The First People

The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

Paul Melenhorst 2010

D. Barrie

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana*

This paper describes the indigenous San populations of western Botswana, their history as well as socio-cultural position in contemporary Botswana. It considers various statutes and policies that impact on the San in terms of access to land and natural resources and how these either support or hinder self-realization of the San as equitable citizens and indigenous people of Botswana. The San People The San, also known as Bushmen, Basarwa and first people (Nthomang, 2002) are widely regarded as the indigenous people of southern Africa and the descendants of the first populations that inhabited the region 20,000 years ago. There is current evidence to suggest that this continuous habitation may extend back as far as 100,000 years, which places them with Australian Aboriginal groups as the oldest peoples in the world (Botswana National Museum, 1999). There are 13 San linguistic groups numbering 100,000 spread across South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana, with remnant groups residing in Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe. The largest population, numbering 46,000 and representing 3.3% of Botswanas population, are found in the Kalahari region of Botswana in the Ngamiland and Ghanzi administrative districts (Hitchcock, 2002) and are the focus of this study. In Botswana the San consist of six major groups including the Khwe, Naro, Ju|hoansi, !X, |Gui, H and ||Gana. They are traditionally hunter-gatherers, living in bands of up to forty people and moving within well-defined territories (mostly by linguistic affiliations). Each group functions through consensual agreement and, unlike Tswana tribal structures (the dominant tribal affiliation and from which Botswana is named), without any system of centralized leadership. The San traditionally utilize wildlife resources, water, and plant foods from the Kalahari. Most of Botswanas San had very little contact with outside people before about 1200AD, the earliest being Bantu traders from central Africa visiting the north western area around Tsodilo (Botswana National Museum, 1999, p 20). Contemporary Tswana populations from further south were not well established until the 1700s. Even this early on, however, the beginnings of economic and social subordination were being spawned. Wilmsen (2002) says the entry of Batswana into what is now Botswana in the middle of the eighteenth century initiated a process of disruption of indigenous land tenure and economic production.
ZAMBIA
Kasane Shakawe

ZIMBABWE

Maun

Nata Francistown

NAMIBIA
Ghanzi Orapa

Serule

Selebi-Phikwe

Serowe

BOTSWANA
Kang Sekgoma Jwaneng

Palapye Mahalapye

Lobatse

SOUTH AFRICA
Figure 1. Map showing Botswanas main towns and roads, national parks and reserves and international borders.
(P. Melenhorst)

* Valuable assistance was received from Innocent Manele, Senior Curator, Botswana National Museum in distributing and collating questionnaires as well as discussing this topic. All general terms for San have negative connotations, however the term San is the established academic nomenclature. The term Bushmen is considered White ethnocentric and Basarwa, dominant Tswana nomenclature. Both are used widely but considered derogatory.

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

With Botswanas independence in 1966 and the subsequent development and expansion of the minerals, agriculture and tourism sectors, San communities came under increasing pressure to forgo their hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Today they are mostly sedentary, their economic and social subordination has seen high levels of unemployment and widespread social problems such as unemployment, alcohol abuse and sexually transmitted diseases (First People of the Kalahari, n.d.). Today, this is one of the most contentious international issues facing Botswana the indigenous land and resource rights of the San. Do policies and plans from government and non-government authorities contribute to this position where the otherness of the Bushmen has been their destruction (Gordon, 19924 cited in Eldredge, 1993, p 202).

Plans that impact on the San There are a number of policies and programmes that impact on the San, beyond their status as citizens of Botswana, as indigenous people with consequent land rights. These include: Tribal Land (Amended) Act (1993) The national Tribal Land Act (TLA) controls all of Botswanas leasehold land which represents about 71% of the country (Adams, Kalambu and White, 2003, p 55). The Act establishes regional Land Boards that allocate land based on application. With their introduction, the role of local and traditional authorities has been largely usurped and, as a result, minority communities including the San have lost intrinsic rights to land and resources. The latest amendment of the TLA has added penalties and methods of resolution such as the Land Tribunal (Mathuba, 2003). The Tribal Grazing Land Policy (TGLP), also from the TLA, changed agricultural land ownership from communal/tribal based to private tenure. This has seen the rapid spread of commercial farming into formerly customary land areas with encroachment into present San land allocations. It is worth noting that when the TGLP was initially released, attempts were made to afford limited protection of existing San residents, however the Attorney Generals Chambers ruled that Land Boards could not make such proposals (Good, 1993, p 213) thereby establishing a legal precedent of supporting the Governments position on native title. Monuments and Relics Act 2001 Botswanas Monuments and Relics Act (MRA) functions to protect historical, archaeological, natural and cultural heritage sites. This is similar to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act (1984) that has statutory powers to protect Aboriginal sites under threat. In an interview with I. Manele, Senior Curator (Technical Support Services) at the Botswana National Museum (the line agency for heritage site preservation) he said the MRA has no affirmative policy on protecting ethnic

Figure 2. Map showing main towns and roads, national parks and reserves and international borders for Botswana
(P. Melenhorst)

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

or indigenous sites. There are San heritage sites listed, however, these are primarily rock art sites and represent a minor part of the 2500 site currently on the National Monuments register. (Melenhorst, 2010). The MRA is of critical importance in protecting San heritage sites, however, in its present form, it neither distinguishes nor prioritizes indigenous cultural preservation. Ghanzi and Ngamiland District Development Plans Each region in Botswana is guided by a strategic District Development Plan (DDP) that is aligned with the current National Development Plan (NDP). These five year plans are sectoral, the last Ngamiland Plan (2003-2009), for example, included environmental conservation, land use planning, housing, agriculture, education, health, the economy and transport (Ngamiland District Development Plan 6, 2003). DDPs are generated by national line ministries and implemented by regional administrations. As a result they are top heavy in approach and often lack necessary consultation. Despite this centralized

approach however, there is acknowledgement of San development issues, particularly in the Ghanzi and Ngamiland DPPs. Ghanzi District DDP 6 recognizes that the drought of the 1980s and dramatic fall of wildlife numbers seem to have largely put an end to hunting and gathering and virtually all Basarwa are now more or less sedentary on farms. (Ghanzi District Development Plan 6, 2009). Currently, a draft Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR) Management Plan is being developed which includes the proposal of mutual coexistence of people, natural resources and wildlife conservation (BIDPA, 2003, p 82) through the implementation of Community Use Zones (CUZ). This is a promising outcome, particularly with the Governments removal of San from the CKGR (see Basarwa Relocation Policy below). Ghanzi and North West District Land Use Zoning Plans (1988) Botswanas regional Land Use Zoning Plans (LUZP) divide regions into manageable land use zones Communal Areas, Commercial Areas, Wildlife

Figure 3. Land use map of Ghanzi District for District Development Plan 2003-2009 showing major zonings and RAD (Rural Area Dwellers) settlements in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.
(Reproduced courtesy of the Ministry of Local Government)

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

Management Areas, and National Parks and Game Reserves. These plans are the spatial component of DDPs and consist of a zone plan and text. Both the Ghanzi and North West District (Ngamiland) LUZPs discuss San access to land under the heading Wildlife Management Areas and clearly prioritize wildlife over human settlements by indicating that CBNRM programmes (see below) which are compatible with Wildlife Management Area (WMA) management will be encouraged. The notable absence of San considerations under 5.1.3 Land Use Planning Consultation Priorities confirms this prioritizing: The conservation and sustainable utilisation of these resources (mineral, water, woodland, sand and gravel, wildlife, grazing and arable farming) is the ultimate objective of any land use planning process. (Government of Botswana, 2009)

Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) Strategy The CBRNM is a rural development strategy by the Botswana Government and The World Conservation Union (IUCN). The strategy facilitates joint venture agreements for communities to administer and invest in land and natural resource areas that are underdeveloped or contested. The CBRNM promotes self-reliance and specifically supports San minorities. This strategy is a bottom-up approach emphasizing decision-making by local residents in managing land and resources and includes sectors such as cultural tourism, fisheries, land-use management and transboundary water resource management. Coordination is held at nation and regional levels with projects covering approximately 150 villages in all regions of the country and involving around 135,000 Batswana about 10% of the population (Madzwamuse, M. n. d., p 11)

Figure 4. Land use zones in the Ghanzi District. San development is addressed briefly under 5. Wildlife Management Areas.

(Reproduced courtesy of the Ministry of Local Government)

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

The village of Khwai in northwest Botswana is an example of a San community that has implemented the strategy, developing sustainable land use practices by reducing pressure on hunting and introducing ecotourism projects (Zeppel, 2006, p 176).10 Remote Area Development Programme The Remote Area Development Programme (RADP) is a national Government programme that aims to support rural area dwellers (RADs) in rural development. It is one of Botswanas few programmes that specifically targets San peoples, despite using the euphemism RAD to define them. The RADP was conceived and planned at Ministry level and is informed by various policies including the Rural Development Policy, National Poverty Reduction Strategy and National Settlement Policy (BIDPA, 2003, xiii).

Basarwa Relocation Policy (1997) This is a policy of the Ministry of Local Government, Lands and Housing and entailed the moving of all permanent dwellers from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR Botswana largest wildlife reserve) into outlying settlements. The Governments reason was for better provision of services such as water, health and education (BIDPA, 2003, p xiv)11, and to encourage the Basarwa to settle outside of the game Reserve so that it can further its intentions of economically empowering them. (p 812).12 This policy was succesfully challenged in the High Court of Botswana (Roy Sesana, Keiwa Setlhobogwa and others vs the Government of Botswana, 2006), however, Government has stalled in terms of the rulings of the court to reconnect provisions in the CKGR and, as a consequence, very few San have returned.

Kuru Family of Organizations

L. Muray

Kuru Family of Organizations

Figure 5. Clockwise from top left: Naro woman from DKar; subsistence fishing on the Okavango; CBNRM eco-tourism project in the Okavango; digging for tubers in the CKGR; A RADP meeting in the CKGR; the future of the San.

Kuru Family of Organizations

Kuru Family of Organizations

L. Gray

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

The impact of these policies and plans on the San The Botswana Governments approach to multicultural planning is to avoid ethnic targeting and isolation of indigenous people (BIDPA, 2003, p xi). This has been interpreted by Nthomang (2004) as the acculturation of the San people into the wider populace by explicitly avoiding terms such as indigenous in the constitution, statues and policies. As a result, there are minimal references to native title, indigenous rights, etc in regional planning and development documents like the ones surveyed above. The impact of these policies, however, is felt as most fail to address in any meaningful way land rights and lack of equity the San currently face. HIgh level statutes such as the Tribal Land Act and Monuments and Relics Act regard all tribes and people of Botswana as autochthonous and therefore, having equal access but also equal limitations to using, owning and preserving land. For the San, who follow a system of common property rights outside the scope of the Tribal Land Act, this is disadvantageous when applying for land access through normal channels. So whilst land resources are central to the Sans livelihood strategies, Botswanas Acts and the agencies implementing them such as regional Land Boards are mostly impenetrable bureaucracies structured towards land use regulation and personal land ownership (Saugestad, p 119). Good (1993) confirms this, saying the Tribal Land Act, as interpreted by the Attorney General, gave the Land Board no possibility

of reserving such an area exclusively for them (the San). This rigidity is also apparent in the District Development Plans for Ghanzi and Ngamiland. These plans are structured at five year intervals and aligned with the National Development Plan. Although this is a relatively compact time frame for a strategic plan, these plans are fixed and are not updated during the five year period. The example of Regional Land Use Zoning Plans listing San communities under wildlife management areas demonstrates the inability to recognize these issues and respond meaningfully. The opposite problem is true in strategies such as Community Based Natural Resource Management strategy that are more aligned to the ideals of selfdetermination and the right of the San to own, develop, control and use their land, but lack both higher level government support (and leadership), as well as the statutory mechanisms needed for fundamental change. The most high profile impact on the San has been the Basarwa Relocation Policy and the removal of |Gui and ||Gana communities from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve in the Ghanzi District. This policy has similarities to the the Aboriginal Act (1905) and the Child Removal Policy of the Australian Governement up until the 1960s (Copland, 2005) and should be viewd in the same archaic light. However, this spatial planning policy is still to be played out with San yet to return to the CKGR after the High Court desicion.

* In the context of this case study, it was only possible to ask members of San communities general questions about their comparative standard of living, central government and regional authorities strategic plans in addressing communities needs and local development strategies. The methodology included a Likert scale questionnaire with two locations chosen. Ghanzi with a population of 9934 (Okavango Research Centre, 2001) is the regional administrative capital of Ghanzi District. Tsodilo, with a population of 200 (Segadika, 2006, p 32) is a small village associated with Botswanas only world heritage site. Representatives of local San groups were targeted the Naro in Ghanzi and Ju|hoansi from Tsodilo. Fifty questionnaires in Setswana, the national language, were distributed on October 23, 2010 (40 in Ghanzi and 10 in Tsodilo) and collected on October 24. The response rate was 78% (32 returned in Ghanzi and 7 in Tsodilo). Due to the contentious nature of this subject, it was decided to keep responses anonymous. Dunnington (1967 cited in Walonick) reported that responses became more distorted when subjects felt threatened that their identities would become known.

Paul Melenhorst 2010 C

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

These assessments of plans and policies are confirmed by responses to an informal questionnaire* that asked San residents in Ghanzi and Tsodilo about the Government of Botswanas overarching policies, as well as the effectiveness of regional authorities strategic plans in addressing their needs.The dilemma the San face is that if they reside in wide communties they must compete for access to and resources with other Batswana, through regular authorities such as Land Boards and on their terms.

There are some positive directions, however. A review of the RADP (BIDPA, 2003) recommends a programme of Government land acquisition by reserving unallocated land or purchasing existing private land for return to indigenous communities. This is one of the few documents to suggest land reforms similar to the Australian Governments land purchasing that established early paths towards indigenous land ownership for Austalian Aborigines (DFAT, 2008).

Responses to questionnaire 8 24 2 5 28 9 2

1. The Government treats me the same as all Batswana.

6. I was consulted when this plan was being developed.

16

10

13

22

2. In my village, housing, roads and ?? are getting better.

7. This plan has helped me get access to land and veld resources.

14

18

2 1

16

3. The Government has helped me in living where I want.

8. I know about the Governments Remote Area Dweller Programme.

16

12

10

15

4. We have good government clinics and schools in my village.

9. The RADP has helped me with employment and housing.

31

12

strongly disagree disagree neither disagree or agree

5. I know about the District Development Plan for Ghanzi.

strongly disagree

disagree

neither

agree

agree strongly agree

35%

33%

19%

9% 4
strongly agree

Percentage responses to questions

Figure 6. Thirty nine respondents answered nine questions about general village conditions and two Government development plans. Questions were framed positively and overall percentages suggest that there is disatisfaction with Government support and the profile and implementation of development programmes.

Paul Melenhorst 2010

The First People: The indigenous San and Regional Planning Policies in Botswana

Conclusion Legal decisions in Australia dramatically changed the rights of indigenous in Australia and retooled the approach to regional planning (Magerum, 2003, p 46). With similar legal precedents now in Botswana, the Government needs to re-assess its planning and development policies in relation to the San and their land rights. This needs to be addressed across legislation, strategic planning and grassroots progammes. Acts should consider indigenous land claims, indigenous heritage protection and native title rights on their own terms instead of as addendums to mainstream land control and zoning. This reassessment should include a review of substantive planning for district development that includes bottom up consultation and addresses San land and development issues as part of an an integrated landuse approach. And recommendations such as the government purchase of unallocated land for indigenous communities and the reinstallation of infrastructure in areas shut off to San communities should be considered. The Sans access to land today is very limited, sharply inequitable, and frail (Good, 1993, p 214). Regional planning that incorporates development in Botswanas districts with equity and real considertion of minority groups such as the San will see an end to this viewpoint.

Paul Melenhorst 2010

references

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Nthomang, K. 2002. Exploring the indigenous minefield: social policy and the marginalization of the Bushman in southern Africa. Journal of Social Development in Africa. 17 (1): p 99-121 Nthomang, K. 2004. Relentless Colonialism: The Case of the Remote Area Development Programme (RADP) and the Basarwa in Botswana. The Journal of Modern African Studies. 42 (3). Cambridge University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3876339 (accessed November 14, 2010) Okavango Research Centre, 2007. People of the Okavango Region, Fact Sheet 5. http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS5_population1. pdf (accessed November 4, 2010) Roy Sesana, Keiwa Setlhobogwa and others v the Government of Botswana, 2006. http://www.iwant2gohome.org/# (accessed November 24, 2010) Saugastad, S. 2001. The Inconvenient Indigenous: Remote Area Development in Botswana, Donor Assistance and the First People of the Kalahari. Uppsala, Sweden. Nordic Africa Institute Segadika, P. 2006. Managing Intangible Heritage at Tosdilo. Museum International. 58 (12): 31-40. http://www.sonoma.edu/users/p/ purser/Anth590/tsodilo%20intangible.pdf (accessed November 11, 2010) van Binsbergen, W. 1994, Proposed joint research on ethnicity in Botswana: A programme to be undertaken by the National Institute of Development Research and Documentation, University of Botswana, and the African Studies Centre, Leiden University, The Netherlands, internal memorandum, Leiden: African Studies Centre http://www.shikanda.net/ethnicity/botswana.htm (accessed November 14, 2010) Walonick, D. 1993. Everything you want to know about questionnaires. http://www.statpac.com/research-papers/questionnaires.htm (accessed October 12, 2010) Zeppel, H. 2006. Indigenous Ecotourism: Sustainable Development and Management. Oxfordshire, UK. CABI Publishing

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