Ejaan Bahasa Inggris

Masha Bell 2007 author ofUnderstanding English Spelling 2004 and Learning to Read 2007

Sejarah Singkat Ejaan Bahasa Inggris Ejaan Bhs. Inggris mulai terbentuk sejak abad ke-7, tetapi versi awal ejaan tersebut di kemudian hari akan banyak berubah. Bahasa Inggris sendiri sejak saat itu juga sangat banyak berubah. Sejak penaklukan oleh bangsa Norman di tahun 1066 bahasa Perancis Norman menjadi bahasa resmi untuk tanah Inggris. Selama tiga abad kemudian hanya sedikit dari para rahib yang masih menulis dengan bahasa Inggris. Para orang kaya dan orang terpandang sudah berhenti memakai bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Inggris saat itu hanya dipakai oleh kelas rendahan. Ketika bangsa Inggris mulai membangun identitasnya kembali, sekitar tahun 1350, setelah beberapa kali peperangan melawan Perancis dan setelah melewati wabah yang mematikan, bahasa Inggris menjadi sangat berbeda dibandingkan dengan sebelum masa penaklukan bangsa Norman, juga kemudian penulisan bahasa Inggris dibangkitkan kembali. Para penulis awal masa bahasa Inggris moderen, seperti Geoffrey Chaucer dan William Tyndale, yang menterjemahkan Kitab Suci kedalam bahasa Inggris di tahun 1525, telah mencoba untuk membuat bahasa Inggris mempunyai cara penulisan ejaan yang konsisten, tetapi usaha mereka sangat tidak dihargai. Para kaum terpelajar yang sebelumya hanya dapat menulis ejaan Perancis dan Latin, mereka selanjutnya terus memakai banyak ejaan Perancis yang sudah mereka kuasai untuk menuliskan bahasa Inggris. Banyak dari kesalahan mereka kemudian menjadi norma dan masih terpakai hingga kini, contoh; 'double, couple, route, sure, centre, table'. Ketika buku mulai dicetak di Inggris tahun 1476, sistem ejaan yang baru dibentuk menjadi rusak parah karena hampir semua tukang cetak di London saat itu adalah orang asing dan secara nyata mereka bertanggung jawab terhadap banyak kesalahan ejaan. Mereka juga biasanya dibayar berdasarkan jumlah baris yang dihasilkan dan sering mereka kemudian menyisipkan huruf tambahan kedalam satu kata demi untuk mendapatkan upah lebih. Mereka secara teratur menambahkan kelebihan huruf pada kata terakhir dalam satu baris supaya keseluruhan tulisan nampak rapi. Contohnya Had', oleh mereka kadang ditulis 'hadd' dan kadang juga ditulis 'hadde'. Banyak dari kesalahan ejaan mereka, yang disebabkan oleh kemauan dan trik mereka, akhirnya menjadi diterima sebagai ejaan bahasa Inggris yang benar. Pada tahun 1525, Kitab Suci Perjanjian Baru terjemahan William Tyndale difatwa haram oleh Paus di Roma dan oleh para Uskup di Inggris. Kejadian ini juga berpengaruh terhadap ejaan bahasa Inggris. Tyndale saat itu sudah berlayar ke Belanda, dan Kitab Suci terjemahannya selanjutnya dicetak diluar Inggris untuk beberapa tahun kemudian, dicetak oleh orang yang jarang berbahasa Inggris tentunya. Demi untuk mengurangi kemungkinan disensor, cetakan nama kepengarangan Tyndale-pun disamarkan. Bahkan ejaan penulisannyapun diubah, supaya seolah-olah hasil karya orang lain. Orang yang membeli Kitab Suci ini , yang juga kemudian menggunakannya sebagai bahan mengajarkan pembacaan dan penulisan kepada anak-anak mereka, pada umumnya tidak memperhatikan hal-hal tersebut. Karena berbagai edisi Kitab Suci Tyndale mempunyai perbedaan penulisan ejaan, system ejaan bahasa

Inggris menjadi semakin bertambah kacau. Hal ini menyebabkan banyak kerusakan ejaan yang ditibulkan pada masa itu. Selama abad ke-16 dan 17, ketika banyak kata dari bahasa Latin dan Yunani diimport kedalam bahasa Inggris, keadaan menjadi semakin parah. Kata-kata yang diimport pada saat itu selalu dibiarkan seperti ejaan asalnya, karena bahasa Latin dan Yunani dianggap lebih unggul dibanding dengan bahasa Inggris. Aturan bahasa Inggris untuk menggandakan satu konsonan sesudah satu huruf vokal pendek, seperti dalam 'better, bitter, thinner, dinner', adalah dikarenakan anggapan ini, maka kata import dikecualikan dari aturan penggandaan konsonan tersebut, walaupun kata import suaranya mirip kata Inggris yang sudah ada: rabbit habit, pallet palace, muddy study, silly lily, pepper - leper. (Kata yang diambil dari bahasa latin yang sudah diserap sebelumnya lewat bahasa Perancis Norman, kemudian juga dieja ulang supaya lebih pantas: button, dinner, lesson.) Untuk memperlihatkan asalnya dari bahasa Yunani, banyak kata yang dieja memakai y daripada seharusnya i: symbol, system, symmetry. Huruf yang tidak diucapkan juga semakin bertabah: pneumonia, rheumatism. Pada waktu itu penggunaan ea sebagai salah satu alternatif penulisan bunyi ee maupun e juga terbentuk (speech speak, bed bread). Hal berikut ini timbul dengan tidak ada alasan yang masuk akal, kecuali hanya untuk supaya pembelajaran bacaan dan penulisan sedikit semakin sulit dibandingkan seharusnya (teeth tether, heath heather). Pada 1700-an semua pengaruh yang bermacam-macam tersebut telah mengubah ejaan bahasa Inggris menjadi semrawut tidak karuan cara pembacaannya yang masih dipakai hingga saat ini. Kamus Samuel Johnson tahun 1755 menetapkan system ejaan seperti sebuah hukum. Sejak saat itu bahasa Inggris telah ditulis hanya berdasarkan seturut kamus, daripada memakai aturan bunyi huruf atau menurut penalaran rang wajar. Hal ini juga semakin diperburuk ketika pada tahun 1870, para kelas terpandang memutuskan untuk membunyikan huruf a pada berbagai kata (ask, bath, pass) dengan cara membunyikan lebih panjang, daripada seharusnya seperti pada cart. Bila hal ini dinyatakan juga dalam cara penulisan, maka akan membuat para kelas bawah yang belajar membaca kata tersebut akan dapat membacanya dengan logat yang baru tersebut dan bila hal itu terjadi maka akan membuat perbedaan yang diciptakan oleh kelas terpandang menjadi tidak berarti lagi. Cara pembacaan yang baru ini sejak saat itu menjadi norma baku dalam bahasa Inggris, tetapi karena cara penulisan tidak berubah, maka terciptalah banyak dialek yang masih menggunakan cara membaca yang lama. Selama abad ke-16 ada banyak perubahan yang tidak sistematis tentang bagaimana cara membaca vokal pendek dan panjang bunyi OO dan juga bunyi OA dan OU, sejak saat itu tercipta cara pembacaan yang sangat tidak dapat diprediksi.

'Cote' berubah menjadi 'coote', kemudian 'coat', 'a broode' menjadi 'abroad', 'roose' menjadi 'rose' dan ' stode' menjadi 'stood', 'toumbe' menajdi 'tomb', 'dore' menjadi 'doore', kemudian 'door', 'toun', 'doun' dan 'croun' menjadi 'town, down, crown' tetapi 'thow' menjdi 'thou', 'over' berubah menjadi 'ouer' dan berubah lagi seperti semula, 'shulde' dan 'wolde' menjadi 'should' dan 'would'.

Problems in learning to read and write

This site presents the whole range of English reading and spelling problems. It shows why so many learners of English have difficulties with reading and writing. Anyone interested in a fuller explanation of English spelling problems should consult my book (Masha Bell, Understanding English Spelling, 2004), or watch my Youtube videos ! or go toMy Blog or Blog 2 Teachers may download the various word lists for classroom use. Those wishing to reproduce material from this site commercially must obtain prior permission from the author mashabell@aol.com The average English-speaking child takes nearly three times longer to learn the basics of reading and writing than users of other alphabetic writing systems (Seymour, British Journal of Psychology, 2003). Numerous surveys in Anglophone countries during the past five decades have established that nearly half of all English speakers have severe difficulties with writing. One in five cannot even read properly, as was confirmed in 2005 by the UK's House of Commons Select Committee for Education. Learning to read and write English is exceptionally difficult. Learning to read English is difficult because identical letter strings often have different pronunciations, for example, on once - only - woman women worry
[wunce] [oanly] [wooman] [wimmen] [wurry]

Learning to spell is even harder because different spellings for identical English sounds are twice as common as different pronunciations for identical letters. The EE-sound and OO-sound, for example, can be spelt as: peep - leap, people, here, weird, chief, police, me, ski, key; food - rude, shrewd, truth, group, move, fruit, tomb, through, blue, shoe. The English writing system is uniquely difficult because it has spelling and reading problems. Other difficult alphabetic systems have only spelling problems. To become even just moderately competent spellers of English, learners have to memorise at least 3700 words with some unpredictable spellings (listed on the different pages of this website). A little more than half of all English spelling difficulties are caused by four problems: unsystematic consonant doubling like 'shoddy - body' and unpredictable

spellings for the EE-sound, the long O -sound and the two OO-sounds. Other serious spelling problems are caused by unpredictable spellings for the sounds Ur / er / ir, Au / aw, S, Sh and the unstressed half-vowel in endings (like er / -or / -ar or en / -on / -an). No other European language has more than 1000 unpredictable spellings

Overview of English spelling problems

To become even just a moderately competent speller of English one has to memorise at least 3695 common words with exceptional spellings (listed in the various subsections of this website). (Understanding English Spelling provides a more detailed analysis of English spelling inconsistencies and the learning difficulties which they cause.) English has 88 main basic spelling patterns (shown in table 1), but they all have some exceptions (tables 2, 3 and 4 below); 22 spelling patterns have so many exceptions that they are not really patterns at all. The worst of these are shown in table 2 Table 1: 66 basic English spelling patterns and 22 pseudo-patterns

41 Vowel Spellings
Short vowels cat pet sit pot mum would wool pull Long vowels In stem of words and stressed endings pane pay see / tea / seen / mean me by / high / bite tie stole / coal low / so / toe cube cue / new fool / rule too / blue / flew bob

Consonant Spellings
The biggest consonant spelling problem is consonant doubling (when to use bb, dd, ff, gg, ll, mm, nn, pp, rr, ss, tt, zz, and ck, tch or dge after a short, stressed vowel in root words of more than one syllable 46 CONSONANT PATTERNS pop rat

K-sound cat, cot, cut send kept, kit clap fence milk peek decide rock office / promise / trellis comic queen[Kw-sound] taxi [Ks-sound] shop, rush

scout oil awful / autumn

cow boy saw / for* *in UK English chip catch dad film gag

station machine essential vicious tot

Blends with r cart dormouse term / turn / girl / earl air / dare / bear Endings of longer words daddy better blizzard believable evidence evident musical sample hasten / certain / abandon solitary / cemetery / symmetry delicate / favourite / democrat Beginnings or prefixes decide include The

this (voiced or thing unvoiced)

jab, job, jug agent cage gentle / jest hand leg well will

van have willow yes zip absorb, wise vision

mum net, ten ring

most problematic spellings in learning to read and write English are:

Unsystematic consonant doubling (e.g. happy - rapid, apply), Random and overlapping spellings for the EE-sound and short E-

sound

(e.g. sleep - leap, leapt slept; friend - field) Unsystematic and overlapping use of the letters o and u (on other, once, only, woman, women, womb; move over; cup come, couple, flood; food wood, put foot). Table 2: This shows how many words use the 11 spelling patterns that cause both reading and spelling problems and how many fail to conform. Examples of each pattern are given in the 1st column, numbers of words using them and not using them in the 2nd and 3rd columns. The most common divergent spellings and their numbers are shown on the right. (The links show the lists of words which use or disobey each pattern.)

Pattern Consonant doubling e.g. horrid, yellow

No of No of words words with not using pattern pattern

381*

Examples of divergent spellings (missing 323) (surplus / wrong 298) forest, melon, 605correct, parallel

Total number to memorise

986

EE-sound and E keep kept OO-sounds spoon too wood Other tricky vowels stole go out but pot 170 50 74 308 375 coal 37, roll, bowl, soul, 101control 60 blow 42, toe, though, cacao 23 brown 68 some 50, country 14, blood 35 want 30, gone, cough 101 60 23 68 35 72* 18* 15* rude 31, soup 13, shrewd, 57move flew 12, blue 8, do, through, 34shoe 21 put 15, would, woman 129 52 36 132* 300 leap 152*, here 86, believe 32231, police 29 64 leapt 49, said, friend 454 64

1698

618

total of quirky spellings to 1390memorise

2008

* It can be seen that consonant doubling and the spellings for EE and OO sounds have so many exceptions that they really have no pattern. Learners simply have to memorise, word by word, when to double a consonant, how to spell the EEsound and when to use or not to use oo. When the biggest number of common words using a particular spelling pattern is smaller than the total of words using alternative spellings, the spellings are all simply unpredictable. The above patterns are all very difficult for learners because they all cause both reading and spelling problems, and because between them they account for nearly half of all English spelling difficulties, i.e. 2008 divergent spellings out of 4206 (which occur in 3700 words out of the 6800 most commonly used ones). Some words, like 'quay', have more than one irregularity.
Masha Bell 2006, author of 'Understanding English Spelling', 2004, mashabell@aol.com

Nearly all English spelling patterns have some exceptions The 11 most problematic patterns (consonant doubling, ea, e, u, o, o-e, oo, ou and ow) have been summarised in table 2. Another 22 spelling patterns shown below make learning to spell English quite tricky too because they also have fairly numerous exceptions and necessitate the individual memorising of 1665 spellings; but unlike the patterns listed in table 1, they rarely cause reading difficulties as well. Just a few, like 'eight height', impede reading progress too (R). Table 3: 22 spelling patterns with 1668 unpredictable spellings between them.
Examples of exceptions with numbers of words for biggest subgroups

13 Vowel patterns term* better

occurrences exceptions 70* 340

hasten*

73*

fur 65, fir 36, earn, work, 125were, journey R visitor 75, grammar 34, 136harbour 18 also similar: future 42, data 45 abandon 68, urban 34, 131certain main 90, weight 10, break 108 R dawn 17, all 14, shawl 8, 64salt 10, nought battery 25, carpentry, 55luxury bright 18, cycle 26, kind 7912, height R 62more 22, your, door, oar(in UK 13 more, e.g. saw) 27air 15, aerial, there, their

cake

338

fault*

39*

ordinary*

37*

bite for care pertinent / pertinence

278 188 31*

176

58dominant / dominance system 45, pretty, women 53R monkey 26, movie 8, 51taxi 12, coffee 20* 22few 19, view, menu

bit

421

daddy due*

602

9 Consonant patterns (involving 5 sounds) firm, if gag gem* send 580 198 20* 138 photo 35, puff, rough, 43staff, laugh 40ghost, guess, guilt, league 19jet, jig 47centre 18, city 18, science sense 35, base 21, consider, courtesy, 90embassy basis 20, practice 17, 40promise diversion 19, ocean, 34fashion commercial 14, 15*controversial 15pretentious 12, luscious making a total of 1665 spellings to 1314memorise

fence, ancestor, agency 218 fortress* 21*

station essential* vicious*

580 20* 20*

351*

* Patterns in which the exceptions outweigh or nearly equal the number of words which obey it. R Exceptional spellings which present some reading difficulties as well. Table 4: 57 English spelling patterns have only 533 exceptions between them.

26 patterns with relatively few exceptions Pattern critical v o amble w loveable e l s fly decide induce tune play N 195 93 33 other Examples of other spellings 33towel 28, civil 17kernel, stencil 17credible

31 patterns with m Pattern cat cart N 466 138

17 57 73 137 35

14 die ,high ,bye buy 28divide 28endure 21feud, jewel, nuclear 19they, duvet ,weigh

warm blizzard now boil boy

17 22 11 29 12

K-sound cat, cot, cut clap comic kid, kept peek milk deck queen taxi mum net, ten rat, shush mushroom* (middle sh) tot c o willow n s o wise n a n t absorb s 1398 216 91 1022 192 89 124 36 86 62 78 98 1128 2312 1670 162 5* 18 chaos11, karate, 10 chlorine 9 barrack, kayak 7 chemistry 5 unique, antique 10 disc, monarch 6 spec, yak 4 acquire, choir 14 accent, except

bib chip batch dad hand

784 155 23 1010 237

jab, job, jug 78 urge agent leg, feel 115 71 1945 9 40 1220

17 bomb 9, autumn 6 35 knee 15, gnome

well, will 43 always ring

26 write 20, rhubarb 12 chef, sure

pop

this 17ancient, pressure, Machine, conscience van, drive 16doubt, two 33 when, white 22 blaze, size (in US 16 more e.g. advertize) 94 22* 16 citizen 16, possess vision 454 buzz never you zip thing

61 142 531 55 31 14

2* 19 2*

* A pattern in which the exceptions outweigh the number of words which obey it. Among the lesser spelling problems shown above, the spelling of of the K-sound is probably the most serious. It is governed by 9 different spelling rules, as well as the use of ck instead of a doubled consonant for marking a short vowel in a longer word (e.g. rocket). There are not many exceptions to the different rules, but they combine to confuse an already complex area.

Learning to read
The word lists below can be used for teaching the basic sounds of a, e, i, o and u combined with consonants, as in bag, cat, dad, bed, fun, hat, jam, kit, lid, mum, pop, red, sun, vet, wet, box, yes, zip; chat, catch, shop, this thing, quick, tickle, little and the patterns for the long vowels, blends with r and the SH sound in word endings.
The basic English phonic system is also set out in Masha Bell's reading course in a single book LEARNING TO READ published May 2007.

Over 2000 common English words contain some letters which are not pronounced in their usual way and have to be learned as sight words. These are listed separately.

Short a
a an at and ant bad bag ban bat dab dad crab cramp crank gag glad grab gran pan grand pat pact had has fad fat fang hat hang ran jab jam rat plan drag can cap cat clam clan camp fan clamp fact mad man scalp scrap slam slang slap snap span sprang yak yap wag wax van mat gang map clang flag clank flan clap flap flat lab lag lap sad sag sap sand sang sank tank tract tram tramp trap twang catch hatch latch match patch scratch snatch chat tag tan tap tax thatch thrash maths than thank that bash cash clash crash flash gash shrank black hack jack lack pack sack apple baffle battle cackle cattle dabble dazzle gabble paddle amble ample angle antler axle bramble candle dangle handle jangle mangle ramble

lamp sat

frank land

rack crackle slack dappled

lash smack mash snack sash slash tack track

band dam blank dank brag brand drab

rash stack grapple

bang damp gram pad

prattle scramble raffle shambles rattle saddle straggle tackle spangle strangle tangle trample wangle

latch smash

pants spat plank sprat pram stab

drank ham

hand prank stag stamp zap stand strap

rang swam

Short e
elf elm end bed beg bet belt bent best bled bless bred crept crest fed fell felt fend fled flex kept led leg let jest dent hem left lend lens lent peg pen pet pelt met melt mend red mess rent rest slept sped spelt spend spent stem step stress swell swept net set tell ten tend tense tent text trend never web weld well went wept west shed shelf shell shred flesh fresh dredge edge hedge ledge sledge smell test vent vet vex check chess chest bench clench theft drench stench trench sketch stretch kettle nettle pebble settle temple the them then deck neck peck speck speckled

desk hen dress held dwelt hell help

nest sell next send sent

tempt vest

helm less hence men

bend fence jet

press spell

blend fret

Short i
ill in inn is it its bid big bin bit blink brim brisk cling gift gills gilt glint lid lift limp link lip silk bring gild fill film fin fist fit fix fling flint flip flit frisk kid kill kiln kilt kin king kink kiss rib rid rig rim ring rip risk jig jilt pig pills pin pink pip print picnic snip spill spilt spin spit split will win slid slim sling slink slip slit till tilt tin tint tip trim trip twig twin twist rich ditch hitch itch pitch brick click flick chip finch flinch inch pinch winch chin chink fifth filth thin thing think thrift thrill cripple crinkle cringe dribble dimple fridge drizzle dwindle fringe fiddle giggle little nibble riddle ripple sizzle skittle sniffle tipple jingle kindle hinge ridge

grizzle mingle singe nimble tinge shingle thimble tingle twinkle winkle middle pimple twinge

chintz pith with

width quibble swindle

scribble tinkle

spring wind sprint wing squint wink stiff wit

stitch kick switch nick

clink clip crib

grill grim grin

list lit milk mill mint miss mist mix

sin sing sink sip sit

still stilts sting strict string strip swift swim swing zinc zip

twitch pick witch prick shift shin ship shrill sick slick stick thick

twiddle gristle wiggle quick quilt quit

crisps grip grit did dig dim dip disk drift drip hid hill him hint hip hiss hit

mink six skid skill skim skin skip

shrimp tick shrink trick pickle dish fish swish wish tickle trickle

drink his

Short o
off on ox blond blot bob bog bomb bond boss box cod cop cot crop cross gloss god golf gong got mob mop moss flog flop fog fond fox frog from loft long lob log lop lot rob rod romp rot dodge dog doll don dot drop job jog jot hog hop hot plot pod pond pot prod prop nod not slog slot snob sob soft solve song spot stop strong throb throng tongs top toss tot trod trot shock shod shop shot notch chop block clock cock dock flock lock mock rock smock stock sock jostle bottle cobble gobble goggle hobble nozzle throttle topple wobble

Short u
up dust hug nun scull chug shrub thrust bubble bumble grudge

drug hum but buzz bulb bung fun bunk fuss jug junk club gulf just jut lug lull blunt flung jump drum hump drunk hung hunt

nut plug puff pulp

snug spun sprung stud stuff

chum shrug thud chunk shrunk thug shun such shut buck Dutch blush crush bunch flush hunch hush lunch rush punch cluck pluck struck suck truck hutch brush luck

cuddle guzzle

bundle bungle

judge nudge trudge

thumb huddle muffle muzzle nuzzle puddle puzzle rubble ruffle scuffle

crumble smudge grumble humble bulge jumble jungle mumble rumble stumble tumble uncle lunge plunge

plum stuck

much shunt thump muddle fumble

pump stump stun rug run rung rust suds sulk sum sun sung tug tusk tuft tuck stung strum strut swum

clump gull clung gulp crust gun cub cuff cup cut dug dull dump dusk gust

strung crunch gush

buckle scuttle chuckle shuffle knuckle smuggle snuggle

glum lump grub lungs gruff grunt mud mug must

swung munch slush

struggle bustle supple tussle hustle rustle

mumps sunk

scrub trunk scrum trust

Spelling patterns for long vowels A-e

age ale ape babe bake bale blade blame blaze brace brake brave gale game gape gate gave pace page pale face fade fake fame fate flake flame frame name nape nave slate slave snake space spade made make male mane mate maze shade shake shame shape save scale scrape aid ail aim ain't bail bait braid brain chain claim drain fail gain grain plain quaint raid rail rain sail slain snail sprain stain strain straits tail trail plaice praise exclaim explain obtain prevail proclaim refrain remain retail retain bay bray clay day fray gay hay jay lay May may pay play pray grey hey obey they

cage cake came cape cave crane crate crater crave craze dale dame date drake drape

gaze glade grace grade grape grate grave

pane place plane plate quake race

stage stake stale state take tale tame tape trace trade wade

hail jail laid maid mail maim main nail paid pail pain

train vain wail waist

raise raisin tailor trailer trainers traitor waiter

ray say slay splay spray stay stray sway tray way weigh whey neigh sleigh

hate haze lace lake lame lane late laze

rage rake rate rave safe sake sale same

wage wake wave

I-e
bike bite crime dice dine dive drive file fine five glide gripe hide hike hive ice jive kite like lime line live mice mike mile mine nice Nile nine pike pile pine pipe price pride prime prize quite rice ride ripe rise rite shine shrine side site size slice slide slime smile snipe spike spine spite stile tribe trite twice twine vice vile vine while blight bright fight flight knight light might night right sight slight tight delight frighten lightning high nigh sigh thigh by cry dry fly fry my ply pry shy sky sly spy sty thy try why wry fire hire spire tire wire guy bye dye rye die lie pie tie vie

chime life

stride whine strike white stripe wide swine wife swipe wine thrive wipe tide tile time wise wives write

O-e

bone broke choke chose close code cone cope cove dole dome dose dote doze drone drove elope froze frozen hole home hope hose joke lone mode mole node nose note poke pole pope pose

quote robe rode role rope rose rove scope slope smoke sole spoke stoke stole stone strode stroke those throne tone vote whole woke wove wrote yoke zone

boast boat cloak coach coal coast coat coax croak float foal foam gloat goat groan load loaf loan loathe moan oaf oak oath oats poach road roam roast shoal soak soap throat toad toast

bold cold fold gold golden hold old scold sold solder soldier told bolt colt dolt jolt revolt folk yolk control enrol patrol poll roll scroll stroll toll troll

fro go no pro so solo doe floe foe hoe oboe roe sloe toe woe

Ee
eel bee fee deed deep deer peek peel peep speech speed steel beetle feeble needle here eve even angry badly baggy abbey alley attorney

flee free glee see three tree beech beef been beer beet bleed bleep breed cheek cheer creek creep

feed feel feet fleet greed green greet heel jeep jeer keel keen keep knee kneel leek meek meet need

peer preen queen reed reef reel screen seed seek seem seen seep sheep sheer sheet sleek sleep sneer

steep steer street sweep sweet teem tweed weed week weep wheel

steeple fleece geese sleeve breeze cheese freeze sneeze squeeze wheeze

evil mere theme these fever lever (UK) compete complete decent demon female frequent hero meter period peter recent relay serious sphere swede tedious zero

belly berry billy candy carry cherry chubby daddy dusty empty ferry fifty forty frilly funny fuzzy giddy granny grumpy happy .... and hundreds more like that

barley bogey chimney cockney donkey hockey holey honey jersey jockey journey key kidney medley money monkey parsley pulley storey trolley turkey valley volley whiskey

screech teeth

Oi and oy
boil coil coin foil hoist join joint joist moist choice noise voice oil soil spoil toil anoint appoint avoid cloister exploit loiter ointment poison rejoice soil thyroid turmoil turquoise boy buoy [boy] joy toy annoy convoy corduroy destroy enjoy employ employee employer employment loyal loyalty royal oyster voyage

boisterous spoil embroider toilet

Au
auburn applaud gaudy Santa-Claus

auction August author autumn audacious audible auspicious authentic authorise authority automatic autonomy

applause astronaut caught cauldron cause caution cautious cosmonaut daub daughter dinosaur exhaust

haughty haul haunt jaunt launch launder laundry maul naughty nautical Paul pause

sauce saucer slaughter somersault staunch tarpaulin taught taunt taut vaunt

Vowel blends with r Ar

arc arch ark arm art bar barb barge bark barn car card cart carve char charm chart dark darn dart far farm hard harm harp harsh jar lard large lark march mark mars marsh par parch park part scar scarf shark sharp smart snarl spark star starch start starve tar alarm apart army artery bargain barley tart yard yarn cargo carnival carpet carton charge depart garden gargle garlic larder larva market parcel pardon partner party remark target

Air sound
air fair flair hair lair pair dairy prairie stairs affair clair repair bare blare care dare fare flare glare hare mare pare rare scare share snare spare square stare wares area aware canary compare declare hilarious malaria Mary parent prepare But are spells ar various vegetarian wary

chair despair

Er, ur and ir
berth fern germ her herb herd jerk nerve perch serve stern term verb verge verse alert certain concern convert deserve detergent emerge eternal expert external hermit insert internal interpret kernel merchant Mercury mercy nervous observe perfect permit person pertinent preserve reserve reverse sermon serpent termite thermal universe verbal verdict vermin vertical blur burn surge urge burgle hurdle hurtle purple turtle curse nurse purse curve absurd burden burglar burly disturb excursion furnish further murder murmur nursery return sturdy surgery surplus Thursday topsyturvy turban turkey turmoil turnip urban urchin birch bird birth chirp dirt fir firm first flirt girl mirth shirk shirt sir skirt smirk squirm squirt stir swirl third thirst twirl circle circus skirmish thirty whir whirl

permanent burst churn curl curt fur hurl hurt lurch lurk purr slur spur spurn spurt surf turf turn urn yurt

church gurgle

swerve impertinent terminate

Or, ore and oar

or orb born cord cork corn corpse for force ford forge nor norm north porch pork port scorch scorn shorn short snort absorb afford border conform corgi corner cornet divorce forbid forever important reporter morning normal northern orbit orchard order ordinary perform platform resort scorpion shortly storage story tortoise transform bore chore core gore more ore pore score shore snore sore forecast forehand foreleg foreman adore before ignore implore

enormous ornament uniform

fork form fort forth gorge gorse horn horse lord

sort sport stork storm sword sworn thorn torch torn

forget forgive forgot fortress fortune forty forward glory

popcorn portable portion proportion record recorder reform report

store swore tore wore boar board coarse hoard hoarse oar roar soar

forgotten portrait

SH sound in word endings

with long vowel before '-tion' with short vowels Vowel in bold are long

nation station

ration competition

passion admission emission fission

circumstantial confidential consequential

artificial beneficial facial financial

calculation conversation declaration destination education explanation foundation generation motivation

composition condition expedition

Alsatian Christian confession depression procession ambitious discussion cautious fictitious nutritious Dalmatian

cosmetician electrician

demonstration intuition

atrocious delicious ferocious suspicious

action lotion promotion constitution distribution solution consumption conception perception prescription reception construction election fiction fraction

conversion diversion excursion dimension expansion

Sight words with a, i, o, o-e / ow / ou / u / oo; ea / ei / ie; ui, ch, ge/gi, se, -ure and v, missing or misleading doubled consonants after short vowels, redundant letters, 102 words with more than one pronunciation and a few dozen assorted oddities.
Some of the above spellings, a for example, have so many exceptional pronunciations that all the words with them really have to be learnt as sight words (rather than by decoding). Such words are therefore listed together with common words in which they have a regular pronunciation. * Words marked with an asterisk have more than one problem or variable

pronunciation. Young children's progress in reading is most impeded by 190 very common words which contain letters that are not pronounced in their usual way (to be found in the link). A, able, advance, after, aghast, altar, alter, alternative, always, amble, ample, an, and, apron, armada, ask, at, ah, almond, almost, also,

angle, answer, ant,

antler, any, apple, April,

await awake, award, aware, away, awe, awful, awkward, awning, axle, baffle, bag, bald, ban, banana, band, blank, blast, bra, bang, bash, bask, bastard, bat, bath, battle, black,

brag, bramble, branch, brand, cable, cackle, calf, candle, cap, cash,

calm, camp,

can,

canal,

cask, cast, caste, castle, cat cattle, chalk, chance, chant, chasten, chastity, chat,

catch,

clam, clamp, clan, clang, clank, clap, clash, clasp, crab, crackle, craft, cramp, crank, crash, dab, dabble, daft, dahlia, dam, dazzle, disaster, drab, draft, damp, dance, dangle, dank, dappled,

drag, drama, drank, dwarf, enhance, example, expanse, fable, fact, fad, falter, fan, fang, fast, fasten, fat, father, flabbergast, flag, flan, flank, flap, flash, flask, flat, frank, gabble, gable, gag, gala, gang, gran, grand, gash, gasp, ghastly, glad, glance, grab graft, gram,

graph, grapple, grasp, hack, handle, hang,

had, half, halfpenny, halt, halve, ham,

hand

hank, has, haste, hat, hatch, instalment, jab, jack, jam, jangle, khaki, la, lab, lack, lag, lamp, lance, land, lap, lash, last, latch, lather, mangle, many, map, mash, mask, mass*, mast, mat, paddle, palm, paltry, pan, match, ma, mad, mama, man,

maths, pa, pack,

pact,

pad,

panorama, pants, papa, past, paste, patch, path, patrol,

pasty

[paisty,

pasty],

pastry, pat,

piano, plan, plank, plant, pram, prance, prank, pyjamas, quack, quadrangle, qualify, quality, quantity, raffle, raft, ramble, quarrel, quarry, quarter,

prattle, psalm,

quartz, quay, rack,

ran, rang, rank, rascal, rash, rat, rather, rattle, reward, sack, sad, saddle, sag, salami, salt, sand, sang sank, sap, sat, scald, scalp, scan, scramble, scrap, scratch, shaft, shah, shambles, shrank, slack, slam, slang, slant, slap, slash, smack, smash, snack, snap, snatch, soprano, spa, span, spangle, spank, spat, sprang, sprat, squabble, squad, squander, squash, squat, stab, stable, stack, stag, stalk, stamp, stance, stand, strap, strata, swag, swagger, swallow, swam, swamp, tag, talk, tan, tangle, swan, straggle, strangle,

swap, table, tack,

tackle,

tank, tap, task, tax, than, thank, that, thatch, thrash, track, tract, tram, tramp, trample, trance, trap, twang, van, vast, waddle, walrus, waltz, waft, wag, wagon, walk, wallow, walnut,

wan, wand, wander, wangle, want, warm, warn, warp,

wanton, war, warble,

ward,

warrant, warren, warrior, wart, was, wasp, watch, water, wattle, wax, yap, zap. A

wash,

is particularly tricky for learners of standard UK English because in this accent it is often pronounced ah/ar; other pronunciation problems of the letter a affect all readers (when it is pronounced like ai in aim, au in haul, o in not, e in bed). I followed by two consonants is normally short (tint), but in a few words listed below it has a long sound as in line Align, behind, benign, bible biblical, bind, blind, child, climb, consign, design, find, grind, idle, indict, kind - kindle, kindred, mild, mind, ninth, pint, resign, rind, sign; rifle, stifle, title, trifle - triple, whilst , wild - wilderness. O is often not as in spot. It can sound like the u in cup, oa in toast, oo as in book or oo in boot and e as in herb Among, block, blond, box, brother, clock, blot, bob, bog, bomb, bond, boss, both, bottle,

cobble, cock, cod, comfort, control, cop, cot, crop, cross, dock, dodge, dog, doll, don, dot, drop, enrol, fishmonger, flock, flog, from, front, ghost, gloss, gobble, flop, fog, folk, fond, fox, frog,

god, goggle, golf, gong, got, gross, hobble, hog, hop, host, hot, job, jog, jostle, jot, lob, lock, loft, log, long, lop, lot, mob, mock, Monday, mongrel, monk, monkey, month, mop, moss, most, mother, nod, not, nothing, nozzle, on, once [wunce], only, other, ox, patrol, plot, pod, pond, post, poster, pot, rot, scroll, slog, slot, prod, prop, rob, rock, off,

rod, roll, romp,

smock, smother, snob, sob, sock, soft, solve, son, song, sponge, spot, stock, stop, stroll, strong, sword, sworn, topple, toss, tot, throttle, to*, today, tomb, ton, tongs, tongue, top,

trod, troll, trot, whom, wobble, wolf, womb, won, wonder, word, work, world, worm,

worn, worry, worse, worship, worst, worth. O-e is often not as in bone, solo or so (like u of cup, o of hot, short oo of wood, long oo of soon, er of her, i of bit)

Above, adolescence, alcove, alone, altogether, anemone [anemmony], antelope, approve, arose, beloved, benevolent, bone, broke, choke, chose, chosen, close*, closet, clover, code, colonel, colour, come, comedian, comedy, comet, component, compose, composer, cone, cope, cove, covenant, cover, covet, covey, devote, discover, discovery, dispose, doe, does, dole, dome, domestic, done, dose, dove, doze, dozen, drone, drove, elope, envelope, expose, froze, frozen, globe, glove, goes, gone, govern, grocer, grope, grovel, gruesome, handsome, hole, holey, home, honest, honey, hope, hose, hover, impose, improve, insolence, insolent, joke, Joseph, lone, lonely, lose, love, lozenge, mode, model, moderate*, modern, modest, mole, moment, monetary, money, move, node, none, nose, note, novel, November, October, omelette, omen, one [wun], open, opera, operate, operation, oven, over, phone, poke, pole, pope, pose, postpone, poverty, primrose, process, procession, profession, professor, promenade, promote, proper, property, propose, protein, prove, proven, proverb, pullover, purpose, quote, recover, remote, rhinoceros, robe, rode, role, rope, rose, scone, scope, shone, shove, shovel, slope, slovenly, smoke, sober, sole, solemn, some,

somersault, sovereign, spoke, spoken, stoke, stole, stolen, stone, stove, strode, stroke, suppose, syndrome, tadpole, those, throne, together, tomorrow, token, tolerate, tone, trombone, vote, whole, whose, woke, woman, women, wove, wrote, yodel, yoke, zone, do, to, two, who.

Ow can sound like o in so or ou in thou

Blow, blown, bow x 2 clown, cow,

[bo/bou],

bowl, brow, brown, brownie, browse,

coward, crow, crowd, crown, down, drown, drowse, eider-down, flow, flower, flown, frown, glow, gown, grow, growl, grown, growth, how, howl, know, knowledge [nollege], known, low, mow, mown, now, owe, owl, own, powder, power, prowl, row x 2 [ro/rou], rowan, rowdy, scowl, show, shower, shown, slow, snow, sow x 2 sou], sown, stow, throw, thrown, tow, toward vowel, wow;
[tuward], [so,

towel, tower, town, vow,

and 'allow' is not like 'shallow' or 'window' [shallo, windo].

Ou is often not as in out, with long oo of boot, aw of saw, o-e of sole, short oo of wood, u of cup, o of for, e of her

Abound, about, account, acoustic, aloud , amount, announce, around, arouse, astound, bivouac, blouse, bough*, bought, boulder, bounced, bound, boundary, bouquet,

boutique, brought, camouflage, choux, cloud, compound, couch, cough, could, council, counsel, count, counter, country, county, coup

[coo],

couple, coupon, courage,

courier, course, court, courtesy, cousin, crouch, double, doubt, dough, dou se, drought, encounter, encourage, enough, favourite, flounder, flour, fought, foul, found, foundation, fountain, four, fourth, ghoulish, ground, group, hiccough honour [onnor], hound, hour lout, mould,
[our], [hickup],

house, journal, journey, loud, lounge,

moult, mound, mount, mountain, mourn, mouse, mousse, moustache, mouth, neighbour, nought, nourish, ought, ounce, our, out, outer, plough, pouch, poultry, pounce, pound, pour, pout, profound, pronounce, proud, rebound, resource, rough, round, rouse, route, routine, savour, scoundrel, scout, should, shoulder, shout, silhouette, slouch, slough x2 sound, soup,
[sluf, slou],

smoulder, snout, sought, soul,

sour, source, south, southern, souvenir, spout, sprout, stout, surround, tambourine, thorough, thou, though, thought, thousand, through, toucan, touch, tough, tour, tourist, tournament, trouble, trough, trousers, trout, voucher, would, wound x2 [wound/ woond], you, young, your.

U is not as in cup but oo of spoon with the short oo sound of book, i of big and long

Bush, busy, butcher, cushion, pudding, push, put, shush, sugar, truth.

OO is also short, not long as in spoon, in:

Book, brook, cook, cookie, foot, good, hood, hook, look, rook, shook, stood , took, understood, whoosh, wood, wooden, wool, woollen.

In blood, flood and brooch oo has other sounds [blud, flud, broach] Ea spells mostly ee. The other sound for it is mainly a short e, with a few exceptions, as ai of air or train, silent in 'beauty', as a in art, eeya in 'linear' and eea in 'theatre'

Already, appeal, appear, area, beach, bean, bear, beard, beast, beat, beauty, beaver, breadth, break, breakfast, breast, breath, clean, cleanliness, cleanse, beneath,

beacon,

bead,

beak,

beam,

bleach,

bleak,

bleat, bread,

breathe,

cease,

cheap,

cheat,

clear, colleague, conceal, crease, create, creature, dead, deaf, deal, dealt, dean, dear, death, decrease, dream, dreamt, dreary, each, eager, eagle, ear, earl, Easter, east, eat, eaves, endeavour, fear, gleam, feast,

congeal,

creak,

cream,

defeat,

disease, dread,

early, earn,

earnest, earth, ease,

feat, feather, feature, flea,

freak, gear,

glean, grease, great, head, heal, health, hear, heard, heart, hearth, heat, heath, heathen, heather, heave, heaven, increase, instead,

heap,

heavy, hydrangea,

jealous, jeans, knead, laureate, leach, lead x 2 lean, leant,

[leed, led],

leaf, league, leak,

leap, leapt, learn, lease, least, leather, leave, linear, meadow, meagre, meal, mean, meant, measles, measure, neat, nuclear, ordeal, pageant, peace, meat,

leash,

near,

peach, peak, peal, peanut, pear, pearl, peas, peasant, peat, pheasant, plea, plead, pleasant, please, pleasure, pleat, led], ready, real, reality, really, realm, reap, rear, reveal, preach, queasy, reach, read x 2 [leed,

reason, rehearse, release, repeat,

retreat,

scream, sea, seal, seam, sear, search, season, seat, sheaf, shear, sheath, smear, sneak, speak, spear, spread, squeak, squeamish, steady, steak, steal, stealthy, steam, streak, stream, swear, sweat, tea, teach, teak, team, tears x 2 tease, theatre, thread, treason, treasure, treat, treaty, veal, weasel, weather, weave, threat, squeal,

[teers, tairs],

treacherous, treacle, treadmill,

weak, wealth, wean, weapon, wear, weary,

wheat, wreak, wreath, year, yearn, yeast, zeal, zealous.

Ei spells ee, ai and several other sounds: e of bed, ie of tie, i of bit and ee-i

Ceiling, conceit, conceive, deceit, deceive, deign, eight, either*, Fahrenheit, feign, foreign, forfeit, freight, heifer, height, heir, kaleidoscope, leisure*, neigh, neither*, protein, receipt, receive, reign, reindeer, reinforce, reins, seize, sheikh, skein, sleigh, sleight, sovereign, their, veil, vein, weigh, weight, weir, weird.

Ie spells ee and several other sounds: ie of tie, e of end, -ye of dryer, ee-ye, i of sit and je).

Achieve, alien, amplifier, ancient, anxiety, barrier, belief, believe, brief, carrier, cavalier, chandelier, chief, client, conscience, convenient, crier, die, diesel, diet, field, fiend, fierce, friend, frontier, glacier, glockenspiel, grief, grieve, handkerchief, hygiene, ingredient, interview, lenient, lie, lieutenant niece, obedient,
[leftennant],

medieval, mischief, movie,

oriental, pannier, patient, pie, piece, pier, pierce, pliers, premier, priest, proprietor, quiet, relief, relieve, review, science, series, shield, shriek, siege, sieve, society, soldier, soviet, spaniel, species, thief, thieve, tie, tier, twentieth, variety, vie, view, wheelie, wield, yield.

Ui has several unpredictable pronunciations: short i, i-e, yoo, yoo-i/ooi, oo, wi, wee.

Anguish, biscuit, bruise, build, built, circuit, cruise, disguise, distinguish, fluid, fruit, genuine, guidance, guide, guillotine, guilt, guinea-pig, guitar, intuition, juice, nuisance, penguin, pursuit, recruit, ruined, sluice, suicide, suit, suitable, suite, tuition.

Ch is not always as in chat: k, sh and some other pronunciations

Ache, anchor, archaeology, architect, architecture, avalanche, bronchial, bronchitis, chalet, chameleon, chamois, champagne, chaos, character, charade, chasm, ch ef, chemical, chemistry, chivalrous, choir tmas,
[quier],

cholesterol, chorus, christen, Chris

chrysalis, chute, crochet, echo, lichen* liken], machine, mechanical, mechanism,

[litchen or

microfiche, monarch, orchestra, orchid, parachute, psychology, richochet, schedule, scheme, spinach
[spinnage],

stomach, technique, yacht

[yot].

Ge, gi and gy have the sounds je and ji, as in gentle, ginger and gym. In the words below the g is hard, as in gap and got.

Anger, bogey, eager, geyser, hamburger, hunger,

finger,

fishmonger,

forget,

gear,

geese, get,

linger,

target,

tiger, together, gilt, girder, girdle, girl,

begin, corgi, giddy, gift, giggle, gild, gills, give, given, forgive, longevity, gymkhana. longitude,

-se When this ending follows a vowel, it is pronounced mainly Z (as in erase, cheese, rise, rose, fuse). In the following words it has an S-sound:

Base, case, chase, purchase, cease, crease, grease, increase, release, geese, th ese, practise, precise, premise, promise, tortoise, dose, goose, loose, noose, purpos e, douse, mouse.

Missing or misleading doubled consonants

One of the biggest problems in learning to read English is decoding vowel length. Vowels followed by one consonant and another vowel, as in game, legal, time, bone, tune, are supposed to be long. Short vowels in words of more than one syllable should be followed by a doubled consonant, as in grammar, beggar, imminent, bonny, button, or ck and dge, as in chicken and badger, This rule is often broken. Many words with a short vowel have missing doubled consonants or other spellings Sometimes the short vowels are spelt unpredictably too. Cabinet, cabaret, cabin, elaborate, fabulous, habit, nebula, liberal, liberty, tribute, probable, robin; academy, vacuum, decade, executive, recognise, record (noun), second, secular, liquor, liquorice, crocodile, documents; adequate, radical, radish, already credit, dedicated, edible, edit, educate, federal, medal, medical, meadow, pedal, pedigree, ready, steady, hideous, video, b ody, modern, modest, produce (noun), study; caf, refuge, refuse (noun), heifer, magnificent, significant, profit, agony, dragon, flagon, hexagonal, wagon, negative, brigand, frigate; magic, tragic, legend, legislate, regiment, register, vegetable, pigeon, religion, rigid, logic; analysis, balance, calendar, chalet, galaxy, italic, morality, palace, palate, palette, reality, salad, salary, salon, talent, talon, valentine, valiant, valid, value, vitality, celery, delegate,delicacy, deluge, develop, element,

eligible, helicopter, jealous, melody, melon, pelican, relevant, relic, skeleton, telescope, zealous, ability, bilious, military, ventriloquist, polythene, cylinder, abolish, colony, column, demolish, holiday, olive, knowledge, policy, politics, quality , solemn, solid, tolerate, volume , voluntary, colour; amateur, camel, camera, damage, dynamic, enamel, famine, famished, laminate, cemetery, chemical, democrat, emerald, epidemic, memory, remedy, lemon, feminine, premise,semi, criminal, eliminate, limit, timid, image, abominable, comet, comic, dominate, domino, economic, prominent, promise, vomit; animal, anorak, banish, banister, canopy, manage, manor, organic, panel, panic, spaniel, vanish, manual, benefit, any, enemy, energy, menace, many, penetrate, venison, lieutenant, aluminium, cinema, clinical, cynical, synagogue, synonym, continue, finish, linear, minimal, minister, minute*, opinion, sinister, spinach, vinegar, anonymous, astonish, conifer, economy, electronic, mnemonic, monastery, monarch, monument, supersonic, tonic, honey, money, onion; capital, capitol, chapel, rapid, tapestry, epic, leper, tepid, separate, typical, copy, opera, operate,proper, property, topic, popular, tropics; Arab, arable, arid, asparagus, baron, caramel, caravan, caricature, carol, chariot, charity, clarity, comparison, garage, parasol, parish, transparent, America, beret, bury, ceremony, cherish, derelict, herald, heritage, heroine, heron, merit, peril, perish, sincerity, sterilise, therapist, very, ,conspiracy, empirical, lyric, miracle, pyramid, spirit, syrup, tyranny, authority, coral, florist, forest, historic, horoscope, laurel, majority, minority, moral, orange, priority, quarantine, thorough, courage, nourish; acid, capacity, pacifist, recipe, specify, specimen, decimal, chrysalis, electricity, explicit,municipal, participate, precipice, publicity, simplicity, solicitor, velocity, sausage; atom, baton, catalogue, catapult, category, compatible, lateral, latitude, matinee, platinum, platypus, satin, strategy, athletic, magnetic, metal, petal, tetanus, veteran, yeti, competitive, analytic, British, citizen, city, critical, literally, obliterate, pity, botany; hazard, hesitate, desert, designate, desolate, hesitate, present, president, resident, lizard, miserable, prison, risen, scissors, visible, visit, wizard, wizened, closet, deposit, lozenge, positive. Some words have doubled consonants which do not follow a short, stressed vowel

They make words longer (and thereby automatically more difficult for beginners) and they undermine the reliability of doubled consonants that serve a phonic function, as in accurate, daffodil, rebellious, comment, annual, opposite, tomorrow, professor, forgotten. They also mislead inexperienced readers to place stress on the wrong syllable, instead of the vowel which carries it (underlined): Accommodate, accommodation, accompany, accomplish, accord, accordion, account, accumulate, accuse, accustom, occasion, occupation, occurrence, succumb, affection, afford, paraffin, affair, affect, effect, efficient, differential, diffusion, offend, official, sufficient, chauffeur, llama, parallel, really, excellent, hello, jewellery, marvellous, satellite, constellation, caterpillar,illegible, illiterate, illusion, illustration, illuminate, pastille, tonsillitis, collage, collapse, collect, collide, ammunition, programme, immediate, immense, immortal, immune, command, commemorate, commence, commercial, commit, commodities, commotion, communication, communion, community, commuter, committee, recommend, anniversary, announce, annoy, connect, personnel, mayonnaise, questionnaire, appal, apparatus, apparent, appeal, appear, appendix, applaud, apply, appoint, appreciate, apprentice, approach, appropriate, approve, approximate, hippopotamus, opportunity, oppose, supply, support, suppose, arrange, array, arrest, arrive, barricade, erratic, interrupt, serrated, terrific, irregular, irrigation, torrential, correspond, correct, correlation, hurrah, curriculum, surrender, surround, assail, assassin, assault , assemble, assert, assessment, assign, assist, associate, assort, assume, cassette, embassy, dessert, essential, necessary, possess, possibility, battalion, tattoo, mattress, attach, attain, attempt, attend, attention, attorney, attract, attributed, omelette, palette, settee.

Words with v nearly all pose problems in learning to read English, because this letter is usually not doubled after a short vowel (e.g. never) and a final v is usually followed by e, making it difficult to tell if a vowel before a v is long or short(gave have) or which vowel is stressed (severe several). Os before Vs are especially tricky. Above, alcove, alive, approve, arrive, avenue, average, aviary, aviation, avoid, behave,beloved, brave, cavalry, cave, cavern, cavity, chivalrous, civic, civil, civilian, clever, clover, cove, covenant, cover,

covet, covey, crave, crevice, deliver, derive, devil, devise, devote,discover, divan, dive, dove, drive, driv el, driven, driver, drove, eleven, eve, even, event,ever, every, evict, evidence, evident, evil, evolution, evolve, fever, five, flavour, gave, give, given, glove, govern, governor, grave, gravel, gravity, gravy, grovel, have, havoc, hive,hover, improve, ivory, javelin, jive, jovial, juvenile, knave, lava, lavender, level, lever, live, lively, love, move, movie, naval, nave, navigate, navy, never, novel, November, novice, olive,oval, oven, over , pavement, pavilion, poverty, previous, private, privilege, prove, proverb,provide, quiver, rave, raven, ravenous, revive, rival, river, rivet, savage, save, scavenge, seven, several, severe, severity, shave, shiver, shove, shovel shrivel, slave, slovenly, snivel, sover eign, soviet, stove, survive, swivel, thrive, travel, wave, waver, wives, wove. Words ending in ture are usually stressed on the first syllable (fracture, furniture, nature), apart from adventure, departure, expenditure, manufacture, mature. Words ending in ure have variable stress. Assure, conjure, cure, endure, exposure, failure, figure, fissure, injure, insure, lure, manure, measure, obscure, pleasure, pressure, procedure, procure, pure, secure, sure, treasure. 102 English words have different pronunciations in different contexts. Most have just changes in stress; those with ate endings change their vowel length too. Lead, read, tear; mass bass; bow, row, sow; abuse, excuse, use, close, house;

buffet, live, minute, mouth, pasty, Polish/ polish, pussy, second, slough, wind, wound; content, frequent, invalid, perfect, attribute, commune, compact, compound, concert, conduct, conflict, conscript, console, consort, construct, contest, contract, contrast, converse, convert, convict, defect, digest, discharge, entrance, escort, export, extract, fragment, impact, incense, insert, object, permit, present, produce, progress, project, prospect, protest, rebel, rebound, recall, record, refund, refuse, reject, relay, subject, survey, suspect, torment, transfer, transport; advocate, alternate, appropriate, approximate, articulate, associate, coordinate, degenerate, delegate, deliberate, designate, desolate, dictate, duplicate, elaborate, estimate, graduate, intimate, laminate, moderate, separate, subordinate, syndicate, triplicate.

Redundant or silent letters also cause reading difficulties

Acquaint, acquire, acquit, adjacent, adjoin, adjust, aisle, anaesthetic, apostle, are, blue, board, bogey, bristle , bruise, build, built, bustle, buy, bye, campaign, caught, clue, coarse, composite, conscious, controlled, copse, corps, creosote, cruise, cupboard, daughter, debris, debt, definite, dense, depot, determine, devalue, dialogue, diaphragm, dumb, dungeon, dye, eclipse, elapse, else, empty, epilogue, exceed, excel, except, excite, exhaust, exhibit , expense, exquisite, forgive, geese, genuine *, geyser*, ghastly, ghost, give, given, glimpse, glisten, glue, gnarled, gnash, gnat, gnaw, gnu, gorse, granite, gristle, guarantee, guard, haughty, hoarse, hustle, imagine, impulse, infinite, intense, island, isle , jostle, juice, knack, knacker, knave, knee, knew, knickers, knife, knight, knit, knob, knock, knot, knuckle, lapse, listen, live*, luncheon, luscious, masculine, medicine, meringue, midday, mnemonic, mortgage, naughty, nestle, nuisance , nurse, often , parliament, pharaoh, phlegm, pneumatic, proboscis, pseudonym, pterodactyl, purchase, raspberry, response, reverse, rheumatism, rhubarb, rhyme, rhythm , rinse, roller, rustle, rye, salmon, scholar, school, schooner, scissors, seven, several, shepherd, slaughter, straight, subtle, suggest, suicide, suitable, surgeon, suspense, swollen, scythe, taught, tense, thistle, tortoise , trestle , truncheon, verse, vineyard, Wednesday, were, whack, whale, wharf, what, wheedle, wheel, wheeze, whelk, when, whether, whey, which, while, whimper, whine, whip, whir, whirl, whisk, whiskers,

whiskey, whisky, whisper, whistle, white, whiz, why, wore, wrangle, wrap, wreck, wren, wrench, wrestle, wretch, wriggle, wring, wrinkle, wrist, writ, write, writhe, w ritten, wrong, wrote, wrung, wry, yoghurt. A few dozen more words have assorted reading problems Said, says, plait; hi, hi-fi, prix, kiwi, ski; there, clerk, forehead, poignant, wrath, broad; assault, aunt, Australia, because, cauliflower, chauffeur, draught, fault, gauge, hydraulic, laugh, laureate, laurel, mauve, restaurant, sausages, vault; antique, cheque, conquer, croquet, liquor, liquorice, marquee, mosque, opaque, parquet, picturesque, queue, quoit, turquoise, unique; geography, geology, theology, jeopardy, leopard, people, leotard, conscientious, convalesce, crescent, descend, disciple, discipline, fascinating, fascism, mollusc, muscle, scene, scenery, scent, science. The teaching of phonics is of limited use in English because identical letters often have different sounds, especially in words that children meet in their early reading. Among the 412 much used words listed below are 190 very common words which contain letters that are not pronounced in their usual way. They make the other 222 common words difficult to decode as well.

Table 1. The graphemes ea, o, o-e, ou, ow and oo are particularly

unreliable. Already beach beard beast beat beautiful bread break breakfast breath breathe clean cream creature dead deaf dear dream dreamt each ear early earn earth easy eat great head healthy hear heard heave heavy instead jealous jeans leap leapt learned learnt least leave meadow mean meant measure meat near peach peanut please reach read / read ready real scream sea seal search seat speak spread steady tea teach tear / tear thread treasure wear year

Another block both box brother clock clop colour cot dog don't dot flop fog fox front got hot job jog jot lock lost lots Monday most mother nod not nothing oh once only other plop pop pot pots programme sock somersault son spots stop strong tongue won won't worried worry do go no so to into onto two who Alone above broke bone choke come cone covered done drove gone home joke love loved lovely money move over poke pole prove one rode rope some stone today tomorrow About blouse bought bounce brought cloud could country couple crouch double

enough famous fought found ground group house loud mountain mouse moustache mouth ouch out pouch rough round should shoulder shout snout sound soup spout thought thousand through touch tough trouble trousers without would you young course court four favourite flour our sour your Blow blown bow / bow brown clown cow crow crown down flown frown glow grow growl grown how know known low mow mown now owl own row / row show shown slow snow town wow Balloon blood boo book boot coo cook door droopy flood floor food foot good hook hoop hoot kangaroo look mood roof room root school shampoo shook soon spoon too took tooth wood wool zoo

Table 2. In standard UK English, the sound of a also varies in 85 common words. A after all an and answer any anyway asked at bad bag bananas band basket bathcall calm camp can can't cash castle cat catch change chap chat clamp clap class crab crash dad dancing danger drag fall family fast father flag flap flat glad grab had halfhand happy hat lamp lap last many mash match nasty pass past pat path quack rash sand sat scratch slam snatch splash stamp stranger strap tall than thank that trap wall wander want was wash watch water Table 3. Five further inconsistencies impede reading progress in another 49 words. The (cat, mat) - be he me she we else uncle; Every seven - even these here - there where were; Friend - field believe genie thief - lie pie tie; Gave save have travel live give - drive alive; But cut dull gull hush rush - full pull push put.

Perhaps the following lay-out make the problem of identical letters with different pronunciations even clearer? Regular pronunciation Irregular pronunciation beach beard beast beat breathe cleancream creature dear dream each ear easy eat hear heave jeans leap least leave meanmeat near peach peanut please reach real scream sea seal seat speak tea teach year

read tear
[38 words]

Already beautiful bread break breakfast breathdead deaf dreamt early earn earth great headhealthy heard heavy instead jealous leapt learned learnt meadow meant measure readysearch spread steady thread treasure wear read tear
[34 words]

block box clock clop cot dog dot flop fog fox got hot job jog jot lock lost lots nod not plop pop pot pots sock spots stopstrong Another both brother colour don't front Mondaymost mother nothing oh on ce only otherprogramme somersault son tongue won won'tworried worry Go no so Alone broke bone choke cone drove home jokeover poke pole rode rope stone Do to into onto two who above come covered done gone love lovely moneymove prove one some today tomorrow About blouse bounce cloud crouch found ground house loud mountain mouse mouth ouch out pouch round shout snout soundspout thousand trousers without flour our sour Bought brought could country couple double enough famous fought group moustache roughshould shoulder soup thou ght through touch tough trouble would you young course court four favourite your

Brown clown cow crown down frown growl how now owl town wow bow row Blow blown crow flown glow grow grown know known low mow mown own show shown slow snow bow row

Balloon boo boot coo droopy food hoophoot kangaroo mood roof room root school shampoo soon spoon too toothzoo
[105 words]

Blood book cook door flood floor foot good hooklook shook took wood wool

[105 words]

A at cat hat bad dad had bag sat pat lap an and can sand hand band camp lamp clamp stamp clap flap flat flag slam glad crab drag grab trap strap mash rash crash cash splash chap chat catch match snatch scratch than that thank quack happy family
[49 words]

After all answer any anyway asked bananas basket bath call calm can't castle change class dancing fall fast father half last many nasty pass past path tall wall wander want was wash watchwater danger stranger
[36 wprds]

Alphabetic list of 2024 common words with reading problems

Above approve acoustic ache achieve aisle abuse adequate advocate alternate appropriate approximate articulate associate advance aghast ah abdomen ability able abolish abominable absolutely academy accommodate accommodation accompany accomplish accord accordion account accrue accumulate accuse accustom acid acquaint acquire acquit address adequate adjacent adjoin adjust advertisement advertising affair affect affection afford aggressive agony align alike alive all alliance allocation allotment allow ally almond almost alone along aloud already also altar alter alternative altogether aluminium aluminum always amateur America ammunition among amount amplifier anaesthetic analysis analytic anchor ancient anemone anger animal anniversary announce annoy anonymous anorak answer antique anxiety anxious any apostle appal apparatus apparent appeal appear appendix applaud apply appoint appreciate apprentice approach April apron aquatic Arab arable archaeology architect architecture are area arena arid armada around arouse arrange array arrest arrive as ask asparagus asphyxiate assail assassin assault assemble assert assessment assign assist assorted assume assure astonish astound athletic atom attach attain attempt attend attention attorney attract attributed aunt Australia authority avalanche avenue average aviary await awake awaken award aware away awe awful awkward awning balance bald ball ballet ballistic balloon banana banish banister baron barricade barrier base bask bastard bath baton battalion beach beacon bead beak beam bean bear beard beast beat beauty beaver because begin behave behind belief believe beneath benefit benign beret bible bilious bind biscuit bivouac blast bleach bleak bleat blew blind blood blouse blow blown blue board body

bogey book botany both bough bought boulder bounced bound boundary bouquet boutique bow bowl bra branch brass brave bread breadth break breakfast breast breath breathe brew brief bristle British broad bronchial bronchitis brooch brook brother brought brow brown brownie browse bruise buffet build built bull bullet bury bush bustle busy butcher buy bye cabaret cabin cabinet cable cadet cafe calendar calf call calm camel camera camouflage campaign canal canoe canopy capacity capita capital capitol caramel caravan career caricature carol carrier case cask cassette cast caste castle catalogue catapult category caterpillar caught cauliflower cavalier cave cavern cease ceiling celery cello cemetery ceremony chalet chalk chameleon chamois champagne chance chandelier chant chaos chapel character charade chariot charity chase chasm chasten chauffeur cheap cheat chef chemical chemistry cheque chequered cherish chief child chisel chivalrous choir cholesterol chorus choux christen Christmas chrysalis chute cigarette cinema circuit citizen city clarity clasp class clean cleanliness cleanse clear clerk clever client climb clinical close closet cloud clover clown clue coarse cognac coincide collage collapse colleague collect collide colonel colony colour column comb come comet comfort comic command commemorate commence commercial commit committee commodities commotion communication communion community commuter comparison compass compatible competitive composite compound conceal conceit conceive concert conclude conduct conflict congeal conifer conjure connect conquer conscience conscious conscript consign consort conspiracy constellation content contest continue contract contrast convenient converse convert convey convict cook cookie co-ordinate copse copy coral corgi corps correct correlation correspond couch cough could council counsel count counter country county coup couple coupon courage courier course court courtesy cousin cove covenant cover covet covey cow coward craft crave creak cream crease create creature credit crevice crier criminal critical crochet crocodile croquet crouch crow crowd crown cruise crusade cuckoo cupboard curlew curriculum cushion cycle cyclical cyclone cylinder cynical cypress daft dahlia damage dance daughter dead deaf deal dealt dean dear death debris debt decade deceit deceive decimal decrease dedicated defeat definite defy degenerate deign delegate deliberate delicacy deluge democrat demolish dense deny departure deposit depot derelict derive desert design designate desolate dessert determine devalue develop dialogue diaphragm die diesel diet differential diffusion digest dilute disaster discipline disease dive divert documents doe does doll dominate domino done door dose double doubt dough douse dove down dozen draft dragon drama draught dread dream dreamt dreary drive drivel driven drought drove drown drowse dumb dungarees duplicate duvet dwarf dye dynamic each eager eagle ear earl early earn earnest earth ease east Easter eat eaves echo eclipse economic economy edible edit educate effect efficient eider-down eight either elaborate elapse electricity electronic element eligible eliminate else embassy emerald empirical empty emu enamel encounter encourage endeavour endure enemy energy engrave enhance enough epic epidemic epilogue equal erratic essential estimate eucalyptus eve even ever exaggerate example exceed excel excellent except excess excite exclude excuse executive exhaust exhibit exhibition expanse expenditure expense explicit exposure exquisite eye

fable fabulous Fahrenheit failure fall fallen falter famine famished fascist fast fasten father fatigue fault favourite fear feast feat feather feature federal feign feminine fete fever field fiend fierce figure find finger finish fishmonger fissure five flabbergast flagon flask flea flood floor florist flounder flour flow flower flown flu flue fluent fluid fluke flute folk foot foreign forest forfeit forget forgive forward fought foul found foundation fountain four fourth freak freight frequent friend frigate front frontier frown fruit full gable gala galaxy gall garage gasp gauge gave gear geese genuine get geyser ghastly ghost ghoulish giddy gift giggle gild gills gilt giraffe girder girdle girl give given glacier glance glass gleam glean glimpse glisten glockenspiel glove glow glue gnarled gnash gnat gnaw gnome gnu goes gone good goose gorse govern gown graduate graft granite graph grasp grass grave gravel grease great grey grief grieve grind gristle gross ground group grovel grow growl grown growth gruesome guarantee guard habit half halfpenny hall halt halve hamburger handkerchief handsome has hasten haughty have hazard head heal health heap hear heard heart hearth heat heath heathen heather heave heaven heavy heifer height heir helicopter hello herald heritage heroic heroine heron hesitate hexagonal hey hi! hiccough hideous hi-fi hippopotamus his historic hive hoarse holiday honest honey honour hood hook horoscope horse host hound hour house hover how howl hunger hurrah hustle hydrangea hydraulic hydrogen hygiene hygrometer illegible illiterate illuminate illusion illustration image imagine immediate immense immortal immune imply improve impulse include increase indict infinite influence ingredient injure install installation instalment instead insure intense interrupt interview intimate intuition irregular irrigation island isle italic javelin jealous jeans jeopardy jewellery jive jostle journal journey juice July kaleidoscope karate khaki kind kiosk kiwi knack knacker knave knead knee knew knickers knife knight knit knob knock knot know knowledge known knuckle la lacquer laminate lance lapse lasso last lateral lather latitude laugh laureate laurel leach lead leaf league leak lean leant leap leapt learn lease leash least leather leave legend legislate leisure lemon lenient lens leopard leotard leper lettuce level lever lewd liberal liberty license lichen lie lieutenant limit linear linger liquor liquorice listen literally live lively lizard llama logic longevity longitude look loose loud lounge lout love low lozenge lubricate ludo lukewarm luminous lunar lunatic lure luscious lyric ma machine magic magnetic magnificent majority mama manage manor manual manufacture manure many marquee Mars marvellous masculine mask mass mast matinee mattress mature mauve mayonnaise meadow meagre meal mean meant measles measure meat mechanical mechanism medal medical medicine medieval melody melon memory menace meringue merit metal miaow microfiche midday mild military mind minimal minister minority minute miracle mischief miserable mnemonic model moderate modern modest monarch monastery Monday money monger mongrel monk monkey month monument moral morality mortgage mosque mosquito most mother mould moult mound mount mountain mourn mouse mousse moustache mouth move movie mow mown multiply municipal

naughty nave near neat nebula necessary negative neigh neighbour neither nestle never niece ninth none noose nothing nought nourish novel now nuclear nuisance nurse oasis obedient obey object obliterate obscure occasion occupation occupy occurrence offend official often olive omelette once one onion only opaque opera operate opinion opportunity oppose opposite orange orchestra orchid ordeal organic oriental other ought ounce our out outer oven over overwhelm owe owl own oxygen pa pacifist pageant palace palate palette pall palm paltry panel panic pannier panorama papa parachute paraffin parallel parasol parish parliament parquet participate pass past pastille pastry path patient patrol pavement peace peach peak peal peanut pear pearl peas peasant peat pedal pedigree pelican penetrate people peril perish personnel petal pharaoh pheasant phlegm physical physics physiology piano picturesque pie piece pier pierce pigeon pigsty pint pity plague plait plant platinum platypus plea plead pleasant please pleasure pleat pliers plough plumage plural Pluto pneumatic poignant policy politics polythene popular positive possess possibility post poster pouch poultry pounce pound pour pout poverty powder power practise prance preach precipice precise premier premise present president pressure priest priority prison prix probable probe procedure procure produce profit profound programme promenade prominent promise pronounce proper property proprietor protein proud prove prowl psalm pseudonym psychology pterodactyl publicity pudding pull purchase purpose pursuit push puss put pyjamas pyramid quack quadrangle qualify quality quantity quarantine quarrel quarry quarter quartz quay queasy questionnaire queue quiet quiver quoit radical radish raft rapid rascal raspberry rather rave raven ravenous reach read ready real reality really realm reap rear reason rebound recall receipt receive recipe recognise recommend record recruit refuge refuse regiment register rehearse reign reindeer reinforce reins reject release relevant relic relief relieve religion rely remedy repeat reply reservoir resident resign resolution resource response restaurant retreat reveal reverse review revive revolution reward rheumatism rhinoceros rhododendron rhubarb rhyme rhythm ricochet rifle rigid rind rinse risen river rivet robin rogue rook rough round rouse route routine row rowan rowdy ruin rustle rye said salad salami salary salmon salon salt salute sapphire satellite satin sausage save savour says scald schedule scheme scholar school schooner science scone scoundrel scout scowl scream sea seal seam sear search season seat seclude second secular secure seize semi separate series serrated serviette settee seven several sew sewn shaft shah shall shave sheaf shear sheath sheikh shepherd shield shiver shone shook should shoulder shout shove shovel show shower shown shriek shrivel shush siege sieve sign significant silhouette simile simplicity sincerity sinister skein

skeleton slant slaughter slave sleigh sleight slew slouch slough slovenly slow sluice small smear smother smoulder sneak snivel snout snow soccer society soldier solemn solicitor solid solution some somersault son soprano sough sought soul sound soup sour source south southern souvenir sovereign soviet sow sown spa spaniel speak spear species specify specimen spinach spirit sponge spout spread sprout squabble squad squall squander squash squat squeak squeal squeamish stable staff stalk stall stance steady steak steal stealthy steam sterilise steward stifle stomach stood stout stove stow straight strata strategy streak stream study subtle succumb sufficient sugar suggest suicide suit suitable suite supersonic supply support suppose sure surrender surround survey survive suspect suspense swag swagger swallow swam swamp swan swap swear sweat swivel sword swore sworn synagogue syndicate synonym synopsis syringe syrup table talent talk tall talon tambourine tapestry target task tattoo taught tea teach teak team tear tease technique telescope tense tepid terrific tetanus theatre their therapist there these they thief thieve thistle thorough though thought thousand thread threat thrive through throw thrown thou

tie tier tiger timid to today together tolerate tomb tomorrow ton tongue tonic tonsillitis took topic torrential tortoise toucan touch tough tour tourist tournament tow toward towel tower town tragic trance transparent travel treacherous treacle treadmill treason treasure treat treaty trestle tribute trifle trio triple tropics trouble trough trousers trout truncheon truth tuition turquoise twang twentieth two type typical tyranny tyrant unique universe upon upward use vacuum valentine valet valiant valid value vanish variety vast vault veal vegetable veil vein velocity venison ventriloquist verse very veteran video vie view vinegar vineyard visible visit vitality volume voluntary vomit voucher vow vowel waddle waft wag wagon walk wall wallaby wallet wallop wallow walnut walrus waltz wan wand wander wangle want wanton war warble ward warm warn warp warrant warren warrior wart was wash wasp watch water watt wattle wave waver wax weak wealth wean weapon wear weigh weight weir weird were weary weasel weather weave Wednesday

whack whale wharf what wheat wheedle wheel wheelie wheeze whelk when where whether whey which whiff while whilst whimper whine whip whir whirl whisk whiskers whiskey whisky whisper whistle white whiz who whole whom whooping whoosh whose why wield wild wind wives wizard wizened wolf woman womb women won wonder wood wooden wool woollen word wore work world worm worn worry worse worship worst worth would wound wove wow wrangle wrap wrath wreak wreath wreck wren wrench wrestle wretch wriggle wring wrinkle wrist writ write writhe written wrong wrote wrung wry yacht yak year yearn yeast yes yeti yield yoghurt you young your

zeal zealous zulu

Consonant doubling is the biggest English spelling problem

It causes more spelling errors than any other spelling difficulty. In root words of more than one syllable it is totally unpredictable. Doubling a consonant is supposed to show that a vowel is short rather than long, as in bitter biter, teddy - tedious, tinny tiny It was intended to apply just to stressed vowels. This is meant to explain why 'conferred' and 'committed' have rr and tt in the past tense, but 'entered' and'plummeted' don't (when ed is added to 'confer, commit, enter' and 'plummet').

Unfortunately, English consonant doubling is used very inconsistently. There is no reliable rule for deciding whether to double a consonant, or not, in similarly sounding words. Learners have to memorise, word by word, when to double and when not to, as the chart below summarises.

This rote-learning burden of 913 words defeats many learners. Another 73 words exacerbate it even further. 49 words have unpredictable final -ff, -ll and ss (if stiff, stole poll, bus fuss) and 24 words don't follow the ccle pattern, of endings like apple, bubble, tussle, for example, chapel, double, rustle. Table 1: 379 common words which obey the consonant doubling rule, 376 words which disobey the doubling rule, 158 words that have doubled consonants for obscure reasons and 73 words with unpredictable endings.

49 words have unpredictable final -ff, -ll and -ss

cuff duff gruff off dole hole mole pole role sole stole whole casserole rissole tadpole fuss puss truss hiss kiss miss ass crass lass

huff puff stuff of poll roll scroll stroll toll troll doll loll control enrol patrol us bus plus this

rough tough slough enough cough trough coal foal goal shoal soul

cliff sniff

stiff whiff staff

chef if calf half laugh

bawl brawl crawl drawl scrawl shawl sprawl trawl

all shall ball call fall hall small stall tall wall

atlas canvas pampas pyjamas

carcass compass embarrass trespass

brass* class* glass* grass* pass* mass*

Christmas gas

* In standard UK speech these words rhyme with 'farce' and 'sparse';

yes

and 'mass' has a variable sound.

24 words don't follow the ccle pattern of doubled consonants in endings

babble knuckle bubble cobble dabble double dribble gabble gobble nickel

baffle muffle

camel pommel pummel channel flannel funnel kennel

barrel laurel quarrel squirrel apostle bristle bustle

battle bottle cattle kettle little nettle rattle ruffle

pickle raffle prickle ruffle speckle scuffle suckle shuffle tackle sniffle tickle

hobble nibble pebble quibble rubble scribble squabble treble trouble

trickle cuddle haggle fiddle niggle

giggle goggle apple

panel tunnel

castle gristle hassle hustle

scuttle settle skittle subtle throttle wattle dazzle drizzle grizzle guzzle muzzle nozzle nuzzle puzzle sizzle

huddle smuggle meddle snuggle middle straggle model muddle wiggle wriggle peddle

chapel couple cripple ripple supple tipple topple tussle triple

jostle muscle mussel rustle tassel thistle trestle vessel whistle wrestle

struggle grapple

wobble paddle buckle puddle cackle riddle chuckle saddle crackle toddle fickle

There is also no general rule for keeping and dropping doubled letters in compounds.

Fill, full - fulfil, beautiful;

well - welfare - farewell

Consonant doubling causes severe problems for all learners. Even young children have to deal with them soon after first starting to read and write. The following 111 words with regularly doubled consonants, 82 with missing ones and 18words with surplus or wrong doublings feature in most early reading schemes. 111 regular doublings Cabbage rabbit ribbon hobby chubby rubber rubbish daddy ladder teddy giddy hidden pudding sudden daffodil traffic different difficult coffee office luggage gallop shallow valley cellar fellow jelly yellow billy brilliant bully gorilla pillow silly village collar dollar follow hollow holly jolly lollipop trolley lullaby hammer mummy summer summit tummy yummy granny nanny penny tennis dinner happen happy pepper flippers slippers floppy poppy puppet puppy supper upper arrow carrot carry narrow parrot berry cherry ferry terrace terrible mirror borrow horrible lorry sorry tomorrow worry hurry massive passenger lesson message possible attic chatter clatter matter scatter shatter better letter lettuce bitter glitter kitten written bottom cottage forgotten butter button clutter mutter buzzer dizzy

82 missing and 18 surplus or wrong doublings

cabin fabulous habit probable robin radish already ready meadow steady body model modern study - add odd cafe - afford dragon - egg balance calendar palace salad celery helicopter jealous melody melon pelican skeleton holiday solid volume - collect, hello timid image abominable comet comic promise vomit animal banister manage panic vanish any many enemy cinema finish spinach annoy weapon leopard rapid capital separate copy proper topic popular - appear caravan carol America heroine perish very florist forest orange arrange arrest arrive decimal recipe dessert atom platypus satin metal petal British city pity - attract attention tattoo settee mattress desert hesitate present prison visit scissors

The EE sound
Table 1. The spelling of the EE-sound which occurs in 454 common words is completely unpredictable, with 132 ee, 152 ea, 86 e-e, 7 e, 29 i-e, 31 ie, 12 ei and 5 other graphemes. agree, bee, beech, beef, been, beer, beet, beetle, between, bleed, bleep, breed breeze, career, cheek, cheer, cheese, cheetah, chimpanzee, creek, creep, deed, deep, deer, degree, discreet, domineer, dungarees, eel, eerie, employee, engineer, exceed, fee, feeble, feed, feel, feet, flee, fleece, fleet, free, freeze, geese, glee, greed, green, greet, guarantee, heel, indeed, interviewee, jamboree, jeep, jeer, jubilee, keel, keen, keep, knee, kneel, lee, leek, marquee, meek, meet, need, needle, pedigree, peek, peel, peep, peer, pioneer, preen, proceed, proceeds, queen, queer, reed, reef, reel, referee, refugee, screech, screen, see, seed, seek, seem, seen, seep, seesaw, settee, sheep, sheer, sheet, sleek, sleep, sleet, sleeve, smithereens, sneer, sneeze, speech, speed, squeeze, steel, steep, steeple, steer, street, succeed, sweep, sweet, teem, teeth, teetotal, thirteen, three, tree, trustee, tweed, tweezers, volunteer, weed, week, weep, wheedle, wheel, wheeze, wildebeest appeal, appear, beach, beacon, bead, beak, beam, bean, beard, beast, beat, beaver, beneath, bleach, bleak, bleat, breathe, cease, cheap, cheat, clean, clear, colleague, conceal, congeal, creak, cream, crease, creature,

deal, dean, dear, decrease, defeat, disease, dream, dreary, each, eager, eagle, ear, ease, east, Easter, eat, eaves, fear, feast, feat, feature, flea, freak, gear, gleam, glean, grease, heal, heap, hear, heat, heath, heathen, heave, increase, jeans, knead, leach, lead*, leaf, league, leak, lean, leap, lease, leash, least, leave, meagre, meal, mean, measles, meat, near, neat, ordeal, pea, peace, peach, peak, peal, peanut, peat, plea, plead, please, pleat, preach, queasy, reach, read*, real, really, reap, rear, reason, release, repeat, retreat, reveal, scream, sea, seal, seam, sear, season, seat, sheaf, shear, sheath, smearsneak, speak, spear, squeak, squeal, squeamish, steal, steam, streak, stream, tea, teach, teak, team, tear*, tease, treacle, treason, treat, treaty, veal, weak, wean, weary, weasel, weave, wheat, wreak, wreath, year, yeast, zeal adhere, adhesive, arena, cafeteria, cedar, cereal, chameleon, Chinese, comedian, compete, complete, concrete, convene, convenient, decent, demon, equal, era, eve, even, evil, experience, exterior, extreme, female fever, frequent, genie, genius, here, hero, hyena, imperial, inferior, ingredient, interfere, intermediate, legal, legion, lenient, lever, material, medium, mere, meteor, meter, millipede, mysterious, obedient, period, persevere, peter, polythene, precede, previous, query, recent, recess, region, relay, scene, scheme, sequence, sequin, series, serious, serum, severe, sincere, species, sphere, stampede, strategic, superior, supreme, swede, tedious, theatre, theme, theory, these, torpedo, trapeze, vehicle, Venus, zero be, he, me, she, we, cathedral, secret albino, antique, aubergine, bikini, clementine, fatigue, guillotine, kiosk, kiwi, machine, magazine, margarine, marine, mosquito, pizza, plasticine, police, prestige, ravine, regime, routine, sardine, suite, tambourine, tangerine, trampoline, trio, unique, vaseline achieve, belief, believe, brief, chief, diesel, thieve, tier, wield, yield, cavalier, chandelier, field, fiend, fierce frontier grief, grieve, hygienic, medieval, niece, piece, pier, pierce, priest, relief, relieve, shield, shriek, siege, thief

*conceive/conceit, deceive/deceit, receive/receipt, seize, sheikh weir weird people, debris, key, ski, quay

ceiling,

protein

The chart below presents the problem in a different way.

Children have to begin tackling the EE-spelling problem as soon as they start writing their own stories, because it occurs in many very common words, as can be seen below.
agree, bee, beef, been, beer, beetle, between, bleed, cheek, cheer, cheese, creep, deep, deer, dungarees, feed, feel, feet, fleece, free, freeze, geese, green, greet, heel, indeed, jeep, keen, keep, knee, kneel, meet, need, needle, peek, peel, peep, queen, screech, screen, see, seed, seem, seen, seesaw, settee, sheep, sheet, sleep, sleeve, sneeze, speech, speed, squeeze, steel, steep, steer, street, sweep, sweet, teeth, thirteen, three, tree, weed, week, wheel, wheeze, appear, beach, bead, beak, beam, bean, beard, beast, beat, breathe, cheap, cheat, clean, clear, creak, cream, creature, deal, dear, dream, each, ear, east, easy, eat, fear, feast, flea, gleam, grease, heal, heap, hear, heat, jeans, knead, lead*, leaf, leak, lean, leap, leash, least, leave, meal, mean, meat, near, neat, pea, peace, peach, peanut,

please, reach, read*, real, really, reason, repeat, scream, sea, seal, seat, sneak, speak, squeak, steal, steam, stream, tea, teach, team, tear*, tease, treat, weak, wheat, year, yeast, (* The spellings lead, read and tear spell six different words: leed / led, reed / red and teer/tair) be, he, me, she, we, complete, even, fever, here, hero, lever, secret, serious, these, ski, bikini, kiwi, machine, magazine, mosquito, pizza, plasticine, police, sardine, trampoline, unique, believe, field, fierce, genie, piece, pierce, shriek, thief, weird, key, people

An alphabetic listing of the same words may give a clearer picture of the cognitive confusion which the different spellings for the EEsound create for young pupils:
agree, appear, be, beach, bead, beak, beam, bean, beard, beast, beat, bee, beef, been, beer, beetle, believe, between, bikini, bleed, breathe, cheap, cheat, cheek, cheer, cheese, clean, clear, complete, creak, cream, creature, creep, deal, dear, deep, deer, dream, dungarees, each, ear, east, easy, eat, even, fear, feast, feed, feel, feet, fever, field, fierce, flea, fleece, free, freeze, geese, genie, gleam, grease, green, greet, he, heal, heap, hear, heat, heel, here, hero, indeed, jeans, jeep, keen, keep, key, kiwi, knead, knee, kneel, lead*, leaf, leak, lean, leap, leash, least, leave, lever, machine, magazine, me, meal, mean, meat, meet, mosquito, near, neat, need, needle, pea, peace, peach, peanut, peek, peel, peep, people piece, pierce, pizza, plasticine, please, police, queen, reach, read*, real, really, reason, repeat, sardine, scream, screech, screen, sea, seal, seat, secret, see, seed, seem, seen, seesaw, serious, settee, she, sheep, sheet, shriek, ski, sleep, sleeve, sneak, sneeze, speak, speech, speed, squeak, squeeze, steal, steam, steel, steep, steer, stream, street, sweep, sweet, tea, teach, team, tear*, tease, teeth, these, thief, thirteen, three, trampoline, treat, tree, unique, we, weak, weed, week, weird, wheat, wheel, wheeze, year, yeast. The long O sound

It has 217 regular spellings as in 'nose' and 'no', but because it also has 161 exceptions, like 'coal, roll, bowl' and 'slow, toe, though', its regular pattern is severely diluted, and 27 words with o-e for the short U-sound (e.g. come) complicate matters still further

alcove alone antelope appropriate arose associated bone bony bulldoze chose chosen chrome close clothes clover code commotion component composer cone cope cove creosote cyclone devoted diploma disposal docile dome dose dote doze drone drove elope enclose envelope episode explosive exposure froze frozen gnome grocer grope heroic holy home hope hose hotel imposed Joseph jovial kimono local located lone lotion microscope mobile mode moment motel motive noble nobody node nomad nose notable notice November oboe ocean October omen opal open opponent oval over periscope phone poem poet poetry pony pope pose postpone potion primrose proboscis proceeds process programme proposal protest pullover quota rhizome robe rode Roman rope rose rove scope slogan slope sober sociable social soda sofa solar stone strode suppose telephone telescope those throne tone total trombone utopia utopian vocalist wardrobe wove yodel zodiac zone broke broken choke joke poke smoke spoke spoken stoke stroke token woke yoke cloak croak oak soak note promote quote remote vote wrote afloat boat coat gloat goat oats stoat throat dole hole mole molar pole polar role sole stole stolen whole casserole rissole tadpole knoll poll roll scroll stroll swollen toll troll wholly control enrol patrol coal foal goal shoal bold cold fold gold hold holster old scold sold solder soldier told bolt colt dolt jolt revolt folk yolk soul mould moult shoulder smoulder boast coast roast toast - host most post postal poster coach coax foam groan load loaf loan loathe moan oaf oath poach road roam soap toad approach cockroach sewn brooch goes gross mauve both sloth only blown bowl grown growth known mown own rowan shown sown thrown

O-e sound in endings

blow bow* crow flow glow grow know low mow row* show slow sno w sow* stow throwtow * with two different pronunciations doe floe foe hoe oboe roe sloe toe woe dough though oh owe sew fro go no pro so ago albino also armadillo banjo bingo buffalo cargo cello disco domi no duo dynamo echoego Eskimo flamingo halo hello hero judo kimon o ludo motto piano piccolo Pluto polo potatopseudo radio ratio solo so prano studio tango tobacco tomato tornado torpedo trio videovolcano z ero arrow barrow bellow below billow bungalow burrow elbow fellow follow gallows hollowmarrow narr ow pillow shadow shallow swallow sorrow sparrow tomorrow wallow wi dowwillow window yellow cocoa depot pharaoh
O-e spells short U-sound, as in 'but, cut, nut' above come cover covet covey does done dove dozen glove govern honey love lovely money monetary none one oven shove shovel slovenly some colour onion stomach thorough

The long OO-sound and short OO-sound Table 1. 90 common words spell the long OO-sound with oo, but 91 words spell it with other letters, in the stem of words and endings. And in some words oo spells a shorter sound, e.g. 'good' in table 2.
boom boon boost boot choose cool doom food fool goose hoof hooligan hoop hoot lagoon mood shoot smooth snooker soon soothe spoof spook spool spoon stool stoop swoon swoop tool tooth whoop macaroon maroon mushroom brood broom droop groom groove proof roof room root troop brutal brute crucial crude cruel frugal intrude prune ruby rude ruined rule rural truant truce truly acoustic bivouac boutique coupon group recoup lose move prove sleuth gruesome bruise cruise fruit recruit sluice manoeuvre shrewd tomb womb

moon moor moot noodle noon noose poodle pool school schooner scoop scooter

zoom baboon cartoon cocoon harpoon pontoon

bloom gloom loom loop loose loosen loot balloon saloon

fluent fluid fluke flute glucose include lubricate ludicrous ludo lukewarm luminous lunar lunatic plural recluse secluded plumage

route soup toucan tourist troupe wound youth truth

bamboo cockatoo hullabaloo igloo kangaroo shampoo tattoo voodoo yahoo

boo coo goo loo moo shoo too woo zoo

blue clue flue glue rue true construe accrue flu gnu guru zulu

blew brew crew drew flew grew screw shrew slew strew threw cashew

do lasso to two who

canoe shoe through you

Table 2. The short OO sound has ended up with no identifiable spelling of its own. All the spellings used for it (oo, u, oul, ou, o) spell other sounds too: took - spook, flood; pull - dull, truth; should - shoulder, smoulder; courier - cloud, group, country; wolf - womb, women, wombat. book brook cook foot good hood whoosh wood wool hook look rook shook took stood

bull bullet bullion full pull bush butcher cuckoo cushion pudding push pussy put shush sugar could should would courier wolf woman [36 words]

For several reasons, the use of the letter 'o' was never properly standardised in English. It first lost its reliable link to just one sound as in 'got hot', when early scribes started to use it for the short U-sound whenever this occurred next to the letters 'm', 'n', or 'u' leaving us with spellings likes 'come' ,'none' and 'love'. ('Love' used to be spelt 'loue' until the introduction of v in the 17th century. Until then 'u' spelt both the short U-sound and the V-sound, e.g. 'under' and 'ouer') The scribes made the 'O for U' substitution because they thought that too many downward strokes next to each other, as in 'sume, nune, luue' made reading difficult. The O/U overlap became worse during the 16th century when some English vowel sounds appear to have changed slightly and some earlier spellings were re-used for different sounds, but not systematically so. Some respellings made words more phonic: honde hand, londe land, honger hunger, trompet trumpet, roume room, fole fool, rofe roof, rote root, sone soon, tothe t ooth.

Other changes brought no phonic improvement: bloud blood, contre country, shulde should, toched touched, doth does, whome whom.

Many re-spellings made things worse: shues shoes, trueth thruth, frute fruit, doo do, bothe both, onely only, doune down, toune town [with 'own' now also used in ' blown' and 'shown'] dout doubt.

Other serious spelling problems

The four most serious English spelling problems (consonant doubling and unpredictable spellings for the EE-sound, the O-E -sound and the two OOsounds) affect large numbers

of words [1040 + 454 + 378 + 217 = 2089] and create both spelling and reading problems. Another 1191 unpredictable spellings for 5 sounds (ur/er/ir, or/aw, s, sh and the unstressed half-vowel in endings like en/ -on/ -an and er/ -or/ -ar) impede mainly progress in writing. The endings en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words: chicken [73] / beckon [69] / pelican [34] / pumpkin [22] / certain [7]. The er ending which occurs in at least 350 words, like 'mother, sister, thinner' is not followed by 179: visitor [75], popular [34], future [44], and in the UK also theatre [7] and harbour [18]. The endings ary / -ery / -ory / -ury vary randomly in 94 words: contrary[37] / cemetery[25] / symmetry[14] /dormitory[12] / century[6]. Ur / er / ir - This sound has 206 random spellings: turn[73] / term[70] / third[39] others. Au / aw / al / augh /ough spellings vary in 101 words: haunt[38] / crawl[37], all[24], bought[7], caught[6]. In standard UK English they spell the same sound as or in

and [24]

'ford'.

Or /ore /oar /our spellings vary in 127 words: nor[79] / [48] more, roar, four, door. S / c / sc / ss - This uncertainty causes 195 exceptions from 302 spellings but comprises three different sub-patterns: Initial s- [91] (seldom, sincere, system) / [57] c, sc (cell, civil, cynical, scent) (before e, i and y) Middle -c- [71] (cancel / [37] -s- , -sc- (counsel, descend) Final ce [140] (face, office) / [100] -se, -s, -ss (case, tennis, carcass) The SH-sound has no reliable spelling pattern in word endings in 145 words: 61 ti spatial, 48 ci facial, pretentious, officious, mention, ignition

20 si tension, 10 ssi mission and a few

others.

The SH-sound also has 33 unpredictable spellings at the beginning and in the middle of words: sure, chalet, ancient, machine,

conscience

The endings en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words abdomen alien awaken barren bitten bracken brazen brighten chicken children chosen christen citizen delicatessen dozen drive eleven even fallen forgotten frighten frozen garden given glisten golden happen heathen heaven hidden hydrogen kindergarten kitchen kitten laden lessen lichen listen loosen madden mitten often omen open oven [73] oxygen pollen raven ridden ripen risen rotten sadden seven sharpen* sodden specimen spoken stamen stolen strengthen sudden sullen swollen taken threaten token vixen warren women wooden woollen written abandon apron bacon badminton baron baton beacon beckon bison carbon carton cauldron common comparison cordon cotton coupon crayon crimson damson demon dragon electron flagon gallon heron horizon iron jettison lemon [63] lesson mason matron melon mutton nylon octagon pardon pentagon person phenomenon piston poison prison pylon python reason reckon ribbon salmon salon Saxon season sermon siphon skeleton summon talon treason venison wagon wanton weapon [6] chameleon dungeon luncheon pigeon surgeon truncheon

Alsatian amphibian cardigan Christian civilian comedian Dalmatian historian hooligan Indonesian magician metropolitan musician ocean optician organ orphan [34] partisan pedestrian pelican republican Roman rowan ruffian slogan suburban tartan toucan turban urban utopian vegetarian veteran woman

aspirin basin bulletin cabin catkin coffin cousin dolphin gherkin goblin javelin [22] origin paraffin penguin pumpkin raisin robin satin sequin tarpaulin urchin vermin

bargain captain certain fountain mountain porcelain villain [7]

The er ending pattern of 'mother, sister, thinner' is disobeyed by 179 words actor advisor alligator ambassador ancestors anchor assessors author boaconstrictor calculator castor conductor conveyor corridor decorator demonstrator director doctor editor elevator emperor equator error escalator factor gladiator governor indi cator interior inventor investors junior juror legislators liquor major manor mayor minor mirror [75] monitor motor navigator operator orator prior professor proprietor radiator razor rector refrigerator respirator rotor scissors senator senior sensors solicitor spectator sponsor successor superior supervisor surveyor survivor tailor tenor terror tractor traitor tutor victor visitor warrior In UK English not or: armour behaviour colour favour flavour glamour harbour honour humour lab our [18] neighbour odour parlour rumour saviour savour splendour tumour angular burglar caterpillar cellar circular collar dollar familiar grammar guitar j aguar [34] liar linear lunar muscular nectar nuclear particular peculiar pillar polar poplar popular radar regular scholar secular similar sitar solar spectacular sugar vica r vulgar adventure agriculture architecture capture caricature creature culture depart ure [44] expenditure feature fracture furniture future gesture lecture legislature litera ture manufacture miniature mixture nature picture puncture scripture signature s tructure temperature torture venture vulture conjure exposure failure figure fissure figure fissure injure leisure measure p leasure treasure pressure procedure In UK English not -er: centre fibre ogre sabre theatre metre kilometre [7]

333 common words end with er are listed below. Many more can be formed on the pattern of 'bigger, fonder, nicer' and 'helper, drinker, thinker. after alter amber amplifier anger angler another answer antler aster badger baker banister barrier barter beaker beater beaver better bewilder bitter blister boarder bomber border bother brewer bricklayer brother buffer builder bumper butcher butter camper cancer carpenter catcher cauliflower cavalier chamber chandelier chandler chapter character charter cinder clamber cleaner clever climber cloister clover cluster commander commissioner commuter composer computer conifer conker consider

consumer cooker corner counter cover crater crier cucumber customer cylinder dancer danger daughter dealer December defender deliver designer diameter differ digger diner dinner disaster discover dreamer driver duster eager either elder employer encounter endanger enter ever exchequer falter farmer farther father feather feeler fender fester fighter filter finger fishmonger fitter flicker flipper flower former frontier further gander garter gather geyser ginger girder glacier glider glitter hairdresser hamburger hammer hamper hamster hang-glider heather helicopter helterskelter hinder holder holster hover hunger hunter inner insider intruder invader juggler jumper Jupiter killer ladder larder later lather latter laughter lawyer leader leather leper letter lighter linger listener litter lobster lover lower lumber maker manager manger manner manufacturer master matter meander member merger meter miller minister monster mother murder murderer muster neither never number offer officer older order other outer outrigger over owner painter pamper pannier panther paper partner passenger pepper pester peter pewter philosopher photographer pincer pitcher plaster player plumber ponder porter poster potter powder power prayer prefer premier prisoner producer programmer propeller proper prosper quarter rafter raider rasher rather reader recorder refer register reindeer remainder remember reporter revolver rider river robber roller rudder ruler salamander saucer scamper scatter screwdriver September shelter shoulder silver sinister sister sitter skewer slender slipper slither smother sober solder soldier spanner speaker speedometer spider spinnaker spinster splinter sprinkler steamer stranger sucker suffer summer super supper surrender swelter tamper tanker taxpayer teacher teenager temper tender tether thermometer thunder tiger timber tinker together tower trader trailer trainer transfer transporter traveller trawler trigger tuber under upper utter voter waiter walker wander water weather whether whimper whisker whisper winder winter wither wonder worker writer youngster

In UK English, the a ending also sounds very similar to er. algebra, antenna , area, arena , armada, asthma, banana, cafeteria, camera, capita, china, cinema, cobra, dahlia, data, dilemma, diploma, drama, era, extra, formula, gala, gondola, gorilla, gymkhana, hydrangea, hyena, idea, larva, lava, llama, malaria, militia, nebula, opera, orchestra, panda, panorama, peninsula, piazza, piranha, pizza, pneumonia, propaganda, pupa, quota, regatta, replica, soda, sofa, stigma, tarantula, tiara, tuba, tundra, umbrella, utopia, vanilla, veranda, via, villa, yoga, zebra The endings ary / -ery / -ory / -ury vary randomly in 94 words adversary anniversary arbitrary aviary boundary burglary commentary contemporarycontrary diary dictionary elementary estuary February January library literary military monetary necessary ordinary planetary preliminary primary pulmonary reactionary revolutionary salary secondary secretary solitary stationary summary temporary veterinary vocabulary voluntary [37] archery artery artillery blustery celery cemetery colliery crockery delivery discovery drudgery every gallery jewellery lottery machinery

monastery mystery nursery pottery scenery stationery surgery category dormitory laboratory memory

recovery robbery

[25]

factory history inventory ivory observatorysatisfactory territory theory gantry industry poultry symmetry tapestry treasury savoury

[12]

carpentry chemistry country entry infantry paltry pantry pastry poetry century injury [6] luxury Mercury

[14]

Ur / er / ir Learners have to memorise 206 spellings for this sound: 73 ur, 71 er, 39 ir, 11 ear, 9 or and 3 our. Only 8 words beginning with wor- are fairly predictable. absurd blur burden burglar burgle burly burn burr burst church churn curfew curl curlew curse curt curve disturb excursion fur furnish furry further gurgle hurdle hurl hurt hurtle incursion lurch lurk murder murmur nasturtium nurse nursery occur purchase purple purpose purr purse return slur spur spurn spurt sturdy suburb surf surface surge surgeon surgery surname surplus survey Thursday topsy-turvy turban turbine turf turkey turmoil turn turnip turquoise turtle urban urchin urge urn yurt [73] berth fern her herb herd jerk nerve perch serve stern swerve term verb verge verse advertisement alert alternative anniversary assert certain commercial concern confer conserve conversion deserve dessert detergent determine emerge eternal exert expert external fertile germinate hermit impertinent insert interpret jersey kernel merchant mercury mercy observe perfect perfume permanent permit person pertinent preserve refer reserve reverse sermon serpent terminate termite thermal transfer* universal university verdict vermin version versus vertical were [71] birch bird birth chirp circle circuit circular circumstances circus confirm dirt encircle firfirm first flirt girder girdle girl mirth shirk shirt sir skirmish skirt smirk squirm squirt stir swirl third thirst thirteen thirty twirl virtually virtue whirl whirring [39] earl early earn earnest earth heard learn pearl rehearse search yearn [11] courtesy journal journey [3] attorney word work world worm worse worship worst worth [9]

Au / aw / al / augh /ough spellings vary in 101 words.

applause assault astronaut auburn auction audible August authentic author authorise automatic autonomy autumn cauldron cause caution cosmonaut daub exhaust gaudy haul haunt jaunt launch launder maul nautical Paul pause Santa-Claus sauce saucer staunch tarpaulin taunt taut vault [37 au] awe awful awkward awning brawn dawdle dawn drawn fawn hawk lawn pawn prawn sawn spawn squawk yawn claw draw flaw gnaw jaw saw straw thaw law paw raw bawl brawl crawl drawl scrawl shawl sprawl trawl [35 aw]

all ball call fall gall hall install pall recall small squall stall tall wall chalk stalk talk [17 al]

appal [7 a]

bald

falter

halt

instalment

salt

scald

bought brought fought nought ought sought thought [7 ough]

caught daughter haughty [6 augh]

naughty

slaughter taught

broad

poultry In standard UK English they all spell the same sound as the or in 'form'.

Or /ore /oar /our spellings vary in 127 words. or orb born cord cork corn corpse for force ford forge fork form fort forth gorge gorse horn horse lord nor norm north porch pork port scorch scorn shorn short snort sort sport stork storm sword sworn thorn torch torn absorb afford border conform corgi corner cornet divorce enormous fortress fortune forty forward glory important morning normal northern orbit orchard order ordinary ornament perform platform popcorn portable portion portrait proportion record reform [79] report resort scorpion storage story tortoise uniform adore before bore carnivore chore core folklore fore gore ignore implore ore more pore score shore snore sore store swore tore wore [22]

four pour tour your course court mourn resources source tournament [10] boar oar roar soar board coarse hoard hoarse [8] war warm warn wart [8] quarter door floor corps

Initial s- / c, sc (before e, i and y) sea seal seam see seed seek seem seen seep seldom select self sell senate senator send senior sensation sense sent sentence sentiment separate September serious serpent serve session set settle seven several sex sick side siege sieve sigh sight sign signal signature signify silence silent silk silly silver similar simile simmer simple simplify simultaneous sin since sincere sincerity sing singe single singular sinister sink siphon sipping sir sister sit sitar site situation six size sizzle syllable symbol symmetry sympathy symphony symptom synagogue synchronise [91] syndicate syndrome synonym synopsis synthesis syringe syrup system cease cedar ceiling celebrate celebrity celery cell cellar cellophane cement ce metery cent central centre century cereal ceremony certain certificate cider cigar cigarette cinder cinema circle circuit circular circulate circumferen ce circumstances circumstantial circus cistern cited citizen citrus city civic civil c ivilian [57] civilisation civvy cycle cyclical cyclone cygnet cylinder cymbals cynical cypress cyst scene scenery scent science scissors scythe

Middle -c- / s- , -sc- (cancel / counsel, descend) ancestors cancel cancer coincide conceal concentrate concern concert council criticism December decent decide deciduous decipher decision decisive docile

electricity exercise facetious facilities grocer hyacinth incident innocent license magnificent medicine narcissus necessity Pacific parcel pencil percent percentage perception pincer plasticine [55] porcelain precise princess principal principle publicity recent recess recite rhinoceros saucer sincere society specific stencil suicide

conceive conceit concept conception receive reception precede procedure

deceit deceive [16]

receipt

proceed proceedings proceeds

process procession

absent arsenic consent consequence conservative counsel analysis basic basin capsize consider consist crisis emphasis hypothesis insect insert insist morsel oasis persevere persist prehensile prosecute responsible tonsil university utensil [37] abscess ascend ascertain condescend descend disciple discipline fascinating proboscis

Final ce and other spellings for the final S-sound Final S-sound after a long vowel advice brace choice device dice embrace face fleece grace ice introduce juice lace mice nice niece pace peace piece place plaice police price race reduce rejoice replace retrace rice sacrifice sauce slice sluice space trace truce twice vice voice [39] base case cease chase close* crease dose douse excuse* geese goose greas e house* increase loose mouse noose precise release these those use* [22]

* In the words 'close', 'excuse', 'house' and 'use' se spells both the S and Z sounds, depending on context (e.g. 'no use, to use'). The 22 unpredictable se endings after a long vowel cause reading as well as spelling problems, because in 120 words, -se spells the Z-sound (e.g. choose, rise, wise).

Final S-sound after an unstressed vowel apprentice armistice coppice crevice justice notice novice office practice / practise precipice service menace necklace palace surface terrace [17] premise promise purchase purpose [7] tortoise

lettuce

analysis axis basis bronchitis chrysalis crisis emphasis hypothesis iris oasis pe lvis proboscis synthesis tennis tonsillitis trellis [21] atlas canvas Christmas pampas pyjamas

abscess access congress cypress fortress mattress harness process progres s recess [16] witness carcass compass embarrass trespass convalesce

Final S-sound after consonants (n, p, l, r) and the -ance /-ence problem absence adolescence circumference commence competence conference confi dence conscience consequence defence difference essence evidence existence expe rience fence hence independence indifference influence innocence insolence intellig ence [37] interference licence occurrence offence patience pence presence providence reference science sentence sequence silence violence abundance acceptance accordance advance alliance allowance ambulance appearance appliance assurance balance chance dance distance endurance enhance entrance finance [37] fragrance glance guidance ignorance importance instance insurance lance maintenance nuisance performance prance resistance romance significance stance substance trance vengeance dense expanse expense immense intense license nonsense response rinse sen se suspense tense

collapse copse corpse eclipse elapse glimpse [22]

impulse lapse else pulse

coarse course curse gorse hoarse horse nurse purse rehearse reverse univ erse [13] verse worse commerce divorce [6] fierce force (enforce reinforce) pierce source

The SH-sound has few exceptions from pattern of 'shop' at the beginning of words sure sugar chalet chivalrous chute champagne chandelier charade chef

Only 25 common words have a SH-sound in the middle of words, but they use 6 different spellings. ancient appreciate associated efficient ocean species sufficient patient crochet machine parachute microfiche moustache pressure assure issue tissue conscience fascism mushroom bishop cashew, marshal usher

The SH-sound has no reliable spelling pattern in in word endings: e.g. logic logician, office official, but palace palatial. circumstantial credential existential palatial preferential reverential substanti al confidential differential influential penitential presidential sequential torrentia l consequential essential initial potential residential spatial artificial beneficial commercial crucial official racial sacrificial social special superficial facial financial glacial controversial judicial

atrocious avaricious judicious pernicious pugnacious suspicious vivacious audacious delicious malicious precious rapacious tenacious voracious auspicious ferocious officious precocious spacious vicious ambitious cautious conscientious contentious facetious fictitious licentious nutritious pretentious propitious superstitious surreptitious conscious luscious anxious

aspersion conversion dispersion incursion inversion subversion version proportion

diversion excursion extortion

immersion portion

attention convention detention intention intervention invention mention pre vention comprehension condescension dimension expansion extension mansion pen sionsuspension tension

ambition ammunition competition composition condition definition edition ex hibition expedition ignition intuition opposition position proposition recognition repeti tion tradition admission commission fission suspicion emission mission permission transmission

discussion percussion

passion

fashion cushion

coercion

ocean

beautician mathematician statistician electrician musician tactician Grecian o ptician logician physician magician politician gentian

Moderate and minor spelling problems

Exceptions to the patterns for: consonants c/k, f, g, j, m, n, r, t, w and se for Z-sound, long vowels a-e, i-e, u-e, ou and the blends ar and air, short vowels a, e, i, o and u, endings and prefixes and assorted minor irregularities The spelling of the C/K-sound is governed by 10 different rules. They all have some exceptions (at least 104 between them). 1.) 8 words do not use k for the K-sound before e or i (like keep, kept, kid): ache, architect, bronchial, chemical, orchestra, orchid, scheme, quay; 2.) 18 words do not use c before a, o and u, as cat, cod and cup do): anchor, chameleon chaos, character, chasm, cholesterol, chorus,

mechanical, psychological, school; kaleidoscope, kangaroo, karate, kayak; bouquet, queue, quoit, turquoise. 3.) 6 words do not use ck after a short vowel, at the end of a short word, like deck and duck: mac, sac, rec, trek, yak, cheque. 4.) 5 words do not use k after a long vowel, as in 'leak' or 'peek': antique, boutique, technique, unique, opaque. 5.) 8 words do not spell the final K-sound with c at the end of multisyllable words, (e.g. comic, maniac): attack, barrack, ransack, rucksack, shuttlecock, kayak, anorak, stomach. 6.) 10 words do not use just c before a consonant, (e.g. clip, crane, cactus): chlorine, Christmas, chrome, chrysalis, chrysanthemum, technical, cockney, cocktail, mackerel [macrel], chocolate [choclat]. 7.) 10 words do not use k after a consonant, (e.g. ankle, dark, dusk): disc, mollusc, circle, uncle ; conquer, marquee, mosquito, mosque, picturesque ; monarch. 8.) 21 words do not use ck after a short, stressed medial vowel (e.g. racket, cricket, rocket, bucket): crocodile, decade, documents, executive, recognise, record, second, secular, vacuum; accurate, occupy, piccolo, soccer, succulent, tobacco; echo, mechanism; chequered, lacquer, liquor. 9.) 4 words do not spell the KW-sound with qu as in queen: acquaint, acquire, acquit, choir. 10.) 14 words do not spell the KS-sound simply with x (e.g. exit, tax, taxi). accelerate, accent, accept, access, eccentric, success, succeed, accident; exceed, excellent, except, excess, excite; exhibition. The F-sound (fluff) is spelt unpredictably in 43 words. alphabet elephant pamphlet phone siphon rough draught laugh

amphibian emphasise phantom asphyxiate graph catastrophe Joseph cellophane nephew decipher dolphin nymph orphan pharaoh phase pheasant

photograph sophisticated tough phrase physics sphere symphony slough enough

physiological triumph trophy typhoon cough trough

phenomenon prophet philosophy sapphire

Hard G-sound marked hard g before e, i and dinghy gherkin spaghetti disguise guerrillas guess guest guide guillotine guilt guinea-pig guitar guy plague* [plaig] rogue*
[roag]

unmarked hard g before e, i and y anger eager finger fishmonger forget gear geese get geyser hamburger hunger linger target tiger together gymkhana begin corgi giddy giggle gild gills gilt girder girdle girl give longitude

redundant markings of hard g ghastly ghost ghoulish yoghurt guarantee guard catalogue colleague dialogue epilogue fatigue league meringue synagogue tongue

vague* [vaig]

* The ue endings here serve to indicate a long vowel before g, as well as indicating a hard g. The J-sound is spelt unpredictably before e, i or y.. At the end and in the middle of words, it is spelt almost invariably as in cage, agent and engine, but this pattern has 10 exceptions too. JE = ge gem general generation generous genie genius gentle genuine geography geranium germ gesture The M-sound (mum) has 17 unpredictable spellings. gyroscope gym gyp JI = gi / gy giant gin ginger gipsy/ gypsy giraffe JE = je jealous jeans jeep jeer jelly jerk jersey jest jet jettison jetty jiffy jig jigsaw jilt jingle jive JI = ji Jew jewel adjective inject majestic object objection project reject subject spinach sandwich 10 exceptions to medial and final ge

bomb plumber autumn

crumb succumb column

dumb thumb condemn

lamb tomb [toom] damn

limb womb [woom] hymn

numb solemn

The N-sound (nun) has 34 unpredictable spellings. knack knave knead knee kneel knew knife knight knit pneumonia knuckle knob knobbly knock knot know foreign sovereign gnash gnat gnaw gnome determine discipline famine feminine genuine * heroine imagine masculine medicine gone scone shone

* In some accents 'genuine' is pronounced with a long IE-sound, in all the words the -e after the final n serves no function. The R-sound (rat) has 26 exceptions. wrangle wrap wrath wreath wreck wren wrench wrestle wretch wriggle wring wrinkle wrist write writhe The T-sound (tot) has 5 clearly exceptional spellings: debt, doubt, subtle, pterodactyl, two. Longer words ending with a T-sound, are spelt predominantly ate, irrespective of pronunciation (e.g. calculate, climate). This creates reading problems in 24 words, like 'to separate into separate [separat] groups'. 11 words do not have ate endings. composite definite exquisite favourite granite infinite opposite omelette palette combat democrat written wrong wrote wrung wry rhubarb rheumatism rhinoceros rhododendron rhyme rhythm

The W-sound (wet) as a consonant has 33 unpredictable spellings. what when where whack whale wharf wheat wheedle wheel whiff while whilst whirl whirring whisk whisper whistle white whoosh

whether which why whelk overwhelm

wheeze whey

whimper whine whip

whiskers whiskey whisky

whiz

The Z-sound occurs chiefly at or near the end of words and is spelt mainly se, or with s followed by another vowel, (e.g. cheese, absorb,) but some words do not follow this pattern. Final and medial Z-sound spelt with z rather than the gz = x more usual s amaze blaze (blazer) breeze bronze bulldoze capsize craze (crazy) doze freeze froze (frozen) gaze graze haze laze (lazy) maze prize seize size sneeze squeeze trapeze wheeze bazaar brazen chimpanzee citizen gazelle hazel horizon magazine razor tweezers exhaust [egzaust] anxiety exact exaggerate examine example exasperate exert exist With -ize These should really be spelt with zz in the US:

(e.g. buzzard):
dozen hazard lizard lozenge wizard wizened

advertise agonise apologise authorise baptise emphasise fertilise hypnotise idolise memorise merchandise organise recognise sterilise

synchronise tantalise

The 'se / s for z' pattern has been slightly diluted by the use of the suffix -ize in America (UK: 'idolise, legalise' - US: 'idolize, legalize'). The few words which start with a Z-sound use z, except 'xylophone': zany, zap, zeal, zebra, zenith, zero, zest, zigzag, zinc, zip, zodiac, zone, zoo, zoom, Zulu. Exceptions to the patterns of long vowels a-e, i-e, u-e, ou and ar and air The a-e pattern, as in cake (a with magic e) is used by 338 common English words, but only 10 of those use the syllable ane and 13 ale, in contrast to 38 ain and 22 ail. Another 53 words do not use the a-e pattern either.
brain chain drain gain abstain again ascertain attain crane lane mane pane ail bail fail hail aid braid laid maid bait straits traitor waist fete straight

able

grain main pain plain rain slain sprain stain strain train vain

chilblain complain contain detain explain maintain obtain refrain remain retain sustain

plane sane aeroplane cellophane hurricane membrane

jail mail pail rail sail snail tail

paid raid afraid

wait waiter

cable fable gable stable table label

faith aim claim maim exclaim proclaim deign eight feign freight daisy neighbour reign reindeer reins skein plaice veil vein weight

cradle ladle
break great steak

ale bale dale female gale

tailor trail wail

assail avail cocktail detail prevail retail daily gaily

praise raise raisin

ain't acquaint dainty faint maintain paint quaint saint

inhale male pale sale scale stale tale whale

halfpenny

dahlia

campaign

champagne

The stressed ending -ay, is

used in 35 common words: array, astray, away, bay, betray, bray, clay, day, decay, delay, dismay, display, essay, fray, Friday, gay, hay, lay, may, midday, okay, pay, play, pray, ray, say, slay, spray, stay, stray, Sunday, sway, today, tray, way.

19 words disobey the ay pattern. grey they convey survey neigh weigh ballet bouquet chalet hey whey obey sleigh beret buffet crochet duvet caf matinee

The i-e pattern (of bite) is disobeyed by 80 words. asylum cycle cypress dyke hyacinth hydrogen hyena pylon rhyme alight bright fight flight light might mighty night bind blind find grind hind child mild wild rifle ninth pint bible either * bridle neither* idle eider-down kaleidoscope stifle Fahrenheit

hydrangea python

blight lightning

scythe delight

dynamic hygrometer style dynamite hypothesis thyroid

right behind

dynamo eye

nylon paralyse

type tyrant

fright knight

sight slight tight

kind whilst mind rind resign wind*

trifle choir climb title indict

psychology tyre

height sleight
*With more than one pronunciation

sign disciple island

In word endings, the IE-sound is completely unpredictable. by cry dry fly fry my ply pry shy sky sly spy sty thy try why wry die lie pie tie vie high thigh nigh sigh bye dye rye buy guy

The u-e pattern (cube, tube, tune) is not followed by 23 words. eucalyptus feud feudal neutral pneumatic pseudo rheumatism nuclear Tuesday beauty jewel lewd newt pewter sewage steward juice nuisance suicide suitable suitcase

The -ue ending is totally unpredictable: 20 words use -ue, but 22 do not. cue barbecue due sue argue avenue continue devalue issue pursue subdue queue rescue statue tissue value venue virtue chew dew Jew knew new pew stew view yew you askew curfew curlew mildew nephew review emu menu

ewe interview

few spew

imbue revenue

The pattern of out is not used in 23 words. brown down gown growl prowl flower shower powder browse coward howl scowl power owl towel tower drowse crowd

clown drown town crown frown

The AR-sound is spelt predominantly, as in arm, art and car. In US English this spelling has just 4 exceptions: are, heart, hearth, sergeant. In standard UK English another 88 words are pronounced with the same sound as arm, although they do not contain the ar grapheme. For learners of standard UK English the spellings of the following words are unpredictable.
ask bask blast mask mast past advance banana prance soprano after craft daft almond armada calf calm drama example bra la ma

avalanche slant

cask cast caste clasp contrast fast flask gasp ghastly grasp last

rascal task vast brass class grass pass

branch chance dance chant enhance glance lance piano plant

stance trance aunt

draft graft raft shaft staff

gala halve palm bath father lather path rather

fuselage panorama promenade+ salami strata vase+ graph draught laugh clerk

pa spa baa ah hurrah shah

giraffe half

flabbergast glass

mass*

+ The words 'promenade' and 'vase' tend to be pronounced with an AY-sound in the US, as the spelling suggests - (like 'lemonade'). In UK English 'promenade' has an AY-sound only when used as a verb, but an AR/AH-sound when used as a noun. * The word mass has two different sounds in some UK accents (with ah for mass as a church service, but ordinary a when meaning amount, or plenty).

The spelling of the AIR-sound unpredictable: 31 words spell it with are, or with ar followed by another vowel (e.g Mary), 27 words spell it differently.
area aware bare blare care dare declare fare flare glare hare mare parent rare scare share snare spare stare canary hilarious malaria Mary various wary air chair dairy fair flair questionnaire aerial aeroplane aerobatics lair pair prairie stairs affair despair clair repair bear pear tear* swear wear there where heir their

compare pare

square vegetarian hair

prepare wares

* 'Tear' has 2 different pronunciations (teer and tair).

Unpredictable spellings of short vowels a, e, i, o and u.

The short E-sound of 'bed' is not spelt with e in 64 words.

bread

endeavour measure

against

jealous*

any*

breadth breakfast breast breath cleanse dead deaf dealt death dread dreamt

feather head health heather heavy instead lead leant leapt leather meant

read realm spread stealthy sweat thread threat treadmill treasure wealth weather

answer every friend leisure + said says

meadow* peasant* pheasant* pleasant* steady* weapon* zealous* already*

many* heifer* bury* jeopardy* leopard*

cleanliness heaven

lieutenant + ready*

treacherous Wednesday

* Apart from having unpredictable vowels, these words are also without doubled consonants.

+ 'Lieutenant' is pronounced [leftennant] in the UK and [lutenant] in the US,

The short I-Sound of 'bit' is not spelt with i in 53 words. abyss crypt crystal cyclical cygnet cymbals cyst gym hymn lynch lynx mystery myth Olympics rhythm syllable symmetry sympathy synchronise chrysalis* syndicate syndrome synthesis system cylinder* cynical* lyric* physics* synonym* syrup* typical* tyranny* build built busy* English pretty vineyard women*
with unstressed short i (the stressed vowel is underlined)

analysis bicycle chrysanthemum hysterical pyjamas platypus synopsis syringe

synagogue* sieve

eucalyptus symbol

hypnotise symptom

* With missing double consonants

The short O-sound of 'hot' is not spelt o in 36 words.

swallow swamp swan swap waft wan wand wander want wanton warrant warren warrior was wash wasp watch watt wattle what quadrangle quality* quantity quarantine* quarry squabble squad squander squash squat cough trough gone shone laurel* sausage*

The short U-sound of 'but' is not spelt with u in 68 words.

above among brother come comfort does done dove front glove monkey shovel month none once one blood colour* dozen* honey* money* stomach* thorough*
by * These should a doubled

couple* courage* cousin* double* nourish* trouble*

slovenly flood some sponge ton tongue won worry enough rough slough touch

mother smother country nothing son

hiccough onion*

company govern compass love cover covet covey

covenant Monday other monger oven monk shove

mongrel pommel wonder tough

have u followed southern consonant.

young

* These 13 words should be spelt with u followed by a doubled consonant. In 51 of the 68 words above, o is used instead of u, mainly next to, or between, m, n and v. This substitution was made largely by medieval scribes as a means of avoiding too many downward strokes (as in nunne) next to each other.

Unpredictable spellings of endings and prefixes with unstressed vowels.

An unstressed ending with the EE-sound is spelt mainly -y (daddy, funny) but 51 words do not follow this pattern. abbey alley attorney barley bogey chimney cockney donkey hockey holey honey jersey jockey journey kidney medley money monkey parsley pulley storey trolley turkey valley volley whiskey bikini broccoli confetti corgi graffiti kiwi safari salami semi spaghetti taxi yeti brownie budgie collie cookie movie pixie prairie wheelie coffee committee anemone karate simile

Many words (at least 137) end with an unstressed -ent (e.g. continent) but the following 39 use ant instead. applicant assistant brilliant covenant defiant descant elephant extravagant fragrant gallant giant ignorant infant instant jubilant lieutenant merchant pageant pheasant pleasant protestant relevant remnant restaurant sextant significant truant tyrant vacant valiant

distant dominant

important indignant

peasant pennant

sergeant servant

warrant

The final L-sound in longer words is spelt mainly al, in 'carnival'. At least 195 common words use this pattern, but 33 words do not. caramel cockerel colonel cruel diesel drivel duel easel fuel gravel hazel hostel jewel label novel spaniel towel vowel weasel daffodil civil devil evil pupil alcohol capitol carol cholesterol idol parasol petrol pistol symbol

Spellers tend to learn the -el, -il and -ol endings by exaggerating their pronunciation during the learning stage. Proficient spellers consequently often end up convinced that they can hear slightly different sounds for the different spellings, but in ordinary speech they all sound the same. When the final L-sound is preceded by two consonants the spelling for the ending is usually -le (e.g. handle, apple) but 26 words diverge from this pattern. barrel channel flannel funnel kennel kernel kestrel mongrel pommel pummel quarrel satchel scoundrel squirrel tunnel counsel morsel parcel anvil council fossil nostril pencil stencil tonsil utensil

The suffixes -able and -ible have a predictable -le ending, but the spelling of theunstressed vowel before the -ble is unpredictable: 27 words use able abominable, adorable, amiable, arable, available, capable, comparable, constable, desirable, doable, formidable, inevitable, inflammable, irritable, liable, miserable, notable, portable, probable, reliable, remarkable, respectable, suitable, syllable, valuable, variable, vulnerable 17 words use -ible instead. audible compatible edible feasible flexible horrible incredible invisible permissible possible responsible sensible terrible visible eligible illegible tangible

70 common words begin with de-:

debate, decay, deceive, decide, deciduous, decimal, decipher, decision, decisive, declare, decline, decrease, dedicate,deduct, defeat, defect, defend, defiant, define, degenerate, degree, delay, delegate, deliberate, delicate, delicious,delight,

deliver, deluge, delve, demand, democratic, demolish, demonstrate, denial, deny, depart, depend, deport, deposit, depression, deputy, derelict, detached, detain, detect, detention, detergent, determine, detest, devalue, develop, devil, devise, devote, devour, descend, describe, deserve, design, designate, desolate, despair, despatch, desperate, despise, despite, destination,destiny, destroy.

28 words use di- instead. dictate diffusion dilapidated diploma diplomatic disappear disaster discharge disciple discover discuss disease disguise disgust dismantle dismay displace display dispose dispute distinct distribute disturb divide divine division divorce dilemma*

* dilemm a is sometimes pronounced with an IE-sound in the prefix. It is difficult to detect any difference in sound or meaning between 'de' and 'di', e.g. 'despair - dismay'. 93 words (and many more derived from them) begin with in-:
incident, inclined, include, increase, incredible, incursion, indeed, independent, indicat e, indicator, indict, indifference, indignant, indirect, individual, industrial, inevitable, inf ant, infantry, infect, inferior, infinite, inflammable, inflate, influence, inform, informal, infuential, infuriate, ingredient, inhabit, inhale, inherit, initial, initiative, inject, injure, innocent, inoculate, input, inquire, insane, insect, insert, inside, insist, insolent, inspection, inspired, install, instalment, instance, instead, instinct, institute, instructio n, instrument, insult, insure, intact, integration, intellectual, intelligent, intend, intense, interest, interference, interior, intermediate, internal, international, interpret, interrogate, interrupt, intersection, interval, intervention, interview, intimate, into, intricate, introduce, intrude, intuition, invade, invariably, invent, invert, invest, investigate, invisible, invite, involve

28 words start with en-: enable enamel encamp enchant encircle enclose encounter encourage encrusted endanger endeavour endure enforce engage engrave engulf enjoy enlarge enlist enquire enrage enrol entangle entertain enthusiastic entire entitled environment

As already mentioned in relation to unstressed endings of 'painter, actor, altar' and 'final, novel, petrol, anvil', we tend to learn to spell unstressed English vowels by exaggerating their pronunciationduring the learning stage. This also applies to words beginning with de-/ di- and in- / en-, but in normal speech they sound much the same.

The o in the infinitive marker to, as in 'to go' or 'to see' is also unstressed and barely audible, pronounced almost as [t'go] and [t'see]. It has a different meaning and and a longer 'oo' sound in 'to London' or 'to him'. Confusion between to, too and two is one of the main sources of English spelling errors.

Assorted minor exceptions

1. Only 3 words do not use a for the A-sound, as in cat: Salmon meringue plait

2. An initial AUL- sound followed by another consonant is usually spelt al-. almost altar 3. already alter also alternate altogether alternative always all right

After w, an AU-sound is spelt mainly a, except in wore and worn dwarf wall warble warp reward walnut ward wart walrus wardrobe water waltz warm

award walk war warn

This pattern extends to 4 words which begin with qu:

quart 4.

quarters

quartet

quartz.

At the end of words the OU-sound is spelt predominantly as ow

allow, bow*, brow, cow, how, miaow, now, row*, sow*, vow, wow with 4 exceptions: bough, plough, slough, thou *The spellings 'bow', 'row' and 'sow' can have different pronunciations [bo, ro, so] and [bou, rou, sou], depending on meaning. 5. At the end of words the OI-sound is spelt -oy, with the exception of buoy. annoy employ boy enjoy convoy hoy corduroy joy coy ploy destroy toy

6. The 11 common words with the ending cy agency, conspiracy, delicacy, democracy, diplomacy, emergency, fancy, mercy, policy, tendency, vacancy

have 5 exceptions: controversy courtesy gypsy topsy-turvy embassy

7. The rarely occurring ZH-sound is spelt predominantly with -si-, but 7 words spell it with just -s-, one with -z- and one with -ss-. Asia conclusion confusion decision diffusion division explosion illusion invasion occasion precision vision supervision provision television exposure leisure measure pleasure treasure casual usual fissure azure

Indonesian and derivatives:

About Author
Masha Bell who has provided the contents for this website is also author of the book 'Understanding English Spelling'. They are both part of her campaign to make more people aware of the problematic nature of English spelling which she first started in 1995 with letters to newspapers. Poor literacy standards of school leavers in the UK were attracting much media attention at that time, with everyone blaming school teachers. She had just retired from teaching on health grounds and felt driven to join the debate. Since the start of the 21st century there has been an accumulation of research evidence proving that learning to read and write English is exceptionally difficult. Masha Bell had been keenly aware of this through first-hand experience since 1959, when she first began to learn English in Lithuania at the age of 14. She was already fluent in Lithuanian, Russian and German. In 1970 she graduated in Philosophy and Psychology at Exeter University and then went on to become a secondary school teacher of English and modern languages in Dorset. She also raised two children and studied French and Spanish. Her life and education have provided her with unique experiences and insights into language learning. All English-speaking countries have relatively high levels of adult functional illiteracy (20% in US and UK, compared with 10 % in Germany, 8 % in Sweden). This is usually already evident by age 11, with one in five children failing to learn to read effectively before starting secondary school. Perversely, Anglophone countries also conduct more research into the best way to teach reading and writing and have more debates about it than other countries, but invariably without regard to the unique problems of English spelling. This is probably because those who learn English as their first language, and generally don't become very proficient in others, cannot readily appreciate the exceptional difficulties of English spelling. To anyone like Masha Bell who first learned to read and write with logically consistent spelling systems, English spelling seems ridiculously chaotic. Most foreigners, however, do not go on to become teachers of English in England. Nor do they realise that English spelling

causes severe learning problems for native speakers too, and that its educationally demotivating effect is worse on them than on learners of English as a foreign language. Masha Bell has therefore looked for ways of presenting and explaining the learning difficulties of English spelling to native speakers of English. She hopes that this will enable teachers to take a more dispassionate look at literacy problems, that it might put the everlasting 'reading wars' on a more rational footing, and perhaps also help to improve standards. She ascertained English spelling problems by analysing 6800 commonly used words and identifying those which cannot be entirely decoded from their letters or spelt by using rules of the English spelling system. The 3700 words thus established are all listed on the different pages of this website. Coping with this learning burden takes a great deal of time and effort, and may be of doubtful value when many other worthwhile subjects could do with extra time. Maybe it would be better to find ways of reducing the learning load instead of constantly searching for more effective ways of helping children to cope with it? The majority of irregular English spellings have no logical basis or good historical justification (see History). The material on this website was proofread by Masha's husband Lewis Bell and put on this site by Sandford Computers.

Term of Use
The material on this web site is the sole property of Masha Bell, author of the book Understanding English Spelling, 2004. Teachers may freely download the various word lists for classroom use. Those wishing to reproduce material from this site for commercial purposes must obtain prior permission from the author. Please contact Masha Bell at mashabell@aol.com