Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Knowledge & Beliefs People Charles Darwin Gettier

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- On the Origin of Species - Discovered adaptations of organisms, diversity of living things. Developed a theory based on evolution - Showed that knowledge is not equivalent to justified true belief - Gettier Problem: when the conclusion is true, but the justification is false eg. seeing a rock shaped like a sheep, with a sheep standing behind it, concluding sheep exist. Justification is false, conclusion is true. - Relevant Alternatives Theory - you can ignore irrelevant things - e.g. is striped horse-like animal at zoo a zebra or just a mule painted to look like a zebra? - Thinks alternatives can be relevant for you and can keep you from having knowledge even when you haven't come across any evidence that they're true - Synthetic Apriori Beliefs vs Synthetic Aposteriori Beliefs - Apriori need not be observed (e.g. All bachelors are unmarried) - Aposterori needs to be observed (e.g. All tables exist) - The Blank Slate - Nature-nurture-chance debate - Believes that 40-50% genes, 50% unique environment and 0-10% shared environment

Dretske

Immanuel Kant Steven Pinker

Terms: Belief - Beliefs are linked in a vast network (web of beliefs) - Through the connections between beliefs, change to fundamental beliefs is limited. Sometimes we accept new beliefs by rejecting others Quine vs Kant - Kant: there are beliefs that must always be at the centre of the web of beliefs (constant across time/people) - Quine: some beliefs at the centre of everybodys web; changes between people - Both: structured patterns of belief allow us to consider evidence, think, and explain the world around us - Fallible: a concept that has a possibility of being faulty - Infallible: a concept that is certainly not faulty - Empirical Evidence: What our senses perceive, our sense perception, is one of main sources of knowledge - However, empirical evidence through sense perception can generally be beguiled and hence cannot be fully trusted - Logic (deductive and inductive) - Empirical evidence (observation) - Memory (generally reliable, but can be fallible; influenced by emotion) - Authority (generally trust them, but they may not always be right) - Gained through observation - Relies on sense perception, which can be fooled - Emotions are involved - The study of knowledge

Infallible/fallible Evidence

Justify & Justification

Empirical Knowledge Epistemology

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Apriori Knowledge Aposteriori Knowledge Analytic Beliefs - Knowledge that we can have in advance of any evidence e.g. 2+2=5 or 2+2=4

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- Knowledge which can be gained only after, posterior to, seeing the evidence (eg. Susan has blond hair.) - Opposite of apriori knowledge - Known to be true by virtue of their meaning alone - Are apriori because knowing how to speak a language makes it unnecessary to consider evidence for them - Propositions known to be true or false according to how things stand in the world / because of the way our minds are (Kant) eg. Some bodies are heavy - What is true is what works - Truth is judged in terms of its effectiveness in assisting people - Not concerned with absolute or ultimate truth - Internalists think that internal justification is necessary for knowledge - Externalists dont - (Plato) Three tests for certain knowledge are - You must believe the statement - Your belief has to be true - Your true belief must be justified - A liquid so corrosive that it will eat through anything - Likened to Darwins theory which eats through virtually every traditional concept leaving a revolutionized world view - Complex ideas that form themselves into distinct memorable units e.g. Arch, wheel, alphabet, chess, perspective drawing - Desire to survive and carry on existing - Nature - how you are born - Nurture - how you are raised (Blank Slate = Tabula Rasa in latin) - Evidence of genes having the ability to remember experiences - Pavlov is a 19th century psychologist and physician. Through experiments on mice, he found that the children of mice who had learned to navigate a maze had an easier time learning the maze than their parents had, and grandchildren were able to learn the maze even faster than the children 1. All human behavioral traits are heritable 2. Effect of genes>effect of family setting 3. A substantial portion of the variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by the effects of genes or families GOCEAN - General Intelligence - Openness to experience - Conscientiousness (awareness) - Extroversion-Introversion - Antagonism-agreeableness (how quick to anger, complain)

Synthetic Apriori

Pragmatic

Internalists & Externalists & JTB

Universal Acid

Memes

Nature vs. Nurture Behaviorists & Pavlov

3 Laws of Behavioural Traits 6 Categories of Behavioural Traits

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 - Neuroticism (how quick to worry) Shared vs. Unique Environment Group Socialization Theory Shared Environment: affects both siblings (home) Non-shared/Unique Environment: affects only one (peers)

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- In a peer group, an individual will find their niche - Available niches are dependent on luck/circumstance - Thus identity is determined by chance - Furthermore, parents select the peer group, thus individuality is really based on chance, factors outside an individuals control 1. It is uniquely human 2. It communicates 3. It uses symbols - Syndrome in which affected individuals have advanced vocabulary and intelligence yet no understanding of social skills - Evidence that the brain is a connection of mechanisms each designed to do a different thing - Basic survival tool for infants - An evolutionary mechanism/biological trait, like a warning call - Babies dont respond to the language itself but instead the tone, frequency, volume (babies respond to Motherese of another language) - First Revolution: change in body - Second Revolution: change of mind (beneficial to us) - Brain is like a swiss army knife (different parts are specialized for different functions) and can handle abstract concepts - Originally evolved for hunters (advantageous factor) - Natural advantage to recognize objects, patterns, facial recognition - Able to recreate situation of what occurred in the past when it was first experienced (memory) Human nature: The conditioning and programming that has been experienced in human existence. Human nature includes the personality Human universals: (common features) o Mental maps o Food adaptations o Sexual adaptations (jealousy) o Facial expressions o Motherese Human nature evolution: Human nature evolves through culture. - There is a second code of programming on top of our DNA that can change during our lifetimes depending on our experiences. Changes can then be passed down to offspring. - Pavlov: offspring (kids, grandkids) of mice who learned to navigate a maze had a progressively easier time learning it than their parents, grandparents - Identical twins, one develops hereditary disease and other does not may be explained by epigenetics When answering a question it is uncertain about, the unconscious mind grabs the

Language

Williams Syndrome

Motherese

Second Darwinian Revolution

Mental Maps

Human Nature

Epigenetics

Anchoring Rule

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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nearest or most recent number to answer with. e.g. Group 1 was asked if Gandhi was older or younger than 9 when he died. They guessed an average of 50. Group 2 was asked if he was older or younger than 140. Their average was 67. Rule of Typical Things Example Rule Known by psychologists as representative heuristic. e.g. James majored in biology and eats cake. Many people will say that it is more likely that James is a biologist that likes cake rather than just a biologist. Known as the availability heuristic. The easier it is to recall examples of something, the more common that something must be. e.g. It is easier to think of words fitting the form _ _ _ _ing than it is for _ _ _ _ _ n _, even though all the words that fit the first must fit the second. - Guts initial reaction to an event - If it feels good, then it is not deemed to be a threat. e.g. When people are asked about cancer, they usually overestimate the deadliness. (Media puts more emphasis on deadliness) Tanning = radiation. But, because it feels good, doesnt seem dangerous. A positive feeling for something can be created with repeated exposure. e.g. - Experiment showed Chinese characters on a screen, followed by a frowning or smiling face flashed too quickly to be consciously noticed. - Characters followed by smiling faces were more liked than those with the frowning faces. Yet, when shown again, with faces reversed, they still preferred original choices. - Experiment shows tiny influences are buried subconsciously, and can have a profound effect on judgement. - When people hold a certain belief, and then find proof for their belief. e.g. When a company conducts a study whose findings will help support their product. When a group of people holding the same opinion get together, their beliefs are strengthened and become more extreme. e.g. Breast implants were once believed to be dangerous. The women who suffered ill effects got together and got even more angry.

Good Bad Rule

Exposure Effect

Confirmation Bias

Group Polarization

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Big Items ToK Diagram

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Gettier & JTB

JTB: Platos way of knowing; he was concerned with the validity of knowledge 1. Belief is attitude of mind Ex: Its true that Ottawa is in Canada, but I dont believe it. 2. Truth - There is an essence of things; humans cannot fully understand it but can recognize it (e.g. every table captures a little of the perfect or essence of a table) - Relativist: all things are influenced by understanding: humans construct truth 3. Justification - Logic (deductive and inductive) - Empirical Evidence (observation): relies on sense perception, which can be fooled - Memory: generally reliable, but can be fallible; influenced by emotion - Authority: we can generally trust authorities, but may not always be right Gettier Problem: Logical conclusions that pass JTB, but the justification is wrong e.g. Ashley has a diamond ring on her ring finger. You believe, correctly, that she is married. However, the ring is her graduation ring. - States that knowing requires you to rule out relevant alternatives eg. seeing zebas at a zoo. Although it is POSSIBLE that they are actually mules disguised as zebras, this alternative is not relevant for your context. Thus you must only consider relevant alternatives, and therefore you can KNOW that they are zebras. The question is: what makes an alternative relevant? -Maintained that the best we can do is grasp the surface appearance of things (phenomena). The real nature of things (noumena) is forever inaccessible to us. Proposed synthetic apriori beliefs, believed to be at the centre of the web of beliefs -the propositions of arithmetic and geometry -the belief that events have causes -the belief that there are laws of nature that we can discover the belief that people and physical objects persist through time Observational truths: A statement is true if it corresponds to objective reality We can all agree that we are currently in a classroom. e.g.

Dreske & Relevant Alternatives Theory Kant & Knowledge

Correspondence Theory & Truth

Critiques of Correspondence Theory - Perception can be flawed/distorted (even if a majority of people perceive a certain thing they could still be wrong)

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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- Some areas do not have observable facts measurable by objective criteria (e.g. love, justice) - Theories can be hard to observe (e.g. evolution), despite evidence Coherence Theory & Truth Logical truths fitting into an Existing Framework - A truth is a property exhibited by a related group of consistent propositions - A statement is true if it is integrated with other established statements and doesnt contradict them - Described as the hang-together theory Critiques of Coherence Theory: - Sometimes relies of beginning postulates or assumptions whose truth cannot necessarily be proven - The initial postulate cannot be proven true under this system as it relies on a framework that comes after the initial proposition (e.g. Religious and Scientific world views are quite coherent frameworks but many feel they express irreconcilable contradictions) Pragmatic Theory & Truth What is True is What Works - Truth defined only in terms of consequences; a statement is true if it describes a situation which a person can act to achieve a desired result - Not concerned with absolute or ultimate truth - Continuously shaped by human thought and action e.g. theory of personality development, democracy Critiques of Pragmatic Theory - People are dissatisfied with viewing truths as tentative and changeable - No necessary connection between what is ultimately true and what happens to work at a given time Skepticism - Skeptics believe that we can know little or nothing for certain, because something is likely to turn up in the future to prove us wrong. - It is logically impossible to be a FULL skeptic because then you couldn't know that you can't know everything. Partial skeptics believe that: 1. Knowledge is about human achievement, narrowly focused and often missing the larger picture. 2. Human faculties (senses & reasoning) are limited and weak. There are other senses on different creatures. 3. Human faculties are unreliable (i.e. memory) 4. Even the experts exhibit great diversity of theories and opinions, which frequently change throughout history. - Phrase coined by Arthur O. Lovejoy - Is a top-to-bottom view of things, also described as a ladder or tower - Cosmic pyramid consists (from bottom to top) of nothing, chaos, order, design, mind, G-d - Order versus purpose (e.g. solar system, eye) - A formal process that can be counted on logically to yield a certain kind of result whenever it is run or instantiated - Key features: - Substrate neutrality (independent of material) - Underlying mindlessness (simple steps (binary)) - Guaranteed results (foolproof)

The Great Chain of Being

Algorithmic Process & Key Features

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 - Need not have anything to do with numbers (e.g. process of annealing piece of steel) Cranes & Skyhooks

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- Aeronaut: An imaginary contrivance for attachment to the sky; an imaginary means of suspension in the sky. - Skyhooks: miraculous lifters, unsupported and insupportable, great for hauling unwieldy objects out of difficult circumstances and speeding up all sorts of construction projects. No skyhooks, but cranes. Darwinian Context Cranes - natural evolutionary sub-processes or features that speed up the basic, slow pace of natural selection.

Epigenetics & Human Nature

- A second code, besides DNA, that can change in our lifetime - Theorizes that the way our genes are expressed can change according to our diet, chemicals we are exposed to and our behaviour (e.g. Identical twins, often one will develop a hereditary disease while the other does not) Only 30,000 genes were found, even though researchers were expecting to find 100,000 genes. - Problem: This code could be passed down from parents to child. - Therefore, we have the moral obligation to behave in a certain manner for future offspring. Two systems of thought: 1. Head - Knowledge learned and used consciously (i.e. how to bake) 2. Gut - Unconscious/instinctual knowledge (i.e. how to walk) Slovics checklist: - A list of properties which, if attributed to a thing or activity, make people rate that thing as more dangerous. - Some characteristics: Familiarity, personal control, trust, media attention Good-Bad Rule: - Uses words and stats to determine if something is good or bad - the feeling made by gut overrides that of head (e.g. Terrors of nuclear warfare, devastating news reports, therefore radiation is bad. However we expose ourselves to the sun, (feels good), so no fear.) Exposure Effect: Familiarity breeds liking. (eg. Exposing a corporation's name and logo to customers to increase familiarity and thus positive feelings towards them.) Confirmation Bias: Once a belief is in place, we screen what we see and hear to ensure that our beliefs are proven. Group Polarization: When people who share beliefs get together, they all become more extreme in their views instead of balancing out. Managing risk without emotional interference 1) Respect the scientific process, despite it being flawed. 2) Accept that risk is inevitable Perception & Emotion

Epigenetics & Problems with Morality Dan Gardner: The Science & Politics of Fear

People

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Paul Maclean Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor Created the triune brain, some details which are now doubted

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- A Stroke of Insight - Had a stroke, which allowed her to describe the distinction between the left and ride side of your brain - Left side = serial processor (language, makes sense of sensory input) - Right side = parallel processor (in the present moment) - In the right side (lala land) she found nirvana - Discovered phantom limbs, synesthesia, and mirror neurons and did even more intense studies with them - Mirror box study, person with a missing limb used mirrors to scratch their phantom limb. He noticed relief in the irritating symptoms of the patient. - Found that people who grow up in different culture do not just think about different things, they think differently. - Main scientist in article How Culture Molds the Habit of Thought (see below) - Six Thinking Hats - De Bono Hats System is a thinking tool for group discussion, to think more effectively as a group, and to plan things in a more detailed and cohesive way. eg. Different states = different coloured hat Information-White; Emotions-Red; Bad points judgement-Black; Good points judgement-Yellow; Creativity-Green; Thinking-Blue - Showed that the human mind behaves in identifiable and manipulatible ways, which we can exploit to think more efficiently.

Dr. V.S. Ramachandran

Dr. Richard Nisbett

Edward de Bono

Dr. Paul Ekman (Genetics & Emotions)

- Studied nonverbal behaviour, and expression and physiology of Emotions. - He explains the instinct he calls heroic compassion. Believes the reaction is genetic: not everyone has it, and not all who have it know they do. eg. What makes a stranger jump into a subway to pull someone out of danger?

Terms Triune Brain Idea created by Paul Maclean Doubt about details, but gives good general idea of brains structure - divided into lowest functions to highest: reptilian, limbic, and new-cortex.

Brain Stem (Reptilian Brain)

- Basic functions: breathing, heart rate, digestion - Brain downshifts to this level (fight or flight); actions done without thinking and remembering. Ex. if food goes down wrong pipe, brain starts coughing.

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Limbic System Neurons

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- Emotions (amygdala), memory formation (hippocampus), sensory input - Contains visual memories, language restricted to yells - Type of cell in central nervous system - Can have thousands of connections with other nerve cells - Axon: part that carries signals away from neuron - Dendrites: fibres that carry signals away from a neuron. Sensory neurons - Relay messages from outside world to spinal cord. - Sensory receptors (eyes, nose, etc.) spinal cord brain Motor neurons - Relay messages from brain muscle or organ - Some inhibitory, excitatory. Interneurons - Connect motor and sensory neurons - Most common neuron

3 Types of Neurons

Synapses

- Gap between axons and dendrites where vesicles of neurotransmitters go from one neuron's axon to another neurons dendrites. - Axons/dendrites of two different nerve cells are not connected Nerve cells are not truly connected. Neurotransmitters - Different types of neurotransmitters have different shapes - Release certain chemicals which affect cognitive functions Eg. epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin Lock is the shape of receptor, and the key is the shape of the neurotransmitter. How medications can affect the synapse 1. Disrupt the synthesis of neurotransmitter. 2. Disrupt the transport of neurotransmitter to axon terminal via vesicles. 3. Affect storage of the neurotransmitter. 4. Cause premature release of neurotransmitter. 5. Blocks or speeds up re-take of neurotransmitter. 6. Disrupt the action of enzymes. 7. Mimic the neurotransmitter, act as a key. Central Nervous System - Comprised of the brain & nerves, messages travel to and from the brain along the nerves. The brain processes the messages received.

Lock & Key Method

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Peripheral Nervous System Serotonin

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- Connects the CNS to rest of the body, moving messages along until they reach the brain. - Second brain is part of the PNS (in the stomach) - A brain chemical (neurotransmitter) - Normal levels creates create a sense of well being and contentment. - Deficiencies and imbalances create feelings of depression - Dr Penfield found that epileptic patients would have the I smell burnt toast part of their brain stimulated before their seizures - He did this by stimulating parts of a patients brain during surgery - The area that controls all of your movement. - Area where brain interprets the information sent to it from the body. James Peacock: - Had phantom pain in amputated arm - Puts his arm in a box with a mirror - Tricks the brain into unclenching the fist, easing phantom pain - Suggests that pain is a mental construct. Graham Young: - Is able to see everything on the left side but cannot see anything on the right in both eyes, yet he can still detect things that are there that he cannot see - One would think loved ones are imposters - Inability to associate emotions with sentient and insentient things - Your mind can think something else if a part of your body by tricking it. - Tricking your mind into thinking a rubber hand is your own. - Humans group things based on how similar they are to each other.We see 3 rows of black squares and 3 rows of white, not 6 rows.

I Smell Burnt Toast

Motor Projection Area of the Brain Somatosensory Projection Area Mirror Box Illusion

Blind Sight

Capgras Delusion Rubber Hand Illusion Similarity

Proximity

- Humans group what they see by proximity, we see 3 not 6 lines

Continuity

- Humans have a tendency to see patterns; to perceive things as belonging together if they form some sort of pattern.We see an x, not dots.

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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Closure

- Humans like to find patterns and fill in the blanks. We see a circle and a square, even though they are broken.

Gestalt Principle of Grouping Maintaining Perceptual Constancy Perceiving Distance: Monocular Cues and Binocular Cues Anthropomorphism Morgan's Canon

- The whole is greater than the sum of its parts--to interpret what we receive through our senses, we organize it into groups. (See four rows above) - Is the ability to see things differently without having to reinterpret properties Ex: size-getting closer to objects, they stay the same size even though it seems bigger - Monocular cues are distance cues seen only with one eye. eg. size of objects - Binocular cues are cues seen with two eyes. eg. perspective

- Attribution of human characteristics to something that is not human - States that we should not over-complicate the action or way in which an animal behaves. - Animal's behaviour should be interpreted in a simple way if possible. - If something can carry on a conversation with someone and most people don't know if theyre talking to a human or not, then the thing is conscious - When all the inputs from different sense receptors combine and construct the objects in our mind. Ex. we don't see a car, hear its motor, smell its exhaust, etc. Instead, we perceive a car going by. - not necessarily proof of consciousness (sleepwalkers playing piano) - Test where questions match up your personality with a colour - A machine that maps out where there is more brain activity based on blood flow. Essentially shows brain activity - Oxygenated blood goes to areas of the brain where there is more brain activity. This blood gives off a stronger signal that the fMRI machine picks up. - Part of brain linked to emotion - Feelings thought to be confined to a small group of large-brained mammals, many of which are related to humans.

Turing Test for Consciousness Binding

True Colours Test fMRI

Amygdala Higher Emotions

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Ex. guilt, shame, embarrassment, sympathy Big Issues Optical Illusions

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- Several illusions deal with blind spots, the misjudgement of comparative line lengths due to angling, the process of our brains filling in a seemingly broken image, and the misjudgement of colour of comparative areas - Suggest about perception is that our brains are hereditarily inclined to or taught to analyze situations by using algorithmic processes using extraneous factors to come to conclusions, even if it actually wrong. - Using MRI technology, to analyze brain activity in teenagers - Showed teengers brains are still developing till around 25. - Showed teens brains do not always use reason when appropriate - Showed parts of the brain responsible for planning are last to mature - Two nervous systems - one in head and one in gut (enteric nervous system) - Many diseases manifest symptoms at brain and gut level - Explains butterflies in your stomach when youre nervous. - One can blotten out the other senses by heightening the input of one sense or they can amplify the other senses by lowering the input of other senses. - All sensory experiences are a skill and they can all be trained and cultivated. - Right brain - logic, here and now VS Left brain - abstract, emotions, etc. - Challenged the dogma that the connections of the brain are made during the fetal part of life and cannot be changed afterwards - Synesthesia: Condition where normal people experience the blending of two or more senses (blue when you hear C sharp, white when you see an O). - Blending could be a result of cross-wiring patterns apparent in the brain. Explains why painters, poets were so creative (images would inspire words because of brains intertwined nature). - Also believes that everyone being a closet synesthete is a possibility. - the same parts of your brain that become active when you do something, become active when you are watching something. - The Sixth Sense - Knowing the position of your limbs in space. - When two or more senses are mixed together eg. you see green when you hear Cat - Your thought process can be shifted by your culture - The fish example Americans focused on the fish and one main point Asians focused more on the scenery and got the wholistic picture - The argument between parent and child example Americans sided with either the child or the parent Asians saw that both had their wrongs and rights - solving problems through an indirect or creative approach, using reasoning that is

Teenage Brain Article

Second Brain

Sensory Profiles Article

Right/Left Brain Ramachandrans Observations & Conclusions

Mirror Neurons Proprioception Synaesthesia How Culture Molds Habits of Thought Article

Lateral Thinking

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 not immediately obvious - not obtainable through step-by-step logic Parallel Thinking - coined by Edward de Bono, describes adversarial thinking. - involves thinking about what can be rather than just what is - an extension of lateral thinking

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Emotional Intelligence

Life: - Social and emotional abilities were 4 times more important than IQ in determining professional success and prestige. School: - Students who are anxious or depressed earn lower grades or achieve lower scores, and are more likely to repeat a grade. Business: - The reasons for losing customers and clients are 70% EQ related, ex. bad customer service. - Consciousness is still created within the brain, but what it is and how to find it remains unclear - a sense of self is what makes a person distinct from his environment and from other people in it. It is also the thing upon which more complex layers of consciousness appear to rest Ethics

Out of Your Mind, Not Out of Your Body Article

People Sinbad the Sailor & co (story) Question: Who was least/most ethical? Sinbad: Helped Jessamyn cross the river in exchange for sex (most) Jessamyne: Wanted to return to Mandango, so has sex with Sinbad in order to cross. Mandango: Furious when he finds out what Jessamyne has done, leaves her. Arunta: Jessamyns childhood friend, punched Mandango in the jaw, comforted Jessamyn - loved her, ulterior motivations? (least - wasnt his business) - Ethical egoist: Author of The Unselfish Trap - Happiness is a ball. In an unselfish world, the ball is constantly passed around because you dont want to be considered selfish = nobody is happy. - Since we cant know exactly what others want, we should only please ourselves. - Ethical egoist: Defines selfishness as concern with ones own interests; only the most self-sacrificing people are not selfish. - Altruists have put selfishness in a bad light. Since man must support his life by his own effort, the doctrine that calls the selfish man evil, is evil itself. - Does not look at their actions, but looks at the qualities that make someone a good person and a good character - A virtue is the mean between two vices e.g. Fear and Confidence Excess --> Rashness Mean--> Courage Deficiency --> Cowardness Pro: Most flexible as it allows for social differences Con: Does not answer How should we behave? - Utilitarianist

Harry Browne & Ethical Egoism Ayn Rand & The Virtue of Selfishness Aristotle & Virtue Ethics

John Stuart

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Mill Jeremy Bentham - Rather than pleasure vs. pain, most important is quality of happiness - Utilitarianism = greatest happiness for the greater number of people

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- First Utilitarianist, recognizes the fundamental role of pleasure and pain in life. - Utilitarian calculus: Pleasure = plus, pain = minus. Other factors like intensity, duration, certainty, nearness, extent - What is right (good) = calculation of what produces the most pleasure and the least pain. Also known as hedonism. - All our beliefs/actions are products of habit. Hume: we should break this. - Reason is, and ought to be, slave of the passion. Strongest logic cannot compel like the weakest of emotions. - Our feelings provide a natural guide for moral conduct. Most important feelings: benevolence, utility, justice. - Founder of Sociobiology (study of social behaviours in natural selection) - wrote Consilience - Ethics may have an empirical basis. (Scientific ethics)

David Hume

E.O. Wilson

Terms Universal Law - Requires us to act as though it was a universal law. What would happen if everyone did what we are about to do? Problems 1. Some duties may conflict (e.g. Doctor and soldier) 2. May be necessary to break your ethics (e.g. steal food for family) 3. Absolute laws may be difficult to decide for small issues. (e.g. Jaywalking) - Kantian Ethics: we should use reason and logic to discover laws that ought not to be broken - ethical guidelines (ethical objectivism) - To decide these laws we follow the categorical imperative: Act only by those rules you can at the same time wish be universal laws. - Humans are controlled by physical and moral laws. - Physical laws > instincts, not rational, even if it is positive (like love), the act is not rational. Thus, instinctive, non-rational action is neither good nor bad. - Moral laws > laws which our reason imposes on us. The Law of Respecting Others - People should be respected; no one should use other people to just obtain their goals. (e.g. making friends with the smartest student in the school to help your own grades.) - The means are what matter (deontological) - John Stuart Mill: ethical decision is that which brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. e.g. Churchills decision on Coventry England cracked Enigma. Could save Coventry and let Germany find out they had cracked Enigma or let Coventry be bombed and protect the secret. e.g. The State (the Queen) vs. Dudley and Stevens (1884) Mignonette was shipwrecked on lifeboat: Dudley, Stevens, Parker, Brooks, Custom of the sea (drawing straws to see who will die so they can be eaten), was refused by Brooks, Parker already in coma, however Dudley and Stevens killed Parker anyway and ate him. Decision: necessity is NO defense, convicted of murder

Categorical Imperative

Kant: Physical Laws, Moral Laws

Kant: The Law of Respecting Others

The greatest happiness for the greatest number

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns Trolley-ology

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- States that a rational consumer receives less utility from each additional unit of a good that he consumes. A happiness factor that can morph into a torture factor as time goes on and on. e.g. Amount of food vs. amount of enjoyment The Trolley A problem Along a railroad track, you see a trolley heading down a track with 5 people tied to it. There is a switch to redirect the train, but on the other track, there is one person tied. By altering the trains direction only one life would be lost rather than five. (People normally say yes, parts of brain linked to cognition and reasoning light up) Trolley B problem On a footbridge over a train track, next to fat man leaning over all. Push the man onto the track, and he will stop a trolley from running over 5 people, but he will die. (People normally say no, part of brain linked to emotion light up = more personal)

Social Contract Theory (Hobbes)

- Leviathan: All humans are driven by two impulses: fear of death and desire for power. - To keep impulses in check, we ceed to a social contract - yielding to authority in exchange for protection from others and invaders. - We sign the contract simply by living in a country, therefore we derive our morals from our society.

Big Issues Self Interest Theory: Ethical Egoism - The ethical goal of promoting your own self interests. - We must define and promote our own welfare, make ourselves as happy & fulfilled as possible. Self Interest =/= Not Selfishness - Concern for others IS compatible with Self Interest Theory - To help others is to help yourself (if you lie, steal, & cheat you will be rejected by your community; despite the upside, these are not in your long term self interest). - A true ethical egoist would want everyone to be unselfish but him (he would reap the benefits), so there are more people trying to make him happy. - Pro: Flexible model of ethics allowing for social differences in ideal character - Con: Doesnt really tell us what to do in any given situation. Categorial Imperative - Act by the laws you would have become universal laws - Before an ethical decision, we must consider: what would happen if everyone did what we are about to do? The Greatest Happiness of the Greatest Number - This models means the actions are right if they are useful or benefit the majority. - Theory suggests, if you could do something to make many people happy but it makes you unhappy, you should do it. - A utilitarian should calculate the happiness/unhappiness created by their actions. Jeremy Bentham: - Recognizes the fundamental role of pleasure and pain in life (hedonism) Utilitarian Calculus: Pleasure= plus; Pain= minus - Also involved factors such as: intensity, duration, certainty, nearness, extent John Stuart Mill: - Quality of happiness over quantity

Criticisms of Ethical Egoism Virtue Ethics: Issues Kant & Universal Law Theory Utilitarian Theory

Bentham & Mill on Utilitarianism

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Problems/Criticis ms of Utilitarianism - some cultures think suffering is noble - people want things not good for them - Value of pain and pleasure is subjective - Different levels of pleasure (some greater than others) - Why is happiness the most important quality - Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility - Reason is and ought to be slave of passion. - Most important feelings: benevolence, utility, and justice. - Benevolence is social sympathy, Utility - discussed in utilitarianism - Justice - Rawls theory of justice equated justice as fairness.

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Hume & Ethics

Scientific Ethics (E.O. Wilson)

- Research should be undertaken into the way the human brain works and responds both instinctively and rationally to ethical situations. - This way we can understand the origins of our ethical code. -ex. there is evidence that genes for co-operation within a society have evolved and encourage out cultures to adopt them as normal. Philosophy should be founded on experiments 1. Brain scanning technologies to look for patterns of neural activity 2. Questionnaires to discover peoples intuitions 3. Field Experiments to observe how people behave in certain situations Criticisms: - Brain imaging techniques are still limited - MRI tube cannot simulate a real scene (tension, fear, etc) - Surveys have limited value

X Phi & Experimental Philosophy

Unit: Logic & Reason People: Aristotle - Logic (His Incorrect Assumption) Stoics - Logic - Incorrectly assumes that all x are y, some x are y, therefore no x and y are the same

- They are analytic philosophers who came up with propositional logic. - Propositional logic deals with propositions (statements that are either true or false) as well connectives between propositions (and, or, not, if and iff). Examples of proposition are grass is green or 2+2 = 3. - Wanted to put logic at the heart of knowledge, link language logic and mathematics. - Wanted to solve problems in philosophy by using math and logic. He also came up with truth tables. - Developed 1st and 2nd order philosophy - Found a problem in Freges logic, the Russell Paradox, which prevented it from becoming the perfect tool Is is a disgrace because it has too many meanings, thus language is not suitable to find ultimate truth - A group of analytical philosophers who believed in Logical Positivism, the idea that only truths of science and math were valid, other forms of logic nonsense.

Gottlob Frege

Bertrand Russell

Vienna Circle

Terms:

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Analytic Philosophy Continental School Russells Paradox Formalism Principia Mathematica

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- Math and logic can solve problems to find truth. The truth is out there. - Logic cannot find truth. Theres no objective truth; Theres no truth, made up or fabricated - A set of all sets that does not includes itself. - This is significant since mathematics is based off of number sets. - A language in which symbols representing mathematical statements are used. In the case of analytic philosophy, these symbols are the ones used in truth tables. - A book (named after Sir Isaac Newtons famous book) written by Whitehead and Wittgenstein using formalism. - Famous for taking 360 pages to prove that 1 + 1 = 2. Length shows how mathematics can only prove with a limited set of rules. - The verb to be has so many meanings that it shows ambiguity (i.e. attribute, composition, definition, class or group...) Ex. the Raven IS black. (attribute). The spoon IS silver (composition). Bachelors ARE unmarried (definition). etc. e.g. I love peaches and cream - I love apples and oranges. e.g. They got married and had children - They had children and got married. A category of statement which lead to a contradiction that defies logic. A Cretan sails to Greece and says to some Greek men All Cretans are liars Truth = he is lying, lying = he is telling the truth. - Barber shaves everyone who does not shave himself. - This is an example of a set of all sets that does not include itself, is what caused Bertrand Russell to send the letter to Frege. - Arithmetic Trembles: Freges reaction to Russells set of all sets that does not include itself as members. - How many integers? Infinity. How many fractions between one and zero? Infinity. Despite the fact that both are infinity, the infinity of all integers (aleph-zero) is considered greater than the number of fractions between one and zero (aleph-one). - All ravens are black is logically equivalent to the contrapositive: all non-black things are non-ravens. This equivalence seems to state that seeing a blue horse would prove that all ravens are black which is absurd. - A deductive argument relating two premises and a conclusion, all of which are quantified propositions, e.g. propositions joining concepts by using words such as "some" (particular) and "all" (universal). - Syllogistic logic goes back to ancient Greece and was then further developed by the 'schoolmen' in the Middle Ages. - Overlapping circles that are used to prove whether a logical conclusion is true or false based on premises.

Is disgrace to the human race

and Paradox Cretan Paradox Barber Paradox

Arithmetic Trembles Russells Set Cantors Theorem Hempels Paradox Syllogism

Venn Diagram

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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Big Issues
3 Informal Fallacies 1. Ad hominem ("to the person"): Attacking or appealing to the arguer instead of attacking or supporting an argument. An MP in parliament: "I would remind the House that when my questioner was in office, unemployment doubled; and he has the temerity to ask me about the future of the mining industry." 2. False Analogy: Incorrectly comparing two things. Ex: The universe, like a watch, must have a maker. 3. Ad Populum: Basing the appeal on everyone does it - numbers make it right Ex. Theres nothing wrong with cheating on your taxes. Everyone does it. - Method for applying a general rule (major premise) in specific situations (minor premise) of which conclusions can be drawn. Example: Major premise: All humans are mortal Minor premise: Socrates is human Conclusion: Socrates is mortal Gottllob Frege devised the first complete system of symbolic logic, which included all and some using symbols All A is B All C is A All C is B - Inductive reasoning allows for the possibility that the conclusion be false, even where all of the premises are true. Induction is the logic of assuming all things are true from observing a few things to be true Weak Indcutive Reasoning: E.g. All of the swans we have seen are white. All swans are white. Strong Inductive Reasoning: A proper example of inductive reasoning is as follows: E.g. All of the swans that all living beings have ever seen are white Therefore, all swans are white. - Involves creating a matrix to evaluate option is the most logically positive eg. rows = products, columns are positive aspects, the one with the most columns checked off will be bought - Uses fuzzy values to represent ambiguous information for use in logic - Comes in sets to provide a more reasonable interpretation of linguistic variables Strength: Recognizes partial truths and uncertainties Weakness: Increases complexity of expert system Boolean Logic: When a condition becomes true, the rule fires Fuzzy Logic: if the condition is true to any degree, the rule fires

Deductive Logic

Symbolic Logic

Inductive Logic

Matrix Logic Fuzzy Logic

Fuzzy VS Boolean Logic

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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Applicatio ns of Fuzzy Logic Venn Diagrams

- Cruise control in cars - Image stabilizers in a video camera

Barbara All M are P All S are M ----------------All S are P

Thus, Valid Syllogism. Law of undistributed middle All P are M All S are M ---------------

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 All S are P

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Invalid Celarent No M are P All S are M ------------No S are P

Valid Bocardo Some M are not P All M are S -------------Some S are not P

Valid, since x is only some, not all, it can be assumed for the whole. Darii All M are Some S are M ----------------Some S are P

Valid

Language
People
Ludwig Wittgenstein Martin - Very famous philosopher, first analytic but then went to continental, the bridge between continental and analytic philosophy. - The nature of being in his book Being and Time. Western philosophy had neglected

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Heidegger

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the idea of being. - Dasein (being here): the unique experience of being (uniquely human) - Geworfen (thrown into society): how we act is dependent on the situations we are placed in. Created newspeak, a new language in his popular novel 1984. Used the principle of doublethink - paradoxical thinking. - See Big Ideas <Nietzsche> - Credited as the founder of analytic philosophy (math and logic solve problems). Wittgenstein was his student. - Published Principia Mathematica, unsuccessful at applying logical analysis to language. - A group of analytical philosophers who believed in Logical Positivism, the idea that only truths of science and math were valid, other forms of logic nonsense.

George Orwell Nietzsche Bertrand Russell

Vienna Circle Terms:

Communication Loop Language as Transactional Communication Language as Expressive Communication Tractacus

Sender Message Receiver Feedback Function A: To get things done! - Meaning is in the message, needs to be clear so that there is no confusion between sender and receiver. - e.g Give info, give instructions, hypothesis, solve problems Function B: Feelings! - Words that imply more than one meaning are connotative, thus each receiver may understand words slightly differently - Tractacus Logico-Philosophicus: book by Ludwig Wittgenstein. - Concerned with the relationship between language, thought and reality. - Picture theory of meaning: sentences are pictures of possible states affairs. - Words like game can have no common thread - Language games: Words only make sense in context - At every step we are following the rules, but not the same rules at every step, allowing us to partake in a large number of language games. - Confusion occurs when a statement in one 'language game' is interpreted with rules of another. The sentence becomes the basis of language. - Words that have emotional connotations. Classified into 5 main categories: 1. Supernatural - Awe, fear (damn, hell, Jesus Christ) 2. Bodily effluvia/organs - Disgust (shit, piss, asshole, snot, bloody) 3. Disease, death, infirmity - Dread (a pox/plague on you!, cancer) 4. Sexuality - Revulsion at depravity (fuck, screw, dick, prick) 5. Disfavoured people/groups - Hatred, contempt (infidel, cripples, nigger, wop) Function C: Formally and Informally - Ex: How are you? Fine. - Acknowledgement of presence rather than genuine concern for their wellbeing Function D: Communication with Oneself

Wittgensteins Language Games

Emotive Words

Language as Social Communication Language as

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Communication with Self Phenomenology

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- Ex: At home in your room tonight, do you use language to organize what you will do for the next 2 hours? Homework, study, practise, read, text. - The study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first person point of view. - The will suggests that we choose to look at texts a certain way. - e.g. Religious allegories, satire, moral, educational, plot hungry - We experience the world beyond synthetic apriori (human nature) = Will - Will = subject, Representation = object - The will is used to desire. Desire uncovers the nature of the Will. Since the Will is often denied, much of life is suffering. a) We make certain sounds, the sounds (language) are symbols. English symbols, Chinese symbols, etc. b) Look, theres a snake! English speakers know what to expect. But the sound symbol for snake is not the reality of the snake. c) What does green symbolize? What about small? Different meanings for different people, sender and receiver have different messages. d) Because a word exists, we expect it to correspond with a reality we know. (e.g. black holes are neither black nor holes) e) Pattern of the words can bewitch as well. This path leads to a banana plantation. This path leads to damnation. a) We may think words have a true meaning and to use it accurately we must be aware of its meaning. But many words have many meanings, which can change. b) Lust used to mean innocent delight. c) The sound of words is of enormous importance. If cockroaches were called cuddlebugs, would they seem nicer? d) The word good: Good student diligent. Good grades high marks. Good daughter stay out of trouble. Good friend faithful, loyal. Idea from Wittgenstein: There isnt a way to define the word game that would encompass everything we consider and call games. Is it anything you get amusement out of? What about war games? Therefore language is not analytic, but continental and slippery. Language Creates Reality In 1990s, politically correct words introduced to alter sexist, offensive, racist language. The language that reflected reality also created & maintained it. e.g. Nurse and doctor feminists argued that if we always read doctor as he, nurse as she, then we expect reality to reflect that situation. Orwells language in 1984, gets rid of words to eliminate the threat of rebellion - Inference: conclusion you draw about the unknown based on what you know. e.g. Max Xu is clever Gets good grades, hands in work on time. But this is an inference, not a fact, thus achieving a status it does not deserve. The problem with the cafeteria is the grade nines. There are so many of them, they are so noisy, etc. Grade nines are awful. - Grade nines are classified individuals belong to no group until, with our language, we put them in it. - Classifying can determine our attitude and behaviour toward things which are classified. (e.g. You see grade 9 being noisy = typical)

Will and Representation (Schopenhauer) Language uses Symbols

Meaning of Words

Game multiple meanings

Language creates reality

Newspeak Language Infers & Judges Language Classifies

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Language Changes Ubermensch Will to Power Eternal Return

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- Elimination of words, slang, new hot words. e.g: Iconic was used 372 times in the newspaper this year. The word lol used to mean lots of love but now refers to laughing out loud Ubermensch (superman) was Nietzsches answer to the modern wasteland. By living by his principles, we can achieve it. - Idea that everything is about expressing power over other things and people. A self-asserting individual can will their way to power. - Cycle of repetition. The Universe is made up of infinite time but finite material, thus will repeat itself, rendering any Ubermensch back to lowly status again. - Based on this logic, everything has a 100% chance of happening again. - View that philosophical problems may be solved by reforming language or by understanding more about the language we currently use - Psychoanalytic criticism (application of specific psychological principles (esp. Freud and Lacan) to the study of literature) Existentialism: Views each person as an isolated being, conceive the world as possessing no inherent human truth, value, or meaning Reception and Reader-Response Theory: Idea of a correct reading was always the goal of the educated reader, the readers ability to understand a text is also subject a readers particular interpretive community) Feminism (theories having an essentialist focus, theories seeking to reinterpret and re-vision literature from a less patriarchal slant, theories focusing on sexual difference and sexual politics) Genre Criticism (study of different forms or types of literature) Wittgenstein: sentences are representations and, literally, pictures of possible states affairs. - Sentence = tool, meaning = usage of tool. - Our language is a large toolbox with many tools, each versatile, at our disposal.

Linguistic Philosophy

Picture Theory of Meaning: Logical Form Later Wittgenstein: Language as a Tool

Big Issues
3 Features of Language Hard to define, but most linguists agree on features of language: 1. It is uniquely human 2. It communicates 3. It uses system of symbols Linguists have grouped language into broad categories which they call language functions. 1. Function A Language as Transactional Communication Get things done! 2. Function B Language as Expressive Communication... Feelings! 3. Function C Language as Social Communication; Formally and Informally 4. Function D - Language as Communication with Oneself Swear words are paradoxical -- taboo, but widely used. Brain treats swear words differently than it treats other words. - Language processing is a higher brain function, takes place in the cerebral

Functions of Language

Swear Words

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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cortex. - Emotion and instinct are lower brain functions, take place inside the brain, along with swearing. George Carlin: The F word is extremely versatile (in parts of speech, and in expressing a range of emotions) Bewitchment of Language Issues: Bewitchment of Language 1. Language uses symbols-Black holes are not holes that are black 2. The meaning of words-The sound of the word is of enormous importance: What if cockroaches were called cuddle-bugs? 3. Language Creates Reality- Nurse does not mean females 4. Language Infers and Judges- "Max is clever." is not a fact but an inference. 5. Language Classifies- Wow, I bet hes a grade nine... 6. Language is always changing The art of interpreting -- Why do we have different interpretations? 1. Different backgrounds, cultures, religions, parents, experiences, education, genetics, wealth, ethics, etc. 2. Imprecise meanings of words sometimes from different languages (context) 3. Age of text (origins) 4. Expectations of the reader Gadamer: Interpretations of interpretations interpreted - Adds scientific objectivity to literary studies, previously seen as entirely subjective or impressionist. - Texts are not unique; they are all variations of some basic universal patterns - Therefore, author is irrelevant when we look at pattern, systems & structures. Natural classes: when traits are transferred to their offspring Person-made classes: Things that have common characteristics together. We define similarities by selecting characteristics that we think are important. Nietzsches Ideas: - God is dead: Human beings have killed it, along with the idea of absolute truth and the perfectibility of man. - Rejects metaphysics and the idea that there is a real world behind the physical world. Theres nothing beyond our perception. - Rejects body-mind dualism: Humans are whole organisms; we should live through the body, not cerebrally. - Self-asserting individualism: Disregarding the moral rules and sensibilities of the herd. The more people follow their own inspiration, separate from other peoples values, the closer to pure they will become. - Will to Power: Everything is about expressing power over other things and people. Being alive means subordinating other people/things in ones own interest. This can cause a war like state, but this is a good thing. - Only the truths of science and math were valid, all other forms of knowledge are nonsense - - Establish philosophical foundations Statement without context has no meaning e.g. Essos slogan: Put a Tiger in your tank: logical syllogism - Book by Heidegger - The only thing certain to ourselves is our own conscious awareness - We cannot prove anything we are unaware of

Hermeneutics & Examples

Structuralism or Semiotics

Categories & Classification Nietzsche and your opinions on him

Logical Positivism & Examples

Being & Time: Husserl Method as used by Heidegger

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 - Phenomenology: study of experiences from 1st person Heidegger & Existence

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Three components of Dasein - Undifferentiated mode: accepting the roles given to you by the One without question - Inauthentic mode: when one recognizes the role given to them and rejects this trying to leave - Double realisation: they realize that their life exists only in relation to the One, and that they will one day pass into the Nothing (they will die)

Mathematics
People
Euclid - Father of Geometry, developed Euclidean Geometry - 5 axioms, Through a point, not on a given line, we can draw exactly one straight line parallel to the given line has a problem! - German mathematician, developed curved space geometry (Riemannian geometry, geometry on an ellipse) - Sum of the angles of triangle is greater than 180. In General Relativity, this is used near a large mass that warps spacetime. Another person who developed curved space geometry, this time on hyperbolic surfaces. Sum of angles of triangle is less than 180. Italian mathematician who made the Fibonacci Sequence (see below) famous to the Western world. Discovered/developed special relativity. Space-time can be warped depending on what masses are near it. As a particle nears the speed of light, time slows down; it gains mass, and its length contracts. Another one of his postulates is his super famous equation e = mc^2. Mathematician and best bros with Einstein for 30 years. Godels Incompleteness Theorem. Meteorologist, discovered chaos theory, when a small change in input drastically affects the output. He is a mathematical physicist whose studies in the chaos theory led to the discovery of the Feigenbaum constants.

Bernhard Riemann N. I. Lobachevsky Fibonacci Einstein

Godel Lorenz Feigenbaum

Terms: Axioms Rules of Inference Self-evident assumptions that are used to come to conclusions. ex. b+a = a+b If axioms correct ---> knowledge found by math is true Rules of inference = rules which mathematicians apply deductively to mathematical information available to them (which are not limited to axioms) to create new mathematical statements which can then be used to create more (forever: no boundary to math knowledge). Ex: If x=y and p=q, then x+p=y+q A theorem is a statement created by deductively applying rules of inference to

Theorems

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013

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axioms, presented at the end of the deduction; a statement of mathematical knowledge. Peano Postulates Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning A set of 5 axioms for natural numbers. Have remained nearly unchanged; all that is needed to derive all the properties of rational & irrational numbers. Is reasoning from axioms and it is the surest form of truth. It is opposite of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning says if an event occurs sufficient number of times it will also occur in the future. Inductive reasoning is the foundation of all science laws, however it is not a mathematically valid form of reasoning Developed by Riemann, see above. The Rule is xn = xn-1 + xn-2 (1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55....) Nature always seems to follow Fibonacci. For example, the number of petals of a flower, how plant stems grow, and the pattern of sunflower seeds all correspond with this sequence Golden Number: 1.618034 (Phi) This number shows up everywhere in nature (sqrt(5)+1)/2 Many human ratios (eg. height vs belly button height) are approximately the Golden Ratio Always constant, achieved by massless particles and waves (EM) in vacuum. Fastest speed at which energy or info can travel. Surprisingly, the effects of gravity also travels at the speed of light. - Rotating bodies (planets) not only bend fabric of spacetime, but also pull/drag it with them in their direction of rotation - Predicted by general relativity. When a star dies, it collapses upon itself. It shrinks to a small size and becomes incredibly dense, creating massive disruptions in spacetime, thus their gravitational field becomes so strong that even light cannot escape [the escape velocity is greater than speed of light]. - Bohr concluded that an electron jumps from one position to another in orbit around a nucleus (according to whether it is giving off or receiving energy), seeming to move instantly without inhabiting the space between. - The exact properties of subatomic particles could not be specifically determined; either position or momentum could be calculated, but not both -Suggests that every particle can be described by a wavefunction, expressing a probability for it to be found in a particular location or state of motion. -There are very many multiple possible states but, upon observation, the wave collapses - Young had demonstrated in the 1800s that light operated like a wave, while those before (Newton) and after (Einstein) argued it operated light a particle. - Light seems to exhibit dual properties: behaving like a particle, yet also like a wave.

Elliptical Geometry Fibonacci Series

Golden Ratio & Golden Number

Speed of Light

Frame Dragging Black Holes

Electron Orbitals

Uncertainty Principle Copenhagen Interpretation

Double Slit Experiment

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Superpositioning

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Things can actually seem to be in more than one place at once, based on probability waves. That is, reality isnt like a particle (in one place or another) but more like a wave of co-existent possibilities. Things are not binary, as in on or off. Put cat into box. Also put a device in the box that has a 50% chance of releasing a poison that will kill the cat. Close box and leave. Until you LOOK the cat is BOTH alive AND dead. Well not really, but its supposed to model the concept of superpositioning, where both states can occur at the same time (1 and 0 both at same time for example in Quantum Computing) A term devoted to systems that are sensitive to initial conditions. Discovered by meteorologist Edward Lorenz. The result of inputting an initial value of 2.00000000 would be significantly different from 2.0000000001 in a long period of time. A butterfly flapping its wings may cause an hurricane. The Lorenz system is a system of ordinary differential equations (the Lorenz equations) first studied by Edward Lorenz. (applies to chaos) Most commonly applied to the mathematical study of dynamical systems, a bifurcation occurs when a small smooth change made to the parameter values (the bifurcation parameters) of a system causes a sudden 'qualitative' or topological change in its behaviour. A fractal-Mathematical curve -Infinite length because each time the steps above are performed on each line segment of the figure there are four times as many line segments, the length of each being one-third the length of the segments in the previous stage. -Fractal: was coined by Benoit Mandelbrot. - a fractal is any pattern that reveals greater complexity as it is enlarged. -Generated by computers or natural processes, all fractals are spun from what scientists call a "positive feedback loop." Something--data or matter--goes in one "end," undergoes a given, often very slight, modification and comes out the other. Fractals are produced when the output is fed back into the system as input again and again. The Mandelbrot set is a mathematical set of points whose boundary is a distinctive and easily recognizable two-dimensional fractal shape. Only particle on the standard model that is known but not yet discovered. The Higgs Boson is the particle scientists believe to be responsible for the force of gravity.

Schrodingers Cat through Experiment

Butterfly Effect

Lorentz Attractor Bifurcation

Koch Curve

Fractal

Mandlebrot Set Higgs Boson (aka God Particle)

Big Issues:
Axioms: Apriori Knowledge - Apriori knowledge: Something can be established prior to experience. - Axioms: basic assumptions that form the basis of a mathematical system. Considered to be self-evident truths providing firm foundations for mathematical knowledge. Both go hand in hand. - As long as the axioms are true, the corresponding postulates will be true. (assuming correct substitutions and manipulations of axioms) Plane geometry, 5 postulates 1. A straight line segment can be drawn joining any two points.

Euclids Geometry

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2. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line. 3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be drawn having the segment as radius and one endpoint as center. 4. All right angles are congruent. 5. If two lines are drawn which intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough. (parallel postulate) -The fifth postulate is questionable because space is bent (+180) Special/General Theories of Relativity -The length of an object approaches 0 when nearing the speed of light -The mass of an object approaches when nearing the speed of light -Time approaches 0 when nearing the speed of light -Based on Newtons second law, we can deduce that nothing can reach the speed of light because since F=ma, and mass approaches , an infinite amount of force is required. - Used four spherical gyroscopes and a telescope, housed in a satellite orbiting above the Earth, to prove Einsteins general theory of relativity and Einsteins theory of space time. - This experiment proved Einsteins theories to be correct that were created more than a few hundred years ago. Thus proving that math can go wrong. - Where things both are and are not - Classical physics no longer applied to the world of the very small - The world of the very small is governed by different rules than the world of the very large - Using an optical-based quantum computer, a research team has presented the first demonstration of "counterfactual computation," inferring information about an answer without running the computer. - A photon was placed in a quantum system where it was running and not running the search algorithm, thus its presence could give information even if it the search algorithm did not run. - Using the simple universal truth machine problem and implementing it in a complicated polynomial within one branch of mathematics, it was proved that there are truths which cannot be proven - His second proof: no system can be proven to be consistent. - Describes systems sensitive to initial conditions. - It is difficulty predict the behaviour of a chaotic system; brute force is most likely the only way possible. - Makes experiments hard to control eg. A simple pendulum that swings at angles much greater than zero.

Gravity Probe Experiment

Quantum Logic

Quantum Computer Solves Problem, without running

Godels Incompleteness Theorem Chaos Theory

Natural Sciences
People
Karl Popper Thomas Kuhn - Sir Karl Popper went to same school as Wittgenstein and Hitler (famously threatened with a fire poker by Wittgenstein). He came up with falsification - developed philosophy of science while studying the history of science. - He found that all traditional accounts of science, from Inductivist or Falsification

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POV cant be compared to historical science. This was created so that science can be in keeping with historical situation. Imre Lakatos Paul Feyerabend - Lakatos says we have to belong to research programmes, What is thing called science? (see research programs) - Feyerabend became famous for anarchistic views of science and rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules. Influential in philosophy of science and sociology of scientific knowledge.

Terms
Basic Scientific Method Techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting previous knowledge. To be scientific, method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable evidence. Theory supported if predictions proved correct, refuted if predictions proved contrary. A paradigm is made up of theoretical assumptions and laws for their application that people in a particular scientific community adopt. Series of fundamental unquestioned assumptions Tested, unfalsified assumptions which protect hard core from being questioned Rough guidelines and predictions of how the research programme should develop A progressive programme is pseudoscience if it fails to make any new unknown predictions. It does not adhere to valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence, and cannot be tested. example: astrology

Paradigm Hardcore Protective Belt Positive Heuristic Pseudoscience

Big Issues:
Principle of Falsification Falsification (Advantages & Problems) Sir Karl Popper solved the problem of science. Yes, inductive reasoning does not prove things right but can prove things false-->falsification. - Cant prove things true but can prove them false - Advantage: Can draw conclusions with a certain amount of certainty. - Disadvantages: 1. History of science shows may falsifications which were ignored. 2. Gives no firm basis for believing one scientific hypothesis over another 3. Some science is only theoretical 4. Falsification itself is inductive When anomalies greatly threaten a paradigm, professionals get insecure and attempt to solve the problem. Normal scientists dispute to defend their innovations. The paradigm is weakened and revolution takes place. New paradigm emerges. This was a response to Falsification and Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolution. Argues that the unit of analysis is not the single theory but the Research Programme. A programme begins with a group of scientists who share similar qualities in their science Novel by Paul Feyerabend. Argues methodological monism: the belief that a single

Scientific Revolutions Research Programs Anything

Theory of Knowledge HZT4UE Examination Notes 2012 - 2013 Goes Against Method, 1975 Limits of Science articles main points

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methodology can produce scientific progress. Identifies four features: principle of falsification, demand for increased empirical content, forbidding of ad hoc hypotheses and the consistency condition. - Scientific theories will be discredited, so one may be sceptical of science itself. - What makes a method of enquiry count as scientific is that it seeks to test itself at every turn. - If a claim is ambitious, people should be skeptical, even if it comes from scientists - Scientists try to confront counterclaims to prevent people from realizing how riddled with error and misleading information the business of science actually is. By painting oneself as the defender of truth, it helps keep quiet about how often one is wrong.