = |

\
|
1
0
1
0
) , (
4
1
2
,
2
i j
k
j n i m I
n m

Ni bin tri hn






Sau k bc c k nh I
1
, I
2
,, I
k

Lp k tm cc im bin
Xung lp k-1 tm cc im bin m to nn cc im bin lp trn
V d:
I0
I1
I2

66
I
0
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
8 0 1 1
8 5 5 1
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
8 8 8 8 1 1 1 1
8 8 4 4 1 1 1 1
8 8 2 3 5 5 1 1
8 8 8 8 5 5 1 1
1
I
Ti nh I1
1=(1+1+1+1)/4
5=(5+5+5+5)/4
4.3.1.5 Tch cnh theo vt (Relaxed Crack)










T(p,q)=|I(p)-I(q)|
Ly =3 c: =6










4.3.2- Pht hin bin gin tip
4.3.2.1 Mt s khi nim c bn
1 7 6
1
6
2 8 5
3 2 8
1
3
6 1
1
1
6
3
1
3
1 7
6
2 8 5
2 8
3
6
3
1
1 7
6
2 8
2 8
6
1
1

67
y ta ch xt ti nh nh phn v nh bt k c th a v dng nh phn bng
k thut phn ngng. Ta k hiu l tp cc im vng (im en) v l tp cc
im nn (im trng).
*i tng nh
Hai im P
s
, P
e
E, E hoc c gi l 8-lin thng (hoc 4-lin thng)
trong E nu tn ti tp cc im c gi l ng i (i
o
,j
o
)...(i
n
,j
n
) sao cho (i
o
,j
o
)= P
s
,
(i
n
,j
n
)= P
e
, (i
r
,j
r
) E v (i
r
,j
r
) l 8-lng ging (hoc 4-lng ging tng ng) ca (i
r-1
,j
r-1
)
vi r = 1,2,...,n
Nhn xt: Quan h k-lin thng trong E (k=4,8) l mt quan h phn x, i xng v
bc cu. Bi vy l mt quan h tng ng. Mi lp tng ng c gi l mt
thnh phn k-lin thng ca nh. V sau ta s gi mi thnh phn k-lin thng ca nh l
mt i tng nh.
Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh
nh ngha 1: [Chu tuyn]
Chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh l dy cc im ca i tng nh P
1
,,P
n
sao
cho P
i
v P
i+1
l cc 8-lng ging ca nhau (i=1,...,n-1) v P
1
l 8-lng ging ca P
n
, i Q
khng thuc i tng nh v Q l 4-lng ging ca P
i
(hay ni cch khc i th Pi l
bin 4). K hiu <P
1
P
2
..P
n
>.
Tng cc khong cch gia hai im k tip ca chu tuyn l di ca chu tuyn v
k hiu Len(C) v hng P
i
P
i+1
l hng chn nu P
i
v P
i+1
l cc 4 lng ging (trng
hp cn li th P
i
P
i+1
l hng l).
Hnh 3.2 di y biu din chu tuyn ca nh, trong , P l im khi u chu
tuyn.






Hnh 3.2. V d v chu tuyn ca i tng nh
nh ngha 2 [Chu tuyn i ngu]
Hai chu tuyn C= <P
1
P
2
..P
n
> v C

= <Q
1
Q
2
..Q
m
> c gi l i ngu ca nhau
nu v ch nu i j sao cho:
(i) P
i
v Q
j
l 4-lng ging ca nhau.
(ii) Cc im P
i
l vng th Q
j
l nn v ngc li.
nh ngha 3 [Chu tuyn ngoi]
P

68
Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn ngoi (Hnh 3.3a) nu v ch nu
(i) Chu tuyn i ngu C

l chu tuyn ca cc im nn
(ii) di ca C nh hn di C

nh ngha 4 [Chu tuyn trong]
Chu tuyn C c gi l chu tuyn trong (Hnh 3.3b) nu v ch nu:
(i) Chu tuyn i ngu C

l chu tuyn ca cc im nn
(ii) di ca C ln hn di C

Chu tuyn C
Chu tuyn C

Chu tuyn C

Chu tuyn C

a) Chu tuyn ngoi b) Chu tuyn trong
Hnh 3.3. Chu tuyn trong, chu tuyn ngoi
nh ngha 5 [im trong v im ngoi chu tuyn]
Gi s C= <P
1
P
2
..P
n
> l chu tuyn ca mt i tng nh v P l mt im nh. Khi
:
(i) Nu na ng thng xut pht t P s ct chu tuyn C ti s l ln, th P c gi
l im trong chu tuyn C v k hiu in(P,C)
(ii) Nu PC v P khng phi l im trong ca C, th P c gi l im ngoi chu
tuyn C v k hiu out(P,C).
B 1 [Chu tuyn i ngu]
Gi s E l mt i tng nh v C= < P
1
P
2
..P
n
> l chu tuyn ca E,
C

=<Q
1
Q
2
..Q
m
> l chu tuyn i ngu tng ng. Khi :
(i) Nu C l chu tuyn trong th in(Q
i
,C) i (i=1,....,m)
(ii) Nu C l chu tuyn ngoi th in(P
i
,C

) i (i=1,...,n)
B 2 [Phn trong/ngoi ca chu tuyn]
Gi s E l mt i tng nh v C l chu tuyn ca E. Khi :
(i) Nu C l chu tuyn ngoi th x E sao cho xC, ta c in(x,C)
(ii) Nu C l chu tuyn trong th x E sao cho xC, ta c out(x,C)
nh l 1 [Tnh duy nht ca chu tuyn ngoi]
Gi s E l mt i tng nh v C
E
l chu tuyn ngoi ca E. Khi C
E
l
duy nht.


69
4.3.2.2 Thut ton d bin tng qut
Biu din i tng nh theo chu tuyn thng da trn cc k thut d bin. C
hai k thut d bin c bn. K thut th nht xt nh bin thu c t nh vng sau mt
ln duyt nh mt th, sau p dng cc thut ton duyt cnh th. K thut th hai
da trn nh vng, kt hp ng thi qu trnh d bin v tch bin. y ta quan tm
cch tip cn th hai.
Trc ht, gi s nh c xt ch bao gm mt vng nh 8-lin thng , c bao
bc bi mt vnh ai cc im nn. D thy l mt vng 4-lin thng ch l mt trng
ring ca trng hp trn.
V c bn, cc thut ton d bin trn mt vng u bao gm cc
bc sau:
Xc nh im bin xut pht
D bo v xc nh im bin tip theo
Lp bc 2 cho n khi gp im xut pht
Do xut pht t nhng tiu chun v nh ngha khc nhau v im bin, v quan h
lin thng, cc thut ton d bin cho ta cc ng bin mang cc sc thi rt khc nhau.
Kt qu tc ng ca ton t d bin ln mt im bin r
i
l im bin r
i+1
(8-lng
ging ca r
i
). Thng thng cc ton t ny c xy dng nh mt hm i s Boolean
trn cc 8-lng ging ca r
i
. Mi cch xy dng cc ton t u ph thuc vo nh ngha
quan h lin thng v im bin. Do s gy kh khn cho vic kho st cc tnh cht
ca ng bin. Ngoi ra, v mi bc d bin u phi kim tra tt c cc 8-lng ging
ca mi im nn thut ton thng km hiu qu. khc phc cc hn ch trn, thay
v s dng mt im bin ta s dng cp im bin (mt thuc , mt thuc ), cc cp
im ny to nn tp nn vng, k hiu l NV v phn tch ton t d bin thnh 2 bc:
Xc nh cp im nn vng tip theo.
La chn im bin
Trong bc th nht thc hin chc nng ca mt nh x trn tp NV ln NV v
bc th hai thc hin chc nng chn im bin.
Thut ton d bin tng qut
Bc 1: Xc nh cp nn-vng xut pht
Bc 2: Xc nh cp nn-vng tip theo
Bc 3: La chn im bin vng
Bc 4: Nu gp li cp xut pht th dng, nu khng quay li
bc 2.
Vic xc nh cp nn-vng xut pht c thc hin bng cch duyt nh ln lt t
trn xung di v t tri qua phi ri kim tra iu kin la chn cp nn-vng. Do vic

70
chn im bin ch mang tnh cht quy c, nn ta gi nh x xc nh cp nn-vng tip
theo l ton t d bin.
nh ngha 3.6 [Ton t d bin]
Gi s T l mt nh x nh sau: T: NV NV
(b,r) a (b,r)
Gi T l mt ton t d bin c s nu n tho mn iu kin: b,r l cc 8-lng
ging ca r.
Gi s (b,r) NV; gi K(b,r) l hm chn im bin. Bin ca mt dng c th
nh ngha theo mt trong ba cch:
Tp nhng im thuc c mt trn NV, tc l K(b,r)= r
Tp nhng im thuc c trn NV, tc l K(b,r)= b
Tp nhng im o nm gia cp nn-vng, tc l K(b,r) l nhng im nm
gia hai im b v r.
Cch nh ngha th ba tng ng mi cp nn-vng vi mt im bin. Cn i
vi cch nh ngha th nht v th hai mt s cp nn-vng c th c chung mt im
bin. Bi vy, qu trnh chn im bin c thc hin nh sau:
i:= 1; (b
i
,r
i
):= (b
o
,r
o
);
While K(b
i
,r
i
)<>K(b
n
,r
n
) and i8 do
Begin
(b
i+1
,r
i+1
)= T(b
i
,r
i
); i:= i+1;
End;
iu kin dng
Cp nn-vng th n trng vi cp nn vng xut pht: (b
n
,r
n
)= (b
o
,r
o
)
* Xc nh cp nn vng xut pht
Cp nn vng xut pht c xc nh bng cch duyt nh ln lt t trn xung
di v t tri sang phi im em u tin gp c cng vi im trng trc (theo
hng 4) to nn cp nn vng xut pht.
* Xc nh cp nn vng tip theo
u vo: pt, dir
V d: (3, 2) 4
Point orient []= {(1,0);(1;-1);(0;-1);(-1;-1);(-1;0);(-1,1);(0,1);(1,1)};
//Hm tm hng c im en gn nht
BYTE GextNextDir(POINT pt, BYTE dir)
{
BYTE pdir= (dir + 7)%8;
do{

71
if(getpixel(pt. x+orient [pdir]. x,pt.y+orient [pdir]. y))==BLACK)
return pdir;
pdir = (pdir + 7) %8;
}while(pdir ! = dir);
return. ERR; //im c lp
}
//Gn gi tr cho bc tip theo
pdir = GetNextDir(pt, dir);
if(pdir==ERR) //Kim tra c l im c lp khng?
return. ERR; //im c lp
pt. x = pt. x + orient [pdir]. x;
pt. y = pt. y + orient [pdir]. y ;
tnh gi tr cho hng tip theo ta lp bng da trn gi tr pdir tnh c
trc theo cc kh nng c th xy ra:
pdir im trng trc Trng so vi en mi
0 1 2
1 2 4
2 3 4
3 4 6
4 5 6
5 6 0
6 7 0
7 0 2
Do cng thc tnh hng tip theo s l :
dir= ((pdir+3)/ 2 * 2)%8 ;
4.3.3 Pht hin bin da vo trung bnh cc b
4.3.3.1. Bin v bin i v mc xm
Nh trnh by trn, trong thc t ngi ta thng dng hai phng php php
hin bin c bn l: Pht hin bin trc tip v gin tip. Phn ny cp n k thut
mi da vo trung bnh cc b trn c s nh gi chnh lch v gi tr mc xm ca
im nh so vi cc im ln cn do kt hp c u im ca c hai khuynh hng
trc tip v gin tip.
i vi cc nh mu theo m hnh no u c th chuyn sang m hnh gm 3
thnh phn mu R, G, B. Sau d dng chuyn cc nh mu sang dng nh a cp xm.
Chng hn:
Gray = ( R + G + B ) / 3

72
Vic x l, thao tc trn cc nh xm c mt u im l d x l hn cc nh mu
m vn gi c cc c tnh ca nh. Cc nh trng en tuy d x l nht nhng s b
mt nhiu chi tit sau khi chuyn i.
Mt cch l tng th bin thin mc xm ca im nh khi qua bin phi c
dng:




Trong thc t dng th ny ch gp trong cc nh trng en (nh xm c hai
mu), cn vi cc nh thc th th ca n c dng:









Kh khn cho vic phn tch cc nh thc l ch do s bin thin v mc xm ca
im nh khng phi ch c th hin theo mt hng duy nht m phi xt theo c tm
hng ca cc im nh lng ging, ti cc vng bin v ln cn bin s bin thin mc
xm ca cc im nh thng khng t ngt m tri qua mt khong bin thin khng
u nhng c tc bin thin nhanh. Chng ta c th xc nh c cc ng bin nh
th ny bng k thut Laplace nhng nh trn ni k thut ny rt nhy cm vi
nhiu m nhiu hu nh li l vn m trong bc nh no cng c. Ngoi ra, trong
thc t khi d bin cho cc nh xm ty theo mc ch x l sau ny m ngi ta c th
mun ly bin ca tt c cc i tng trong nh hoc ch mt s i tng chnh trong
nh. Cc k thut o hm do s dng cc mt n l cc ma trn nhn chp nn kh iu
chnh chi tit ca nh bin thu c. Mun lm c iu ny li phi tnh ton li cc
gi tr ca cc phn t trong ma trn theo cc cng thc nht nh, rt phc tp v tn
km. Khng nhng th nh thu c sau khi lc khng lm mt i c tt c cc im
khng thuc ng bin m ch lm ni ln cc im nm trn bin v mun nhn dng
c cc i tng th ta cn phi x l thm mt vi bc na th mi thu c nh
bin thc s. C th nhn thy l cc thut ton d bin truyn thng m chng ta hay
dng vn cha t c s hon thin nh mong mun [3,8].
x
0
Mc xm
x
0
Mc xm

73
4.3.3.2. Pht hin bin da vo trung bnh cc b
tng chnh ca thut ton c xut l: Xc nh tt c cc im nm trn
bin khng theo hng tm kim v s dng cc ma trn lc, thng qua vic so snh
chnh lch v mc xm ca n so vi mc xm chung ca cc im nh ln cn (mc
xm nn). Trc ht gi tr xm trung bnh ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi ca ma
trn 33 hoc 55 c tm l im nh ang xt s c tnh ton. Nu nh chnh lch
mc xm gia im ang xt vi gi tr xm trung bnh tha mn ln hn mt mc ti
thiu 1 no (PTB+ 1< P) th chng ta s coi n l im bin v ghi nhn li, cn cc
im khng tha mn iu kin trn s c coi l im nn.






a) Ma trn im nh trc khi lc b) Ma trn im nh sau khi lc
Hnh 3.4. Ma trn im nh trc v sau lc
Thut ton c th c m t nh sau:
for (i=0; i< biHeight; i++)
for (j=0; j< biWidth; j++)
{
tt_GrayScale=0;
for (ii=i-1; ii<=i+1; ii++)
for (jj=j-1; jj<=j+1; jj++)
tt_GrayScale+=GetPoint(pOrgImg,ii,jj);
if (tt_GrayScale>9*GetPoint(pOrgImg,i,j)+
1
)
SetPoint(pBdImg,i,j,BLACK);
}
Trong :
biWidth, biHeight: l chiu rng v chiu cao ca nh tnh theo n
v Pixel.
pOrgImg, pBdImg: ln lt l cc con tr tr n cc vng d liu ca nh gc
v nh bin.
tt_GrayScale: l tng gi tr xm ca cc im nh thuc ma trn 33 c tm
l im nh ang xt.

1
: l chnh lch mc xm ca im nh ang xt so vi gi tr xm trung
bnh ca ma trn.

1
N=5

74
SetPoint() v GetPoint(): l cc hm c, ghi gi tr im nh.
Chng ta c th so snh c hiu qu ca thut ton pht hin bin ny so vi cc
thut ton pht hin bin truyn thng thng qua cc hnh minh ha di y. Hnh 3.5a
l nh gc, Hnh 3.5b l nh bin qua lc Sobel Hx, Hnh 3.5c l nh bin qua lc Sobel
Hy, Hnh 3.5d l nh bin qua lc Kirsh, Hnh 3.5e l nh bin qua lc Laplace. Hnh 3.6
l cc nh bin thu c khi s dng thut ton pht hin bin xut da vo trung bnh
cc b vi gi tr
1
khc nhau. Hnh 3.6a l nh bin thu c vi
1
= 25, Hnh 3.6b l
nh bin thu c vi 1= 250.


a) nh gc b) nh qua lc Sobel Hx c) nh qua lc Sobel Hy

d) nh qua lc Kirsh e) nh qua lc Laplace
Cc nh bin theo cc thut ton pht hin bin truyn thng






a) nh bin thu c vi
1
= 25 b) nh bin thu c vi
1
= 250
Cc nh bin kt qu thu c theo thut ton xut
*Nhn xt:
Chng ta c nhn xt l nh gc s dng trong chng trnh c mu nn kh ti v
c rt nhiu nhiu. Cc b lc s dng trong minh ha trn u mc phi vn ny.
Thut ton d bin s dng trong chng trnh tuy hn ch c nhiu nhiu so vi
vic s dng cc b lc v lm ni r cc ng bin nhng vn khng loi b c hu
ht cc nhiu. Khi p dng thut ton trn chng ta vn c th lm gim bt nhiu i
nhiu hn na bng cch tng gi tr ca h s delta ln. Nhng khi cc ng bin
thu c cng b t on v m i nhiu.

75
Thut ton c phc tp t l vi kch thc nh v kch thc ca s. Vi
phc tp ca thut ton l O(n2) nn n thc hin vic tm bin kh nhanh, nh bin thu
c ch gm cc im nh v im bin nn d x l, bn thn thut ton ny cng t
chu nh hng ca nhiu hn l k thut Sobel mc d n c kh nng pht hin kh tt
cc vng bin nhiu. Nhng cng ging cc phng php pht hin bin trc tip khc l
n cho kt qu ng bin c dy khng u.


76

CHNG 5 : CC PHP TON HNH THI
5.1.Gii thiu
Hnh thi l thut ng ch cu trc (hnh dng) hay hnh hc Topo ca i tng
trong nh. Phn ln cc php ton ca "Hnh thi" c nh ngha t hai php ton c
bn l php Dilation ("gin n") v Erosion (php co).
Mt s cc php hnh thi khc: hit-miss, boundary, convexhull, open, close,
skeleton, thin, prune( xn vt gi), thick.
Cc ng dng:
- Co, dn nh
- Lp l hng
- Lm trn ng bin
- Ni cc nt t
- Tch cc i tng dnh nhau
- Tm xng ca nh
- Pht hin bin da vo php ton hnh thi











Xt nh en trng:
p ln cn v(p)
D(A)=
U
A p v
p v
) (
) (
E(A)={p/ v(p) A}





A
A
E(A)
D(A)
E(A)
D(A)
E(A)

77



5.2
5.3








5.2 Php ton Dilation (Php gin n)
Gi s c nh I v mu T khi :
Php gin n ca I theo mu T l tp hp tt c cc x sao cho
U
I x
x
T T I

=
Trong T
x
l dch chuyn ca T n v tr x. (gc ca T c t ti v tr x)
Xt nh en trng
Ly mt im trong T lm gc v dch chuyn gc ca T n v tr c gi tr l 1 trong
nh (gi tr khc 0) v thay th phn t 1 bng mu T, lm i vi mi to , sau hp
kt qu li th c php dn n ca I theo T.
D(I)= I T
D
x, y
(I)={I(x, y)}

T nu I(x, y)=1
I(x,y)=
I(x, y) nu ngc li
Vi php ton D(Dilation) cho nh I
MxN
, mu T
mxn
, th D(I)
M+m-1,N+n-1
-Php ton v " trong nh:
1 0 *
1 0 *
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 *
0 1 0 * 0 0 0 0
* 1 * * * * 0 *
* l 1 gi tr im nh bt k trong nh a cp xm
V d1:

78
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
1 1
1 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
T I
hng 1:
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
hng 2
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
hng 3
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
hng 4
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Hp tt c cc hng li vi nhau ta c kt qu
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
T I
V d 2:
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
1 1
0 1
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
T I
thc hin trn tng hng mt ta c
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
) (
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
I D
Php ton gin n nh thng dng ni cc ng t nt.
Ch : i vi nh a cp xm th
D(I)=max{I(x-i, y-j)+T(i, j)} i=0m-1, j=0n-1
V d:


79
|
|

\
|
=
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
1
1
3 2 2 1 0 0 0 0
3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
4 5 5 2 1 1 0 0
5 4 2 1 0 0 0 0
4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T I
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
4 3 3 2 1 1 1 1
4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
4 3 2 1 1 1 1 1
5 6 6 3 2 2 1 1
6 6 6 3 2 2 1 1
6 5 3 2 1 1 1 1
5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
) (I D

5.3 .Php ton EROSION (php co)
Mc ch: Xo nhiu
Kt hp vi php Dilation lm trn bin nh v lp cc l hng trn nh
Cho nh I
MxN
, T
mxn
, E(I)=IT={I(x, y)}
1 nu ca s ang xt c mu T
I(x, y)=
0 nu ngc li
hay c th nh ngha php co ca nh I theo mu T l tt c cc im x sao cho T
x
nm
trong I
E(I)=IT={x| T
x
I }
Phng php c th: chn mt im trn T lm gc(=1)
V d 1:
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|

\
|
=
1 1
0 1
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
T I
|
|

\
|
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
) (I E
V d 2:

80
|
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
) (
0 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
I E T I
Ch :
i vi nh a cp xm
E(I)=Min{I(x+i, y+j)-T(i,j)} i=0m-1, j=0n-1
V d:
|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
=
1
1
0 0 1 0
0 2 1 0
3 2 0 0
0 2 1 2
0 0 1 0
T I E(I)=
|
|
|
|
|

\
|




1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1

5.4.Mt s tnh cht
5.4.1 Tnh gia tng
XX B X B X ' B
X B X B B
BB ' B X B X x
X B X B x
Chng minh
+ B X B B B X
X x
x
X x
x
= =

'
'
U U

+ X B={x | B
x
X} {x | B
x
X}=X B
+ ' ' B X B B B X
X x
x
X x
x
= =

U U

+X B={x | B
x
X} {x | B
x
X}=X B

5.4.2- Tnh phn phi vi php
(i) X (B B') = (X B) (X B')
(ii) X (B B') = (X B) (X B')
Chng minh:
(i) X (B B) = ( X B) (X B)
Ta c: B B B
X (B B) X B (tnh gia tng)
Tng t:
X ( B

B) X B
X (B

B) (X B)

(X B) (1)

81
Mt khc,
y X (B B) x X sao cho y (B B)
x


y B
x
y X B
y B
x
y X B
y (X B) (X B)
X (B B) (X B ) (X B) (2)
T (1) v (2) ta c: X (B B) = (X B) (X B)
(ii) X (B

B) = (X B)

(X B)
Ta c: B B B
X (B B) X B (tnh gia tng)
Tng t : X (B B) X B
X (B B) (X B) ( X B) (3)
Mt khc,
x (X B) (X B)
Suy ra, x X B B
x
X
x X B B
x
X
( B B)
x
X
x X (B B)
X (B B) (X B) (X B) (4)
T (3) v (4) ta c: X (B B) = (X B) (X B).
ngha: ta c th phn tch cc mu phc tp tr thnh cc mu n gin, thun tin cho
vic ci t.
5.4.3. tnh phn phi vi php
(XY)B = (X B ) (YB)
Chng minh
Ta c, X Y X
(X Y) B X B
Tng t: (X Y) B Y B
(X

Y) B (X B)

(Y B) (5)
Mt khc,
x (X B) (Y B)
Suy ra x X B B
x
X
x Y B B
x
Y
Bx X

Y
x ( X

Y) B
(X

Y) B (X B)

(Y B) (6)

82
T (5) v (6) ta c: (X Y) B = (X B) (Y B).

5.4.4 Tnh kt hp
i) ( ) ) ' ( ' B B X B B X =
ii) (X B) B=X (BB)
Chng minh:
(i) (X B) B' = X (B' B)
Ta c, (X B) B' = (
U
X x
x
B

) B'
=
U
X x
x
B B

) (
'
=
U
X x
x
B B

) (
'

= X (B' B)
(i) (X B) B' = X (B B')
Trc ht ta i chng minh:
'
x
B X B
x
B B ) (
'
X
Tht vy, do
'
x
B X B nn y
'
x
B yX B
B
y
X
X B
x
B y
y

U
'


x
B B ) (
'
X
Mt khc,
x
B B ) (
'
X (
'
x
B B) X

U
'
x
B y
y
B

X
y
'
x
B ta c B
y
X
hay y
'
x
B ta c y X B
Do ,
'
x
B X B
Ta c, (X B) B' = { } X B x
x
/ B'
= {x/
'
x
B X B}
= {x/
x
B B ) (
'
X} (do chng minh trn)
= X (B B') .
5.4.5 Tnh i ngu
X
c
B = (XB)
c
Xl mt i tng th X
c
l nn
5.4.6 Mt s tnh cht khc
AB= BA
A B BA

83
(A B) B A (AB) B
Nhn xt: Trong qu trnh thc hin c th c mt s thao tc ra ngoi nh ta c th m
rng nh vi phn m rng xem nh l nn. Khi kt thc thao tc th tr li nh ban u.
5.5- Cc php ton ng m
CLOSE (I) = E(D(I)) = (I T)T
OPEN(I) = D(E(I)) =(I T) T
V d:
|
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\
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=
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\
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=
1
1
,
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0
T I
Tnh D(I), E(I), OPEN(I), CLOSE(I)
|
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\
|
=
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0
T I I TT=
|
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|
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|

\
|
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0

I T=
|
|
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|
|

\
|
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
I TT=
|
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|
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|

\
|
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0

Mt s tnh cht
- X b chn bi cc cn OPEN v CLOSE
Gi s, X l mt i tng nh, B l mu, khi , X s b chn trn bi tp CLOSE
ca X theo B v b chn di bi tp OPEN ca X theo B. Tc l:
(X B) B X (X B) B
Chng minh:
Ta c: x X B
x

X B (V X B =
U
X x
x
B

)
x (X B) B (theo nh ngha php co)
(X B) B X (7)
Mt khc,
y (X B) B, suy ra:
x X B sao cho y B
x
(V (X B) B =
U
B X x
x
B )

84
B
x
X y X
Suy ra: X (X B) B (8)
T (7) v (8) Ta c: (X B) B X (X B) B .
Tnh bt bin :
(i) ((X B) B) B = X B
(ii) ((X B) B) B = XB
chng minh
Tht vy, t t/c trn ta c X

(X B) B
X B

((X B) B) B (do tnh cht gia tng) (9)

Mt khc, cng t t/c trn ta c (X B) B X X
Do , thay X bi X B ta c, ((X B) B) B X B (10)
T (9) v (10) Ta c: ((X B) B) B = X B
Tng t ta c, ((X B) B) B = XB
mt s tnh cht khc
A
1
A
2

OPEN(A
1
) OPEN(A
2
)
OPEN(OPEN(I))=OPEN(I)
CLOSE(A
1
) CLOSE(A
2
)
CLOSE(CLOSE(I))=CLOSE(I)
5.6- Xng v cc k thut tm xng
5.6.1-Gii thiu
Xng (SKELETON) c coi l hnh dng c bn ca i tng vi mt s t cc im
nh c bn. Ta c th ly c cc thng tin v hnh dng nguyn bn ca i tng
thng qua xng.
Mt nh ngha xc tch v xng da trn tnh continuum (tng t nh hin
tng chy ng c) c a ra bi Blum (1976) nh sau: Gi thit rng i tng l
ng nht c ph bi c kh v sau dng ln mt vng bin la. Xng c
nh ngha nh ni gp ca cc vt la v ti chng c dp tt.
Thng tin v xng l ng biu din ca mt i tng m:
- C dy 1 pixel
- Nm gia i tng
- Gi c cu trc ca i tng.





85


Trong mt s trng hp rt kh nhn bit xng, v d:

Xng ho ng vn l qu trnh loi b bin ca nh thu c nh c rng
1 pixel, nhng khng lm thay i hnh dng ca nh.
Xng ho phi m bo cc thuc tnh sau:
- nh cng mng cng tt.
- Khng c xo im cui
- C tnh lin thng
- Phi tm nh
K thut tm xng lun l ch nghin cu trong x l nh nhng nm gn
y. Mc d c nhng n lc cho vic pht trin cc thut ton tm xng, nhng cc
phng php c a ra u b mt mt thng tin. C th chia thnh hai loi thut
ton tm xng c bn:
Cc thut ton tm xng da trn lm mnh
Cc thut ton tm xng khng da trn lm mnh
5.6.2- Thut ton tm xng da trn lm mnh
Thut ton lm mnh l qu trnh lp duyt v kim tra tt c cc im thuc i
tng. Trong mi ln lp tt c cc im ca i tng s c kim tra: nu nh chng
tho mn iu kin xo no tu thuc vo mi thut ton th n s b xo i. Qu trnh
c lp li cho n khi khng cn im bin no c xo. i tng c bc dn lp
bin cho n khi no b thu mnh li ch cn cc im bin.
Cc thut ton lm mnh (thinning) bng cch loi b cc im thuc trn bin ca i
tng m khng lm thay i tnh lin thng v cu trc Tp ca nh cho n khi
rng ct ngang ca cc ng bng mt n v ( mt pixel).

86
S khc bit ca thut ton chnh l iu kin xa, vi cc iu kin xa khc nhau s
cho ta cc thut ton lm mnh khc nhau. Mi thut ton c mt s u im v nhc
im khc nhau.
-Cc thut ton lm mnh c phn loi da trn phng php x l cc nh. L thut
ton lm mnh tun t v thut ton lm mnh song song
+ Thut ton lm mnh song song
L thut ton lm mnh m trong cc im c x l theo phng php song song
tc l c x l cng mt lc. Gi tr ca mi im sau mi ln lp ch ph thuc vo
gi tr cc im lng ging bn cnh. Thng thng l 8-lng ging m gi tr ca cc
im ny c xc nh trong ln lp trc . Trong my tnh c nhiu b vi x l
mi b vi x l s x l mt vng ca i tng. N c quyn c cc im t vng khc
nhng ch c ghi trn vng ca n x l.
+ Thut ton lm mnh tun t
-Trong thut ton ny cc im s c kim tra theo mt tun t no chng hn cc
im s c xt t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. Gi tr cc im sau mi ln lp
khng nhng ph thuc vo gi tr xung di gi tr ca cc im lng ging bn cnh
m cn ph thuc vo cc im c xt trc trong chnh ln lp ang xt.
Cht lng ca thut ton lm mnh c nh gi theo cc tiu chun c lit k
di y nhng khng nht thit phi tho mn ng thi tt c cc tiu chun.
Bo ton tnh lin thng ca i tng v phn b ca i tng
S tng hp gia xng v cu trc ca nh i tng
Bo ton cc thnh phn lin thng
Bo ton cc im ct
Xng ch gm cc im bin, cng mnh cng tt
Bn vng i vi nhiu
Xng cho php khi phc nh ban u ca i tng
Xng thu c chnh gia ng nt ca i tng c
lm mnh
Xng nhn c bt bin vi php quay.
Thut ton lm mnh ng vn ca Hilditch.
y l thut ton song song-tun t v p dng i vi nh nh phn.
Ma trn 3x3 v 8 ln cn ca P1

87
Pixel P1 c loi b hay gi li trong qu trnh xng ho. Mc ch l sp xp
li 8 ln cn trong vng cng chiu vi kim ng h. Xc nh hai hm:
-B(P1)= S pixel khc 0 ln cn ca P1.
-A(P1)= S pixel chuyn t 0sang 1 theo th t ngc vi chiu kim ng h P2,
P9, P8, P7, P6, P5, P4, P3, P2.
V d: Mu en ng vi pixel c gi tr 1, mu trng ng vi pixel c gi tr 0




B(P1)=2 , A(P1)=1 B(P1)=2, A(P1)=2
Ma trn 3x3 v 8 ln cn ca P1 v cc gi tr B(P1),A(P1)
Thut ton ny, thc hin qua nhiu bc, v mi bc thut ton kim tra tt cc
cc Pixel quyt nh loi b n, nu tho mn cc iu kin sau:
- 2 B(P1) 6
- A(P1)=1
- P2.P4.P8=0 or A(P2)!= 1
- P2.P4.P6=0 or A(P4)!= 1
Trong :
iu kin 1:2 B(P1) 6
iu kin ny kt hp hai iu kin con, u tin l s cc pixel ln cn khc
khng nh hn hoc bng 2, v tip n l s cc pixel ln cn khc khng nh hn hay
bng 6. iu kin u tin chc chn rng khng c pixel im cui v khng b tch ra
khi n b xo ( Bt k mt pixel no vi mt pixel en ln cn cng xem l pixel im
cui). iu kin th hai l chc chn rng n l pixel nm trn bin gii hn.Vd:
B(P1)=1 B(P1)=0 B(P1)=7
M
a trn
3x3 v
8 ln

88
cn ca P1 v cc gi tr B(P1)
Nu B(P1)=1 th P1 l im u mt c xng ho, v khng c xo n. Nu
B(P1)=0 th P1 l im ng ring l, v n cng khng c xo. Thng thng trng
hp ny do nhiu to ra, v trong thc t n phi cn xo i, nhng cng vic ny khng
phi do thut ton xng ho thc hin, m l cng vic ca thut ton loi b nhiu.
Trong trng hp B(P1)=7 th P1 l im khng nm trn bin ca mu, do n cng
khng c xo.
iu kin 2: A(P1)=1
y l iu kin kim tra tnh lin thng. Gi s ta c 8 ln cn ca P1, nh hnh
sau. Trong cc trng hp A(P1) u ln hn 1, iu ny nu c s thay i ca P1 v
gi tr 0 th khng m bo tnh lin thng. V d:

A(P1)=2

A(P1)=2 A(P1)=2 A(P1)=3
Ma trn 3x3 v 8 ln cn ca P1 v cc gi tr A(P1)
iu kin 3: P2.P4.P8 = 0 hoc A(P2)!=1



A(P2) != 1 P2.P4.P8=0 P2.P4.P8 != 0 v A(P2)=1 .
Mt s trng hp v 8 ln cn ca P1 v cc gi tr A(P2) v P2.P4.P8
iu kin ny m bo cc ng ng vi rng 2 pixel khng b bo mn
bi thut ton.V d:




Hnh 3.23 Ma trn im nh v ng ng c rng 2 pixel
iu kin 4: P2.P4.P6 = 0 hoc A(P4)!=1

89




A(P4)!=1 P2.P4.P6=0




P2.P4.P6!=0 v A(P4)=1.
Mt s trng hp v 8 ln cn ca P1 v cc gi tr A(P4) v P2.P4.P6
iu kin ny m bo cc ng ngang vi rng 2 pixel khng b bo mn
bi thut ton.V d:



Ma trn im nh v ng ngang c rng 2 pixel
Tnh cht ca thut ton:
y l thut ton song song-tun t. N l song song bi v thut ton i qua tt
c cc pixel kim tra trong cng mt thi gian v quyt nh cng vi vic loi b cc
pixel c kim tra. N l tun t bi v bc ny ch c cp mi mt ln ring l.
5.6.3-Thut ton tm xng khng da trn lm mnh
tch c xng ca i tng c th s dng ng bin ca i tng. Vi
im p bt k trn i tng, ta bao n bi mt ng bin. Nu nh c nhiu im bin
c cng khong cch ngn nht ti p th p nm trn trc trung v. Tp tt c cc im nh
vy lp thnh trc trung v hay xng ca i tng. Vic xc nh xng c tin hnh
thng qua
hai bc:
Bc th nht, tnh khong cch t mi im nh ca i tng n im bin gn
nht. Nh vy cn phi tnh ton khong cch ti tt c cc im bin ca nh.

90
Bc th hai, khong cch nh c tnh ton v cc im nh c gi tr ln
nht c xem l nm trn xng ca i tng.
Trc trung v c xc nh bng cch ni cc im trung tm ca i tng, cc
im trung tm thng thng c tnh bng cc hm khong cch cc i
Xng c xem nh l mt phn ca trc trung v tho mn tnh cht no .

91

CHNG 6: CC PHNG PHP NN NH
6.1-Gii thiu
Nn nh l qu trnh gim kch thc d liu nh bng cch loi b cc d liu d tha.
nh khng nn c kch thc rt ln. Do vy vic nn nh rt quan trng.
Ti sao phi nn nh: video 24 hnh/s
1 hnh ~ 1024*768*3bytes ~ 2MB
48MB/s
xem phim 1 gi cn khi nh l 180G
Vi nn MPEG, c nn cn khong 187KB/s
Vi nh khng nn: cn vng lu tr ln, truyn d liu trn mng chm.
Vi nh sau khi nn: tn t vng nh, thi gian truyn nhanh
Ti sao nn c nh:
-Da trn khai thc d tha trong nh v c tnh cm nhn ca con ngi. Trong nh,
cc mu lng ging trn cng dng nh thng thng l nh nhau. Cc mu trn cc
dng nh lng ging cng tng t nhau. Tnh tng t ny gi l d tha khng gian.
D tha khng gian c th loi b nh k thut m ha d bo.
-C kh nng ngi s dng cui cng (con ngi) khng nhn bit li hay mt mt
thng tin nh khi truyn tin. C ngha rng nh nn khng cn biu din chnh xc cc
mu thng tin gc. iu ny ngc li vi d liu ch v s, ni khng cho php mt mt
hoc sai st d liu.
-c trng quan trng t c t l nn cao: nhy cm gic l khc nhau vi mi
mu tn hiu khc nhau. Trong s cc thng tin nh c mt vi thng tin quan trng hn
i vi cm nhn ca con ngi. Do vy, cc k thut nn u c gng gi li cc thng
tin quan trng v b i cc thng tin khng cn thit.
Cc loi d tha d liu:
+ S phn b k t: C mt s k t c tn sut xut hin nhiu hn mt s dy khc.
+S lp li ca cc k t: 1 k hiu c lp i lp li mt s ln.
+ Nhng mu s dng tn sut: c dy k hiu no xut hin vi tn sut tng i
cao.
+ d tha v tr: Bit c gi tr xut hin ti mt v tr c th d on trc c s
xut hin cc v tr khc.
Cc phng php nn nh
-Cch phn loi th nht
+ Nn khng mt mt thng tin: bao gm cc phng php nn m sau khi gii nn ta thu
c chnh xc d liu gc.

92
+ Nn c mt mt thng tin: bao gm cc phng php nn m sau khi gii nn ta khng
thu c da liu nh bn gc.
-Cch phn loi th hai
+ Phng php khng gian: nn bng cch tc ng trc tip ln vic ly mu ca nh
trong min khng gian.
+ Phng php s dng bin i: gm cc phng php tc ng ln s bin i ca nh
gc.
-Cch phn loi th ba
+ Cc phng php nn th h th nht: gm cc phng php m mc tnh ton l
n gin, th d nh vic ly mu, gn t m,
+ Cc phng php nn th h th hai: Da vo mc bo ha ca t l nn.
T s nn r=kch thc d liu gc/kch thc d liu sau khi nn.
T l nn =(1/r)%
Cc phng php nn: Huffman, RLC, LZW,
- JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group), MPEG(Motion Picture Expert Group),
Nn mt mt thng tin, hiu qu nn khng cao vi nhng hnh phc tp.
Nn nh theo chun JPEG c th cho h s nn 80:1
-Nn nh Fractal: nn nh cao, hn ch mt thng tin.
6.2-Cc phng php nn nh
6.2.1-Phng php Huffman
Phng php Hufman l phng php da vo m hnh thng k. Da vo d liu gc
ngi ta tnh tn sut xut hin ca cc k t. Ngi ta gn cho cc k t c tn sut cao
mt t m ngn, cc k t c tn sut thp t m di. Ni mt cch khc, cc k t c tn
sut cng cao c gn m cng ngn v ngc li. Vi cch thc ny ta gim c
chiu di trung bnh ca t m ha bng cch dng chiu di bin i. Tuy nhin trong
mt s tnh hung khi tn sut l rt thp, c th khng c li cht no, thm ch cn b
thit mt t bit.
Thut ton bao gm 2 bc :
-Giai on tnh tn sut ca cc k t trong d liu gc, sau sp xp li bng m theo
th t tn sut gim dn.
-Giai on th 2: m ha. Duyt bng tn sut t cui ln u thc hin ghp 2 phn
t c tn sut thp nht thnh mt phn t duy nht. Phn t ny c tn sut bng tng
hai tn sut thnh phn. Tin hnh cp nht li bng v ng nhin loi b hai phn t
ang xt. Qu trnh c lp li cho n khi bng ch c mt phn t.
Qu trnh ny gi l qu trnh to cy m Huffman v vic tp hp c tin hnh nh
mt cy nh phn vi hai nhnh. Phn t vi tn sut thp bn phi, phn t vi tn sut
cao bn tri. Vi cch to cy ny, tt c cc bit d liu/k t l nt l; cc nt trong l

93
cc nt tng hp. Sau khi cy to xong, ngi ta tin hnh gn m cho cc nt l. Vic
m ha rt n gin: mi ln xung bn phi ta them mt bit 1 vo t m; mi ln
xung bn tri ta thm mt bit 0. C th lm ngc li, ch c gi tr m thay i cn
tng chiu di l khng thay i.
Qu trnh gii nn tin hnh chiu ngc li kh n gin. Ngi ta cng phi da vo
bng m to ra trong giai on nn (bng ny c gi li trong cu trc u ca tp nn
cng vi d liu nn.)
V d 1: cho mt tp d liu m tn sut cc k t cho bi:
K t Tn sut
1 152
2 323
3 412
4 226
5 385
6 602
7 92
8 112
9 87
0 1532
. 536
+ 220
- 315
535
Bng sau khi sp xp gim dn
K t Tn
sut
0 1532
6 602
. 536
535
3 412
5 385
2 323
- 315
4 226
+ 220
399
490
784
902
1071
1240
1686
2311
3218 5529

94
1 152
8 112
7 92
9 87
Vit li cy m Huffman tng ng














Bng t m gn cho cc k t bi m ha Huffman
K t M ha
0 10
6 010
. 001
000
3 1110
5 1100
2 0111
- 0110
4 11110
+ 11011
1 111111
8 111110
7 110101
9 110100
V d 2:
179
264
638
Gc
N12
N11
N10 0
N9 N8
N7
N6
N5 6 .
N4 3 N3 5
2 -
N2 4 + N1
1
8
7
9
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

95
K hiu M nh phn Pi
S0 10 0.25
S1 00 0.21
S2 111 0.15
S3 110 0.14
S4 0111 0.0625
S5 0110 0.0625
S6 0101 0.0625
S7 0100 0.0625
V d 3
K hiu M nh phn Pi
W1 0 0.4
W2 11 0.3
W3 100 0.1
W4 1011 0.1
W5 10101 0.06
W6 10100 0.04
Nhn xt: Vi cc m c di thay i, c 2 iu nhn xt sau:
- Thao tc kh trong my tnh v cc ch th trong my tnh c thit k lm vic
vi cc byte v cc i tng l bi s ca byte. Cc m c di bit thay i s gy ra
nhng kh khn .
- 1 bit sai lch s xa i phn d liu. Khng c cch no bit t m tip theo bt
u u. Vi m di c nh bit c chnh xc t m tip theo bt u u.
6.2.2. Phng php m ha lot di RLC (Run Length Coding)
Nguyn tc ca phng php l pht hin mt lot cc bit lp li. Phng php
ny ch c hiu qu khi chiu di ca chui lp ln hn mt ngng no . Dy cc bit
lp gi l lot hay mch (run). Tip theo thay th chui bi mt chui mi gm 2
thng tin: bit lp (k t lp), chiu di chui. Nh vy chui thay thay th c chiu di
ngn hn chui cn thay th.

96
i vi nh chiu di ca chui lp c th ln hn 255, nu ta dng mt byte
m ha th s khng . Gii php c dng l tch chui ang xt thnh 2 chui: mt
chui c chiu di 255, chui kia l s bit cn li.
Phng php RLC c th chia thnh 2 phng php nh: phng php dng chiu
di t m c nh v phng php thch nghi nh kiu m Huffman.
6.2.3.Phng php LZW
Khi nim nn t in c Jacob Lempel, Abraham Ziv a ra ln u tin vo nm
1977, sau pht trin thnh mt h gii nn t in LZ. Nm 1984, Terry Welch ci
tin gii thut LZ thnh mt gii thut mi hiu qu hn v t tn l LZW. Phng php
nn t in da trn vic xy dng t in lu cc chui k t c tn xut lp li cao v
thay th bng t m tng ng mi khi gp li chng. Gii thut LZW hay hn cc gii
thut trc n k thut t chc t in cho php nng cao t l nn.
Gii thut LZW c s dng cho tt c cc loiaj file nh phn. N thng c dng
nn cc loi vn bn, nh en trng, nh mu, nh a mc xmv l chun nn cho cc
dng nh GIF v TIFF. Mc hiu qur ca LZW khng ph thuc vo s bit mu ca
nh.
Phng php
Gii thut nn LZW xy dng mt t in lu cc mu c tn sut xut hin cao trong
nh. T in l tp hp nhng cp t vng v ngha ca n. Trong t vng s l cc t
m c sp xp theo mt th t nht nh. Ngha l mt chui con trong d liu nh. T
in c xy dng ng thi vi qu trnh c d liu. S c mt ca mt chui con
trong t in khng nh rng chui tng xut hin trong phn d liu c.
Thut ton lin tc tra cu v cp nht t in sau mi ln c mt k t d liu u
vo.
Do kch thc b nh khng phi v hn v m bo tc tm kim, t in ch gii
hn 4096 phn t dng lu ln nht l 4096 gi tr ca cc t m. Nh vy di ln
nht ca t m l 12 bit (4096 phn t). Cu trc t in nh sau:
0 0
1


255
256 (Clear code)

97
257 (End of Information)
Chui
Chui


4095 Chui
- 256 t m u tin theo th t 0..255 cha cc s nguyn t 0..255. y l m ca
256 k t c bn trong m ASCII.
- T m th 256 cha mtj m c bit gi l m xa. Mc ch vic dng m xa
nhm khc phc tnh trng s mu lp trong nh ln hn 4096. Khi mt nh c quan
nim l nhiu mnh nh, v t in l mt b t in gm nhiu t in con. C ht mt
mnh nh ngi ta li gi mt m xa bo hiu kt thc mt mnh nh c, bt u mt
mnh nh mi ng thi khi to li t in cho mnh nh mi. M xa c gi tr l 256.
- T m th 257 cha m kt thc thng tin. T m ny c gi tr 257. Nh chng ta
bit, mt File nh GIF c th cha nhiu nh. Mi nh s c m ha ring. Chng
trnh gii m s lp i lp li thao tc gii m tng nh cho n khi gp m kt thc thng
tin th dng li.
- Cc t m cn li (t 258 n 4095) cha cc mu thng lp li nh. 512 phn t
u tin ca t in biu din bng 9 bit. Cc t m t 512 n 1023 biu din bi 10 bit,
t 1024 n 2047 biu din bi 11 bit v t 2048 n 4095 biu din bi 12 bit.
V d minh ha c ch nn ca LZW
Cho chui u vo l ABCBCABCABCD (M ASCII ca A l 65, B l 66, C l 67) T
in ban u gm 256 k t c bn
u vo u ra Thc hin
A(65) A c trong t inc tip
B(66) 65 Thm vo t in m 258 i din cho chui AB
C(67) 66 Thm vo t in m 259 i din cho chui BC
B 67 Thm vo t in m 260 i din cho chui CB
C BC c trong t inc tip
A 259 Thm vo t in m 261 i din cho chui BCA
B AB c trong t inc tip
C 258 Thm vo t in m 262 i din cho chui ABC
A 67 Thm vo t in m 263 i din cho chui CA

98
B AB c trong t inc tip
C ABC c trong t inc tip
D 262 Thm vo t in m 264 i din cho chui ABCD
Chui u ra s l:
65-66-67-259-258-67-262.
u vo c kch thc: 12x8=96 bit. u ra c kch thc l: 4x8+3x9 =59 bit.
T l nn l: 96:591.63


99

Chng VII NHN DNG NH
(Pattern recognition)
I- Tng quan v nhn dng nh
Nhn dng c rt nhiu ng dng trong mi lnh vc ca cuc sng:
nhn dng ch in, ch vit tay, nhn dng phn loi sn phm, nhn dng sinh trc
hc: vn tay, mng mt, ch k
Nhn dng c 3 cch tip cn khc nhau:
+ Nhn dng da vo phn hoch khng gian
+ Nhn dng cu trc
+ Nhn dng da vo k thut mng noron
Nhn dng l qu trnh phn loi cc i tng c biu din theo mt m hnh
no v gn cho chng vo mt lp (gn cho i tng mt tn gi) da theo nhng
quy lut v cc mu chun.
Qu trnh nhn dng da vo nhng mu hc bit trc gi l nhn dng c thy
(surpervised learning), ngc li gi l hc khng c thy (non surpervised learning).
1 Khng gian biu din i tng, khng gian din dch
a Khng gian biu din i tng
i tng thng c biu din bi tp cc c trng hay c tnh. Ngi ta
phn cc c trng ny theo cc loi nh nh: c trng topo, c trng hnh hc v c
trng chc nng.
gi s i tng X c biu din bi n thnh phn (n c trng)
X={x
1
, x
2
,..,x
n
} x
i
biu din mt c trng.
Khng gian biu din i tng
D={X
1
, X
2
,..,X
n
} mi X
i
biu din mt i tng. Khng gian ny c th l v
hn.
b Khng gian din dch
Khng gian din dch l tp cc tn gi ca i tng (tn cc lp i tng). gi
l tp tn i tng
={w
1
, w
2
,,w
n
} w
i
i=1,..,k l tn cc i tng.
Qu trnh nhn dng i tng f l mt nh x f: D vi f l tp cc quy lut
xc nh mt phn t trong D ng vi mi phn t trong .
2 M hnh v bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng
a ) M hnh
+ M hnh tham s: s dng mt vecto c t i tng
v d trong nhn dng ch, cc tham s l cc du hiu:
s im chc ba, chc t.

100
S im chu trnh
S im ngot
S im kt thc
+ M hnh cu trc
Cu trc mt dng l kt qu ca vic p dng lut sn xut theo nhng nguyn tc
xc nh bt u t mt dng gc ban u. C th coi m hnh ny tng ng mt vn
phm.
G=(V
t
, V
n
, P, S)
V
t
l b k hiu kt thc
V
n
l b k hiu khng kt thc
P l lut sn xut
S l k hiu ban u
3 Bn cht ca qu trnh nhn dng
qu trnh nhn dng gm 3 giai on chnh:
- La chn m hnh biu din i tng
- La chn lut ra quyt nh
- Hc nhn dng
Thao tc hc nhm ci thin, iu chnh vic phn hoch tp i tng thnh cc
lp.
II- Nhn dng da trn phn hoch khng gian
Cc i tng nhn dng biu din theo m hnh tham s, mi i tng c biu
din bi vecto nhiu chiu
1 Phn hoch khng gian
Khng gian i tng D={X
i
, i=1, 2,..,m} X
i
l mt vecto.
P l mt phn hoch ca khng gian D thnh cc lp C
i
C
i
Dnu
C
i
C
j
= i j
C
i
=D
2 Hm phn lp hay hm ra quyt nh
Gi {g
i
} l lp cc hm phn lp. Lp hm ny c nh ngha nh sau:
nu i k g
k
(X)> g
i
(X) th quyt nh X lp k.
phn bit k lp, ta cn k-1 hm phn bit
V d mt s hm phn bit
+ hm tuyn tnh: g(X)= W
0
+ W
1
X
1
++W
K
X
K
W
i
l cc trng s gn cho cc thnh phn X
i
+ hm khong cch (khong cch Euclid)
+ Da vo xc xut c iu kin
P(X/C
i
) l xc sut c X, bit rng c xut hin lp C
i


101
P(C
i
/X) xc sut c iu kin X C
i

X l i tng nhn dng, C
i
l cc lp i tng
Qu trnh hc xc nh P(X/C
i
)
Theo cng thc Bayes
) (
) ( ) / (
) / (
X P
C P C X P
X C P
i i
i
=
Nu P(C
i
/X) > P(C
k
/X) vi i k th X C
i
Phng php ny cn gi l nhn dng thng k.
III Nhn dng theo mng noron
M hnh mng noron nhn to
Mng noron nhn to (Artifical Neural Network) bao gm cc nt (n v x l,
noron) c ni vi nhau bi cc lin kt noron. Mi lin kt km theo mt trng s no
, c trng cho c tnh kch hot/c ch gia cc noron.
Nhim v ca qu trnh huyn luyn (hc) mng l cp nht cc trng s khi c
thm c thng tin v cc mu hc sao cho vic m phng hon ton ph hp vi mi
trng ang xem xt.
M hnh mng noron nhn to







Mi noron c ni vi cc noron khc v nhn c cc tn hiu s
j
t chng vi
cc trng s w
j.
Tng cc thng tin vo c trng s l
Net=

w
j
s
j
Hm kch hot g (cn gi l hm chuyn): out=g(Net)
C 3 dng kch hot thng dng trong thc t
Hm dng bc
1 nu x 0 1 nu x
Step(x)= hoc Step(x) =
0 nu x<0 0 nu x<
Net=

g
out
Cc lin kt vo
Cc lin kt ra
Hm vo Hm kch u ra
s
j
w
j

102
Hm du
1 nu x 0 1 nu x
Sign(x) = hoc sign(x)=
-1 nu x<0 -1 nu x <
Ngng ng vai tr lm tng tnh thch nghi v kh nng tnh ton ca mng
noron.
Mng noron bao gm nhiu phn t x l n gin (noron) hot ng song song.
Mng noron c th hc t d liu mu v tng qut ho da trn cc d liu mu hc.
Hc c gim st (hc c thy): mng c cung cp mt tp mu hc {(X
s
, Y
s
)} X
s

l cc tn hiu vo th kt qu ra ng ca h phi l Y
s
. mi ln hc vecto tn hiu vo
X
s
c a vo mng, sau so snh s sai khc gia Y
s
v outs. Sai s ny s c
dng hiu chnh li cc trng s lin kt trong mng. Qu trnh c tip tc cho n khi
tho mn mt tiu chun no .
Hc khng gim st c gi l cc mng t t chc.
IV Cc h nhn dng ch
1 S tng qut ca mt h nhn dng ch
gm cc khi chnh sau:
- Khi x l s b
- Khi tch ch
- Khi nhn dng ch
- Khi phc hi ch (hon thin v ni dung v hnh thc, cha li,..)









103




Ti liu tham kho
[1] Fundamentals digital image processing Anil K. Jain
[2] X l nh- Nng Ton, Phm Vit Bnh
[3]Tp bi ging x l nh- Ng Quc To.