Stages of Prehistoric Culture:

In Origins of the Family, the First chapter entitled "Stages of Prehistoric Culture" details Engels' view complemented by Marx's posthumous notes on the developmental process of Civilization. Engels details the transition from Savagery to Civilization summarizing the transition in human development in the following statements. Each of these transitory stages is marked by three notable advancements that Engels refers to as the lower, middle, and upper stages of development. "Savagery- the period in which man's appropriation of products in their natural state predominates; the products of human art are chiefly instruments which assist this appropriation" Savagery was marked by three general phases in this order: the articulation and refinement of speech; fish and fire are used as a source of consumption and basic tools are created. Cannibalism was practiced commonly; Invention of the bow and arrow and control of the means of subsistence. Construction becomes more complex and housing now involves carving wooden beams. "Barbarism-the period during which man learns to breed domestic animals and to practice agriculture, and acquires methods of increasing the supply of natural products by human activity."Barbarism was also marked by three phases: introduction of pottery. This is when differentiation in environment and resources causes some societies to develop different cultures; where animals can be domesticated, they are. Those living in the Western hemisphere avoid this change as there were few animals to domesticate. With differences in food production comes differentiation in the rate at which a society advances; In the eastern hemisphere animals are domesticated, in the West, plants are cultivated. He gives examples as to why this divide and complication of the middle stage of barbarism is necessary. The final stage of barbarism begins with the smelting of iron ore, the invention of the alphabet ,and the invention of literary records. "Civilization-the period in which man learns a more advanced application of work to the products of nature, the period of industry proper and of art." Most of Engels assessments and generalizations that may have been farfetched during his day have since been proven. For instance, his rough estimation for the date at which people began and stopped using rudimentary tools and shifted towards advanced forms of agricultural growth has been confirmed by archeologists and paleontologists. This, despite the fact that information about the subject was remarkably limited. The only issue regarding the primordial state of the human species that has been shown to be incorrect was his assumption that man was prone to cannibalism.

The Family
His anthropological analyses are based upon the accounts by Morgan. Engel recounts Morgan's recollections of when he studied an Iroquois tribe. The Iroquois couples called "not only his own children his sons and daughters, but also the children of his brothers, and they despite having no biological connection, called him father...The Iroquois woman calls her sisters' children, as well as her own, her sons and daughters, and they call her mother." He compares this form of consanguinity to that of other societies that are in similar stages of development. The family [says Morgan] represents an active principle. It is never stationary, but advances from a lower to a higher form as society advances from a lower to a higher condition.... Systems of consanguinity, on the contrary, are passive; recording the progress made by the family at long intervals apart, and only changing radically when the family has radically changed. --Morgan This is the conclusion that Engels draws, citing Morgan. From here, he draws upon a note left by Marx saying that, the same is true of the political, juridical, religious, and philosophical systems in general. While the family undergoes living changes, the system of consanguinity ossifies. The previous system survives only by custom and adherence to tradition though the family naturally outgrows it. Engels proposes that just as one can deduce that an animal whose bones were found on a particular island and found again elsewhere, that the animal must have lived on both islands, we can conceptualize "from the historical survival of a system of consanguinity that an extinct form of family once existed which corresponded to it." The study of the primitive history of mankind reveals conditions where men live in polygamy and their wives in polyandry and that the children are considered common to all; this old system of family goes through a long series of change before arriving at monogamy." The Consanguine Family: The first stages of the family in the first stage, the marriage groups are separated according to generations. All grandfathers and grandmothers are the husbands and wives the generation that follow them. People of the same generation may have sexual intercourse with one another. The Consanguine family is extinct. Our knowledge of this stage is limited but we are compelled to admit its existence as all subsequent developmental theories of the family presupposes the consanguine family as a preparatory stage. (and also because the Hawaiian system of consanguinity expresses degrees of consanguinity that seems to arise from this stage). The Punaluan Family (the intimate companion): the first form of family consisted of an exclusion of parents and children from intercourse; the second, the exclusion of brother and sister. During the second stage, the relationships gradually changed until there was a prohibition of intercourse between gens, until intercourse between 1st, 2nd, 3ed...ect cousins was banned. After a few generations, the family split up. The practice of living together which was most common during the middle stage of barbarism had set limits on the maximum size of the family community. The word paunalua is a Hawaiian saying that translates into "intimate companion."

The paunalua is the most recent ancestor to the current system of family that is dominate in most westernized states. Evidence of this type of family grouping exists in the Polynesia region. Caesar reported on the Britons, who were in the middle stage of barbarism, "every ten or twelve have wives in common, especially brothers with brothers and parents with children." From other evidence and authorships, we can conclude that the modern institution of gens originated out of the punaluan family. A marriage which is determined by one man abducting a woman sees the origins of the monogamous marriage. The young man who abducts the woman takes her as his wife though the woman is typically enjoyed at least briefly by all those in the capturing party. If the woman were to run away and be captured by another man, the previous husband would lose rights to her. The Pairing Family the history of the family in primitive times consists of the progressive narrowing of the circle, within which the sexes would have a common conjugal relation. The result was the evolution towards monogamy. The pairing family creates weak and unstable, independent households which pale in comparison to the communistic households of earlier times. One of the primary causes for this transition from group marriage to pairing was the development of women to buy herself out of the old community of husbands and acquire the right to give herself to one man only. "This penance consists in a limited surrender: the Babylonian women gave themselves up once a year in the temple of Mylitta. The first beginnings of the pairing family appear in the upper stages of savagery and the intro of barbarism. Part of the reason for this transition was natural selection. Incest created men who were less intelligent than those who borne of non-incestuous relationships. This type of relationship would not have come into being unless other societal factors were pushing forward that would necessitate the monogamous relationships and make them preferable to the group marriages; those push factors did come into play. The domestication of animals and breeding developed an unexpected source of wealth and created new social relations. Up until early barbarism, permanent wealth consisted solely of house, clothes, and crude tools. The advancing pastoral people living in the Ganges region whose lands were fertile and who had access to a steady supply of water, began to experience surplus. Traditional customs gave inheritance within the gens, the gentile relatives inherited from the deceased fellow of their gens. His property remained within the gens. The original "mother-right" inheritance in which women came into possession of objects became viewed by men as a source of personal deprivation, and so it was overthrown. "Man's innate casuistry! To change things by changing their names! And to find loopholes for violating tradition while maintaining tradition, when direct interest supplied sufficient impulse. The result was hopeless confusion, which could only be remedied and to a certain extent was remedied by the transition to father-right. In general, this seems to be the most natural transition. (Marx.) The overthrow of the mother-right marked the historical defeat of the female sex. Man took control of the household; the woman was degraded into servitude, she became the slave of his lust and an instrument to foster children.

Its essential features are the incorporation of unfree persons, and paternal power; hence the perfect type of this form of family is the Roman. The original meaning of the word family (familia) is not that compound of sentimentality and domestic strife which forms the ideal of the present-day philistine; among the Romans it did not at first even refer to the married pair and their children, but only to the slaves. Famulus means domestic slave, and familia is the total number of slaves belonging to one man.Engels In order to make certain of the wife's fidelity and the paternity of the children, she is unconditionally under the power of the husband who may kill her as an exercising of his rights. Monogamy: The monogamous family marks the end of barbarism and the beginnings of civilization. Engels uses the heroic age of Greek history to detail this shift from matriarchy to servile. In Homer's writings, women are booty handed over to the pleasure of the conquerors with the handsomest being picked by the commanders in rank order. The conflict in the Iliad is sparked by a quarrel between Achilles and Agamemnon over one such slave. In Athens, girls are taught spinning, weaving, and sewing and few were ever literate. They lived behind locked doors and had no company other than themselves and other women. They didn't go out except in the company of slaves. Aristophanes spoke of Molossian dogs kept to frighten away adulterers. In Euripides, women are referred to as oikourema, a thing for looking after the house, a domestic servant. Men had athletics and public business which women were barred from participation. Prostitution in Greece was the only form of enterprise that women could acquire intellectual or artistic exposure. The Athenian family unit became the accepted model for domestic relations increasingly across the Greek mainland. Greek men would gorge themselves on many love affairs with hetairai. This is the origin of monogamy as far back as historical evidence can show currently. It was the first form of family to based upon economic conditions- "on the victory of private property over primitive, natural communal property." The Greeks themselves wrote that, "the sole exclusive aims of monogamous marriage were to make the man supreme in the family, and to propagate, as the future heirs to his wealth, children indisputably his own." Monogamous marriage makes its appearance in history as the subjugation of one sex over the other. "The first division of labor is that between man and woman for the propagation of children.- Marx "The first class opposition that appears in history coincides with the development of the antagonism between man and woman in monogamous marriage, and the first class oppression coincides with that of the female sex by the male. Monogamous marriage was a great historical step forward; nevertheless, together with slavery and private wealth, it opens the period that has lasted until today in which every step forward is also relatively a step backward, in which prosperity and development for some is won through the misery and frustration of others. It is the cellular form of civilized society, in which the nature of the oppositions and contradictions fully active in that society can be already studied.- Engels Because it serves as the base for civilization, monogamy also reveals the same antagonisms and contradictions that exist in the society in which it appears.

In most cases today, the husband is obliged to earn a living to support a family and this in itself gives him a position of supremacy without special legal titles or privileges. Within the family, the husband is the bourgeois and the wife the proletariat. Only when both sexes possess clear equal rights will the first condition for the liberation of the wife be met. Thusly we have the principal forms of marriage and their corresponding stages in the advancement towards civilization. For the period of savagery, group marriage; for barbarism, pairing marriage; for civilization, monogamy complimented by adultery and prostitution. Monogamy arose from the concentration of wealth in the hands of single individuals. Should communism be realized and wagelabor disappear, the number of women who must surrender themselves sexually for money will disappear. Prostitution would disappear; pure monogamous relations free from the shade of prostitution would at last become the final familial epoch, the final reality of family relations. With the transfer of the means of production into common ownership, the single family ceases to be the economic unit of society. Private housekeeping is transformed into a social industry. Care for education and children becomes a public affair; society cares for all the children as a mother would her daughter. Individual sex-love relations would increase. Sexual-love differs from Eros. It assumes that the person loved returns the love; to this extent woman and man are consensually equal. Eros would never have asked. Sexual-love makes both lovers feel that non-possession and separation are a calamity. When the fact is accepted that the family has passed through four successive forms, and is now in a fifth, the question at once arises whether this form can be permanent in the future. The only answer that can be given is that it must advance as society advances, and change as society changes, even as it has done in the past. It is the creature of the social system, and will reflect its culture. As the monogamian family has improved greatly since the commencement of civilization, and very sensibly in modern times, it is at least supposable that it is capable of still further improvement until the equality of the sexes is attained. Should the monogamian family in the distant future fail to answer the requirements of society ... it is impossible to predict the nature of its successor. --Morgan

The Greek Gens and the beginning of Private property

According to the Historian Grote, Greek gens were held together by the following institutions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. common religious rites, exclusive privilege of priesthood, the ancestral fathers of the gens A common burial place mutual right of inheritance mutual obligations to help, protection, and assistance in case of violence mutual right and obligation to marry within the gens in certain cases possession of common property, with a special archon and treasurer descent in male line prohibition of marriage within the gens except in the case of heiresses. Women renounced the religious rites of her gens upon marriage and accepted those of her husbands'. 9. right of adoption into the gens.

10. Right to elect chieftains and to depose them. Every gens had an archon, but little evidence suggests this was a hereditary office. the second division was amongst phratry. This grouping was held together with mutual rights and obligations more particular than those of gens. All the phratries of a tribe held regularly recurring religious festivals in common. All the gentes of a phratry were literally brother gentes. to quote a Homeric poem, "Draw up people by tribes and by phratries so that phratry may support phratry, and tribe, tribe." In the Homeric poems, it is shown that the Greek tribes untied into small nations within which, gentes, phratries, and tribes retained their full independence. The constitution of these small nations goes as follows: 1. the permanent authority was the council (boule) composed of chiefs of the gentes. When the state was established, the council was merged into the senate. 2. The assembly (agora). Every man had the right to speak. The decision was given by a show of hands or by acclamation. The decisions were final. 3. the leader of the army (basileaus) In the Greek constitution of the heroic age, the old gentile order was still a living force but we also see its death in the beginning of father-right. The transmission of property to children and the family unit becoming a primary agent. As the society slowly was molded by this new family unit and actions began taking place catering to the needs of individual families, the state became a necessity. They needed an institution which secured the wealth of individuals against the communistic traditions, to sanctity private property and to declare this sanctification as the highest purpose of all human society. This institution would set the seal of social recognition allowing property and wealth to be amassed at increasing speed. This would be coupled by the right of the possessing class to exploit the nonpossessing at increasing speed. Thus the state was invented.

Rise of the Athenian State:

The Athenian state took shape when the old constitution of the previous gentile was thrown out and replaced with one introduced by Theseus. The principal change was to set up a central authority in Athens. Part of the affairs hitherto administrated by the tribes independently were declared common affairs and entrusted to a common council sitting in Athens. These tribes fused together to form a single nation. Hence Athenian civil law trumped the legal customs of the tribes and gentes. The Athenian citizen acquired definite rights and new protection in law. The entire people, regardless of gens, phraty or tribe; was divided into three class: eupatridai (nobles), geomoroi (farmers), and demiourgoi (artisans). The right to hold office was given exclusively to the nobles. The political history of Athens until to the time of Solon is mostly blank and offers few clues as to other changes. The office of basileus fell into disuse; the head of state was occupied by archons elected by nobles. Nobility powers increased until about 600 BC when the exploitation became so severe it was impossible to continue. The nobility had used their power to concentrate wealth into their own hands. The farmers of the old gentiles had their communal bonds striped from them and usurped by civil law, they were ruined. The

old gentile constitution knew neither money nor advances of money, nor debts. The aristocratic powerhouse created a customary law to secure the creditor against the debtor and sanction exploitation of small peasants. As farmers could no longer pay their mortgages, they would lose their lands. If the farmer could not pay his debt (he paid about 5/6 of his crop earnings) his children were sold into slavery. When the producers lost the product they consumed and passed it off in an act of exchange, they lost control of it. With the dawn of commodity production, individuals cultivated soil on their own account, which eventually led to individual ownership of land. the relationships between gentes and phratries became so blurred and mixed that they ceased to exist. Instead, the occupation one held determined his social standing. At some date before Solon, the naukrarai were set up, small territorial districts, twelve to each tribe. Each naukratia had to provide, equip and man a warship and contribute two horsemen. This law for the first time in history divided the people up for public purposes, not by groups of kinships but by common residence. The Heroic age constitution could no longer function and was completely absorbed by the state. Solons' reforms saw to it that the property of the creditors suffered for the benefit of the debtors; debts were declared void. Solon made changes to the constitution, the following were the most important: the council was raised to 400 members, 100 for each tribe. Solon divided the citizens into four classes according to their property in land and the amount of its yield: 500, 300, and 150 medimni of grain (1 medimuns equaled 1.16 bushels) were the minimum yields for the first three classes. Those who earned less were barred from public office. The 4th class did receive the right to assembly, to speak, and to vote. These four classes were also expected to form a basis for the state military. Most importantly, the concept of private ownership was introduced.

Cleisthenes would further introduce measures to restrict the aristocracy but also to completely destroy the old constitution. The Attica region was divided into 100 communal districts called demes each being selfgoverning. The citizens of the demes elected their demarch and treasurer as well as thirty judges with jurisdiction in minor cases. They were given their own temple and patron divinity or hero whose priests elected. Supreme power in the deme was invested in the assembly. Ten of these units, formed a tribe. This tribe was not only self-governing but also a military body; it elected its tribal chief who commanded cavalry, the taxiarch commanding the infantry, and the strategos who raised the forces in the area. These tribes were also expected to provide 5 warships with their crews and commanders. It elected 50 councilors to the Athenian council.

The Athenian state was governed by the council composed of the 500 councilors elected by 10 tribes. Free Athenians considered police duty degrading and so the position was given to slaves. States can only exist with a police force. Marx explains this as a sign that the state was not strong enough to inspire the moral respect needed to make an occupation honorable which only serves to upholster itself. The reason for the large number of slaves was that many of them worked together in manufactories, in large rooms, under overseers. But with the development of commerce and industry wealth was accumulated and concentrated in a few hands, and the mass of the free citizens were impoverished. As

people sank into destitution, more joined the ranks of slaves. As wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the few, the majority became increasingly impoverished. "Their only alternatives were to compete against slave labor with their own labor as handicraftsman, which was considered base and vulgar and also offered very little prospect of success, or to become social scrap. Necessarily, in the circumstances, they did the latter, and, as they formed the majority, they thereby brought about the downfall of the whole Athenian state. "-Engels

The Gens and the State in Rome

According to the mythical accounts of the origins of the Latin states, they were formed by a uniting of tribes. Historical evidences suggests that the Roman gents were similar to those of the Greeks. The gentile constitution of the early Romans went as follows: mutual right of inheritance among gentile members; property remained within the gens. Fatherline prevailed in Rome already at this time. According to the Law of the Twelve Tables, the oldest Roman law stated that children were the natural heirs and held first title to the estate. If the child could not bear the estate, the agnates (descendents in male line) would recieve i; if not them, then the gentiles. In all cases property remained in the gens. possession of a common burial place. The gens received their own parcel of land for use and burial practices. common religious rites. (sacra gentilitia) Obligation not to marry within the gens. This was not written into law but evidence suggests it was an unwritten custom. Common land. Land in Latin tribes were owned partly by the tribe, partly by the gens, and partly by individual households. Romulus is said to have made the first allotments of land to individuals. obligation of mutual protection and help among members of the gens. Right to bear the gentile name. This persisted until the time of the emperors. Right to adopt strangers into the gens.

Ten gentes formed a phratry, which amongst the Romans was called a curia. Every curia had its own religious rites, shrines and priests. Ten curiae formed a tribe; which originally had an elected presidentmilitary leader and priest. The three tribe together formed the Roman people. Thus, no one belonged to Rome unless he was a member of a gens, curia, and a tribe. The first constitution of Rome had the following political institutions: public affairs were managed by the senate which was composed of the presidents of the 300 gentes. This group was called the senate (meaning council of elders, from senex meaning old). The election of the senators from the same family in the gens brought into being the first hereditary nobility; this group called themselves the patricians and claimed exclusive rights to senatorial positions and other political office. A myth tells of Romulus conferring the patriciate and its privileges on the first senators and their descendants. The senate made final decisions (like the Athenian boule). A body called comitia curiata

determined the outcome of the laws designed by the senate, they decided if it should be passed. This assembly also elected officials (including the king), and declared war. (the senate could declare peace). They also acted as a supreme court and decided the outcome of life or death under Roman law. The Rex was the military leader and president of certain courts. The office was not hereditary. Like the Heroic age Greeks, the Romans in the age of Rexs lived in a military democracy founded on gentes, phratries, and tribes and eventually developed out of them. As Rome conquered more territories, new cities were annexed into the Roman world. These citizens stood outside of the original gentes, curiae, and tribes and were therefore not considered Romans. They formed a class of people excluded from public rights. They could own property in land, were expected to pay taxes, were expected to partake in military service, but were given nothing else. This class became known as the plebs. As Rome absorbed more states, the plebs increased in numbers and became a threat to the ruling class. In due time, a social crisis caused the reformation of the old constitution. The new one was written by the rex, Servius Tullius and he followed the Greek model, creating a new assembly of people which enabled the plebians to hold office. he also divided and ranked the classes in Rome according to assets. The male population who were able to bear arms were divided into six different classes depending on the amount of property they owned. The first class owned 100,000 assess; the 2nd, 75,000 assess; The 3ed, 50,000 assess; The 4th, 25,000 assess; the 5th, 11,000 assess. The sixth class, the proletarians held less assets and property than the lower classes and were exempt from taxation and military service. In the new assembly of the centuries (comitia centuriata), the citizens appeared in military formation arranged by companies in their centuries of 100 men, each century having one vote. The first class placed 80 centuries in the field, the second 22, the third 20, the fourth 22, the fifth 30, and the 6th, one. (the sixth only made appearances and was not given a vote) In addition, cavalry was drawn from the wealthiest with 18 centuries For a total of 193. 97 votes were required for a clear majority. the first class alone together held 98 votes and was therefore the majority in the assembly. The assembly of the centuries took over political rights of the old assembly of the curiae. The curiae and gentes were degraded to mere private and religious associations and were left to smolder in the new state. Thus in Rome the old order of society based on personal and blood ties was demolished and replaced with a state constitution based on territorial division and wealth. . Henceforth, all future societal developments and political changes were an extension of the new constitution and a further departure from the old constitution of gentes and curiae. The banishment of the last rex, Tarquinius Superbus, and the replacement of his position by two consuls (military leaders) with equal power was a political change which was derived from this new constitution.

Barbarism and Civilization (The conclusion)

In the early ages of gents, population was extremely sparse. The division of labor was primitive, between sexes only. Men fought, hunted, produced raw materials and tools. Women looked after the house, prepared food, and clothing. They are masters of their own spheres of influence. "What is made and

used in common is common property- the house, the garden, the boats." Animals were found to be capable of domestication which led to the formation of pastoral tribes. These pastoral tribes held the advantage of their contemporaries by having not only milk, supplies of meat, but also skins, and wool, all of which became more common as the amount of raw material increased. Regular exchange could be common place. As people began to develop private property , exchange between individuals became more common place and eventually became the only form of exchange. The main commodity of exchange during the period were cattle- cattle became the standard form of money. The increase in production, of agriculture and domestic crafts, gave labor-power the capacity to produce surplus. It became desirable to bring in new labor forces. War provided winners with slaves which were used to increase tribal productivity. This led to the first labor divisions and class formation: masters and slaves. During this ensuing period, man usurped the equal power of women in the household and inverted the domestic relations. Father-right replaced mother-right just as pairing marriage morphed into monogamy. The single family became a power to be reckoned, a power which would undermine those of the gens. Economic activity increased and surpluses led to increasing wealth. The second division of labor was generated, the division between crafts and agriculture. Slavery became an integral aspect of the social system. With these new social developments, production was being done merely for exchange and was no more carried out for communal necessity. Commerce between and within tribes became common. A new distinction developed, the formation of the classes of poor and rich alongside freemen and slaves. Inequalities of property caused the breakup of communal households. Cultivated land became used for single families and not entire communities. The single family became the core economic entity. "The denser population necessitates closer consolidation both for internal and external action. The confederacy of related tribes becomes everywhere a necessity, and soon also their fusion, involving the fusion of the separate tribal territories into one territory of the nation. The military leader of the people, rex, basileus, becomes an indispensable, permanent official. The assembly of the people takes form, wherever it did not already exist. Military leader, council, assembly of the people are the organs of gentile society developed into military democracy military, since war and organization for war have now become regular functions of national life. Their neighbors' wealth excites the greed of peoples who already see in the acquisition of wealth one of the main aims of life. They are barbarians: they think it more easy and in fact more honorable to get riches by pillage than by work. War, formerly waged only in revenge for injuries or to extend territory that had grown too small, is now waged simply for plunder and becomes a regular industry. In the moat at their foot yawns the grave of the gentile constitution, and already they rear their towers into civilization. The wars of plunder increase the power of the supreme military leader and the subordinate commanders; the customary election of their successors from the same families is gradually transformed, especially after the introduction of father-right, into a right of hereditary succession, first tolerated, then claimed, finally usurped; the foundation of the hereditary monarchy and the hereditary nobility is laid. Thus the organs of the gentile constitution gradually tear

themselves loose from their roots in the people, in gens, phratry, tribe, and the whole gentile constitution changes into its opposite: from an organization of tribes for the free ordering of their own affairs it becomes an organization for the plundering and oppression of their neighbors; and correspondingly its organs change from instruments of the will of the people into independent organs for the domination and oppression of the people. That, however, would never have been possible if the greed for riches had not split the members of the gens into rich and poor, if the property differences within one and the same gens had not transformed its unity of interest into antagonism between its members (Marx), if the extension of slavery had not already begun to make working for a living seem fit only for slaves and more dishonorable than pillage."-Engels This, Engels claims, is the threshold of civilization. In the stage of civilization, a new class is formed that no longer concerns itself with production, but merely exchange- the merchants. When commodities can be sold for money, loans and advances in money came also, and with them interests and usury. The individuals' rights of possession of parcels of land that had originally been allotted to them by gens or tribes now becomes a hereditary property. Land became a commodity. With the expansion of trade, money, usury, private ownership of land and the consequential mortgages; the concentration of wealth in the hands of an increasingly smaller class advances in proportion the increase in the ranks of the impoverished masses. The gentile constitution was thrown out and uprooted when the division of labor separated interest and inspired competition; the gentile constitution depended upon cohesion and had no way other than public opinion to enforce such a cohesion. The expansion of economic life into the divisions of freemen and slaves shifted into the rich exploiting the poor. Such a society could not exist on its own unless there were a third party to enforce and regulate the competition. The state was formed for such a purpose and the gentile constitution became extinct. The state is distinguished firstly by the grouping of members on a territorial basis. This territorial basis gave rise to the concept of public rights and duties without regards to gens or tribes. the second characteristic is the institution of public force. A law enforcing agency must exist in order to maintain the sanctity of the state. This public force may appear also in the form of prisons (which seek to reform unruly individuals to accept norms) and any coercive institutions of which gentile society knew nothing. Taxes must be given to upholster the state. Taxes never existed in gentile society. The possessors of public power and the right of taxation are the organs of the state. The states' purpose was to keep class antagonisms in check; thus it is normally the most economically advantaged class that occupies the highest political position (their interests are most acutely aligned to keep class antagonisms alive). The ancient states mostly oversaw slave-freeman relations; the feudal society oversaw the nobility-serfs classes. The modern state is the instrument of exploiting wage-labor by capital. The states in ancient societies served also as the protector of property and the arbitrator between possessing classes against non-possessing classes. "Civilization is, therefore, according to the above analysis, the stage of development in society at which the division of labor, the exchange between individuals arising from it, and the commodity production which combines them both, come to their full growth and revolutionizes the whole of previous society...With slavery, which attained its fullest development under civilization, came the first great cleavage of society into an exploiting and an exploited class. This cleavage persisted during the whole

civilized period. Slavery is the first form of exploitation, the form peculiar to the ancient world; it is succeeded by serfdom in the middle ages, and wage-labor in the more recent period. These are the three great forms of servitude, characteristic of the three great epochs of civilization; open, and in recent times disguised, slavery always accompanies them.- Engels Engels concludes his analysis with a quote from Morgan stating that as civilization advances forward, it will change in shift to a less exploitive form. He does not mention communism but it is strongly implied. He believes that the next epoch of societal relations will be a return to those of the gens whist employing the full capacity of science and ingenuity that has been exhibited by the current form of civilization.