AN EFFICIENT ALGORITHM FOR THE DESIGN OF LATTICE WAVE DIGITAL FILTERS WITH SHORT COEFFICIENT WORDLENGTH Juha Yli-Kaakinen

and Tapio Saramki Signal Processing Laboratory Tampere University of Technology P. O. Box 553, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland
ABSTRACT This paper describes an efcient algorithm for the design of lattice wave digital lters with short coefcient wordlength. The proposed algorithm guarantees that the optimum nitewordlength solution can be found for both the xed-point and the multiplierless coefcient representations. This is illustrated by means of several examples. 1. INTRODUCTION The cost and the complexity of a digital lter depends heavily on the necessary wordlengths of the coefcients. Therefore, the wordlength should be as short as possible but still sufcient to satisfy the lter specications. During the past three decades, a large number of algorithms for designing nite-wordlength recursive digital lters have been proposed [117]. In the past, the direct search by Hooke and Jeeves [18] was one of the most widely used discrete optimization algorithms [2, 3, 6, 10, 14, 15]. However, recently, the stochastic optimization algorithms such as genetic algorithms and simulated annealing have received increasing attention [1217]. Although these methods are characterized by a high computational and programming cost, there is no guarantee that these methods will converge to the global optimum. This is because these methods are based on probabilities [19]. The structures of the digital lter are very important for the efciency of the ltering process. It is essential that lters can be realized using structures with a low coefcient sensitivity. The importance of the low-sensitivity structures is that if the effect of the deviation from the ideal coefcient value is small, then short coefcient wordlengths can be used without violating lter specication, resulting in a faster, smaller, and less expensive hardware. One of the best structures for implementing recursive digital lters are the lattice wave digital lters [2023] which are related to certain analog prototype networks. The lattice wave digital lter consists of a parallel connections of two allpass lters. They are characterized by many attractive properties, such as a reasonably low coefcient sensitivity, a low roundoff noise level, and the absence of parasitic oscillations. The application of allpass sections produces an efcient realization in the terms of the number of multipliers for a given lter order. It is well known that lattice wave digital lters can be implemented with approximately half the multipliers required by the canonic direct-form realizations. In addition, these allpass sublters can be realized by using rst- and second-order sections as basic building blocks. The resulting lter structures are highly modular which makes them suitable for signal processor and VLSI implementations [2426]. It is also possible to design lattice wave digital lters to have an approximately linear phase in the passband [15, 2729]. Such designs are especially suitable for applications where linear-phase FIR lters would have an excessive signal delay. In this paper, we propose an efcient algorithm for designing lattice wave digital lters with short coefcient wordlength. The algorithm is based on the observation that by rst nding the largest and smallest values for both the radius and the angle of all the complex-conjugate poles as well as the largest and smallest values for the radius of a possible real pole in such a way that the given criteria are still met, we are able to nd a parameter space which includes the feasible space where the lter specications are satised. After nding this larger space, all what is needed is to check whether in this space there exist desired discrete values for the coefcient representations. The method is general but particularly efcient for lters implemented as a parallel connection of two allpass lters. This is because for these lters only the denominator coefcients of the allpass sections have to be quantized. Several examples are included illustrating the efciency of the proposed quantization scheme. 2. LATTICE WAVE DIGITAL FILTERS The transfer function for the overall lter as shown in Fig. 1 can be expressed as 1 H ( z ) = -- [ A 1 ( z ) + A 2 ( z ) ] . 2 (1)

Here, A 1 ( z ) and A 2 ( z ) are stable allpass lters of orders M and N, respectively. In the case of lowpass lters, M = N 1 or M = N + 1 so that M + N , the overall order of H ( z ) , is odd.
1/2 X ( z) A 2 (z ) Fig. 1. Parallel connection of two allpass filters. A 1 (z ) Y( z)

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If A 1 ( z ) and A 2 ( z ) are implemented as a cascade of rst- and second-order wave digital allpass structures and M and N are assumed to be odd and even, respectively, then A 1 ( z ) and A 2 ( z ) are expressible in terms of the adaptor coefcients as (see, e.g., [22] or [24]) 0 + z 1 2l 1 + 2l ( 2l 1 1 )z 1 + z 2 A 1 ( z ) = ---------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------1 1 0 z 1 + 2l ( 2l 1 1 )z 1 2l 1 z 2
l=1 m

The second case considers VLSI implementations where a general multiplier element is very costly. To get around this problem, it is attractive to carry out the multiplication of a data sample by a lter coefcient value by using a sequence of shifts and adds. In this case, it is desired to express the coefcient values in the form

(2a)

and
m+n

r=1

ar 2

Pr

A2 ( z ) = where

l = m+1

2l 1 + 2l ( 2l 1 1 )z 1 + z 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- , 1 + 2l ( 2l 1 1 )z 1 2l 1 z 2

(2b)

where each of the a r s is either 1 or 1 and the P r s are integers in the increasing order. In this case, the goal is to nd all the coefcient values in such a way that, rst, R is made as small as possible and, secondly, P r is made as small as possible. 4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Before stating the optimization problem, we denote the transfer function of the lter by H ( , z ) , where is the adjustable parameter vector = [ r 0, , r m + n, 1, , m + n ] . (4)

m = ( M 1) 2,

n = N 2.

(2c)

If A 1 ( z ) possesses a real pole at z = r 0 and m complex-conjugate pole pairs at z = r l exp ( j l ) for l = 1, 2, , m and A 2 ( z ) possesses n complex-conjugate pole pairs at z = r l exp ( j l ) for l = m + 1, m + 2, , m + n , then 0 = r0 and 2l 1 = r l2, 2l 2r l cos ( l ) = ------------------------- for l = 1, 2, , m + n. (3b) 1 + r l2 (3a)

The amplitude specications for the lter1 are stated as follows: 1 p H ( , e j ) 1 for [ 0, p ] H ( , e j ) s for [ s, ] . Alternatively, these criteria can be expressed as E ( , ) 1 for [ 0, p ] [ s, ] where E ( , ) = W ( ) [ H ( , e j ) D ( ) ] , with 1, [ 0, p ] 1 p, [ 0 , p ] W () = D() = 0, [ s, ], 1 s, [ s, ]. (6c) (6b) (6a) (5a) (5b)

In the highpass case, the corresponding transfer function is obtained by changing the sign of A 1 ( z ) or A 2 ( z ) . In the bandstop case, M and N are two times an odd integer and an even integer, respectively, and M = N 2 or M = N + 2 . The corresponding bandpass design can be generated by changing the sign of A 1 ( z ) or A 2 ( z ) . The main difference compared to lowpass and highpass cases is that a rst-order section is absent. In the sequel, we concentrate mainly on designing nitewordlength lowpass lters. The design of a nite-wordlength bandpass lter will be considered in connection with examples to emphasize the applicability of the proposed quantization scheme to designing also lters of other kinds. 3. COEFFICIENT REPRESENTATION FORMS UNDER CONSIDERATION This contribution considers the coefcient quantization in the xed-point arithmetic in two cases. In the rst case, the coefcient values are expressed as the following xed-point binary numbers: a0 +

The optimization problem under consideration is: Optimization problem: Find the adjustable parameter vector as given by Eq. (4) in such a way that 1. H ( , z ) meets the criteria given by Eq. (5) or Eq. (6) 2. The coefcients values l for l = 0, 1, , M + N 1 are optimized according to one of the two above-mentioned criteria. 5. FILTER OPTIMIZATION The solution to the stated optimization problem can be found in two steps. In the rst step, a non-linear optimization algorithm is used for determining a parameter space of the innite-precision coefcients including the feasible space where the lter meets the
1 These specications are typical of most recursive lters built using allpass sublters as building blocks. In these cases, the lter structure constrains the maximum of the amplitude response to be unity [21].

r=1

a r 2 r ,

where a r for r = 0, 1, , R is either 0 or 1. The goal is to nd all the lter coefcient values in a such a way that the lter meets the given specications and all the coefcient values are expressible in the above form with the minimized value of R. Filters of this kind are useful for signal processor implementations.

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given criteria. The second step involves then nding the lter parameters in this space such that the resulting lter meets the given criteria with the simplest coefcient representation forms. 5.1. Optimization of Innite-Precision Filters It has turned out that a very straightforward quantization scheme for the lter coefcients is obtained by rst nding the largest and smallest values for both the radius and the angle of all the complex-conjugate pole pairs as well as the largest and smallest values for the radius of the real pole in such a way that the given criteria are still met. Therefore, there are 2 + 4 ( m + n ) problems of the following form: Find the adjustable parameter vector to minimize subject to the conditions of Eq. (6a). For these problems, is r 0 and 1 r 0 as well as 1 r l , r l , l , and l for l = 1, 2, , m + n . To solve these problems, we discretize the passband and stopband regions into the frequency points i [ 0, p ], i = 1, 2, , N p and i [ s, ] , i = N p + 1, N p + 2,, N p + N s . The resulting discrete minimization problem is to nd to minimize subject to E ( , i ) 1 0 for i = 1, 2, , N p + N s . (7)

the lter specications are satised. After nding this larger space, all what is needed is to check whether in this space there exist the desired discrete values for the coefcient representations. For the xed-point coefcients, this search can be done in a straightforward manner by rst determining the upper and lower limits of the adaptor coefcient l for l = 0, 1, , M + N 1 to the xed number of bits as
( low ql ) = q l( low ) q , ( up ql ) = q l( up ) q ,

(9)

The above problems can be solved conveniently by using the second algorithm of Dutta and Vidyasagar [30]. The use of the above algorithm gives for the real pole r 0 the ( ( lower and upper values, denoted by r 0low ) and r 0up ) , as well as the lower and upper values for both the radius and angle of the l th complex-conjugate poles, denoted by r l( low ) , r l( up ) , l( low ) , and l( up ) for l = 1, 2, , m + n . Based in these limits, the upper and lower limits for the adaptor coefcients can be determined as follows:
( ( 0low ) = r 0up ) , ( ( 0up ) = r 0low ) , ( low ) 2l 1 = ( r l( up ) ) 2 for l = 1, 2, , m + n , ( up 2l )1

(8a) (8b) (8c) (8d) (8e)

where x stands for the integer part of x and x for the smallest integer larger than or equal to x. Here, q = 2 R with R being the desired wordlength or the number of fractional bits. For each l , the value of the coefcient is then increased from ( low ( up ql ) to ql ) using a quantization step of size equal to q. The magnitude response is evaluated for each combination of discrete adaptor coefcient values to check whether the lter meets the magnitude specications. However, as can be seen from the Fig. 2, there are, particularly for the innermost complex-conjugate pole, regions where the angle of the pole corresponding to quantized values of 2l 1 and 2l is smaller than ( low ) or larger than ( up ) . For this reason, it is advisable to check if the angle of the discrete pole is in prespecied region in order to avoid the vain evaluation of the corresponding magnitude response. For the multiplierless coefcient representation, the search can be conveniently accomplished by rst preparing a look-up table including all possible values for a given wordlength R and the given maximum number of powers of two. In this case, the search is performed only for those combinations of adaptor coefcients that belong simultaneously to both the discrete xed-point space and the look-up table. It should be pointed out that for a certain wordlength, there are typically several solutions which will meet the magnitude specications. Therefore, it is advisable to nd rst all the solutions and then to choose, for example, the one with the best attenuation characteristics or the minimum number of adders required to implement the multiplier coefcients for the given wordlength.
( low ) ( low 2l 1 = 2l 1 , 2l = 2l ) ( up )

( r l( low ) ) 2

for l = 1, 2, , m + n ,

2r l( low ) cos ( l( up ) ) ( low 2l ) = --------------------------------------- for l = 1, 2, , m + n , 1 + ( r l( low ) ) 2 and

( up 2l ) =

( low ) r ( low ) r ( up )

2r l( up ) cos ( l( low ) ) --------------------------------------1 + ( r l( up ) ) 2

for l = 1, 2, , m + n .

(8f)

( up ( low 2l 1 = 2l )1 , 2l = 2l )

Figure 2 shows the upper and lower limits for both the radius and the angle of the innermost complex-conjugate pole of a 7th-order lowpass lter to be considered later on in Example 1 as well as the corresponding upper and lower limits for the adaptor coefcients. The dots indicate the allowable locations for the poles when 7 fractional bits are used for the adaptor coefcients. 5.2. Optimization of Finite-Precision Filters It has been proved experimentally that the parameter space dened above forms a space including the feasible space where

( up ( up 2l 1 = 2l )1 , 2l = 2l )

Fig. 2. Search space of the innermost complex-conjugate pole of a 7th-order lowpass filter to be considered in Example 1. The dots correspond to those locations obtained by using 7 fractional bits for the adaptor coefficients.

Figure 3 shows the search space for a 7th-order lowpass lter with 8-bit coefcients ( R = 8 ). The smaller dots represent the pole locations in the search space, while the larger dots represent

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the pole locations where the lter specications are met. In addition, the pole positions after the innite-precision optimization are shown in Fig. 3. The crosses numbered from 1 to 4 correspond to the smallest and largest values for both the radius and the angle of the outermost pole. The locations of the inner poles are indicated in a similar manner. The proposed quantization scheme provides signicant advantages over those based on the use of simulated annealing or genetic algorithms. First of all, it is always guaranteed that the optimum solution can be found. Secondly, the computational workload to arrive at the optimum discrete-valued solution is in most cases signicantly smaller.

coefcients l of A 2 ( z ) of order N = 4 for l = 3, 4, 5, 6 are 45 2 7 , 75 2 7 , 115 2 7 , and 35 2 7 , respectively. In this case, only seven fractional bits are needed for the adaptor coefcients. The magnitude response as well as the passband details of the quantized lter are shown in Fig. 4. A plot of pole locations in the z-plane is depicted in Fig. 6(a). Among the 28 solutions satisfying the overall specications the one with the best magnitude characteristics has been selected. The coefcient quantization took 57.57 CPU minutes on an AlphaServer 4100.
10 0 0 0.02 10

1
20
3 2 4

Amplitude in dB

0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

0.9

Amplitude in dB

30 40 50 60 70 80

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.8
7

0.7

8 5

90 100 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Angular Frequency
0.6

(up)

Fig. 4. Magnitude response and zero-pole plot for the quantized lattice wave digital filter with 7-bit adaptor coefficients.

0.5
11

10

(low)

6.2. Example 2 The criteria are the same as in Example 1 except that the multiplierless representation is used for the adaptor coefcients. Like in Example 1, 7 fractional bits are required to meet the magnitude specications. The optimized discrete-valued adaptor coefcients l of A 1 ( z ) of order M = 3 for l = 0, 1, 2 are 2 1 2 5 , 2 1 2 3 2 6 , and 2 1 2 3 2 5 , respectively. The adaptor coefcients l of A 2 ( z ) of order N = 4 for l = 3, 4, 5, 6 are 2 1 + 2 3 , 2 1 + 2 5 + 2 7 , 1 + 2 3 2 6 , and 2 2 + 2 6 , respectively. In this case, all the coefcients can represented as two or three powers of two. A total of only eleven adders are required to implement all the multipliers.
10 0 0 10 20

0.4

(low)

12

(up)

0.3

13

14

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

Fig. 3. Search space with 8-bit fixed-point adaptor coefficients (R = 8 ).

Amplitude in dB

Several example illustrating the efciency and exibility of the proposed quantization scheme have been given in [31]. Here we consider four examples. 6.1. Example 1 It is desired to design a lowpass lter with the passband edge at p = 0.4 and stopband edge at s = 0.5 . The maximum allowable passband ripple and the required stopband attenuation are 0.2 dB ( p = 0.0228 ) and 60 dB ( s = 10 3 ), respectively. The minimum order of a lattice wave digital lter to meet the given amplitude criteria is seven. The optimized discrete-valued adaptor coefcients l of A 1 ( z ) of order M = 3 for l = 0, 1, 2 are 56 2 7 , 84 2 7 , and 48 2 7 , respectively. The adaptor

Amplitude in dB

6. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

0.05

0.1

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

0.15

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Angular Frequency

Fig. 5. Magnitude response for the quantized lattice wave digital filter with 7-bit multiplierless adaptor coefficients.

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0.8

0.8

+2 6 , and 2 1 +2 6 , respectively. In this case 14 additions are needed to implement all the adaptor coefcients. From Fig. 9(b), it is seen that there are two solutions satisfying the overall specications. The magnitude response as well as the passband details of the solution requiring the smallest number of adders are shown in Fig. 8.
10 0

0.6

0.6

Amplitude in dB

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3

10 20

Amplitude in dB

0.4

0.4

30 40 50 60 70

0.4

0.5

0.2

0.2

80 90

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

(a) (b) Fig. 6. Search spaces for 7th-order lowpass filters with 7-bit adaptor coefficients. (a) Fixed-point coefficients. (b) Multiplierless coefficients.

100

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Angular Frequency

Fig. 7. Magnitude response for the quantized 10th-order lattice wave digital filter with 6-bit adaptor coefficients.

The magnitude response of the multiplierless implementation is shown in Fig. 5. As can be seen from the Fig. 6(b), there is only one solution which meets the magnitude specications for a given coefcient representation. The coefcient quantization took 15.62 CPU minutes. 6.3. Example 3 We consider next the design of a tenth-order bandpass lter with transition bands from 0.2 to 0.3 and from 0.5 to 0.6. The required passband ripple is 0.2 dB ( p = 0.0228 ), while the desired stopband attenuation is at least 60 dB ( s = 10 3 ) on [0, 0.2] and at least 50 dB ( s = 0.0032 ) on [0.6, ]. In this case, 6 fractional bits are required for the amplitude response to stay within the given specications. The optimized discrete-valued adaptor coefcients l of A 1 ( z ) of order M = 6 for l = 1, 2, , 6 are 39 2 6 , 20 2 6 , 58 2 6 , 40 2 6 , 58 2 6 , and 2 2 6 , respectively. The adaptor coefcients l of A 2 ( z ) of order N = 4 for l = 7, 8, 9, 10 are 45 2 6 , 5 2 6 , 47 2 6 , and 35 2 6 , respectively. The magnitude response and the passband details for the quantized bandpass lter are depicted in Fig. 7. A plot of pole locations in the z-plane is illustrated in Fig. 9(a). In this case, there are 6 solutions which satisfy the overall specications, from which the one with the best attenuation characteristics has been chosen. 6.4. Example 4 The criteria are the same as in Example 3 except that the multiplierless representation is used for the adaptor coefcients. Like in Example 3, 6 fractional bits are required for the adaptor coefcients. The optimized discrete-valued adaptor coefcients l of A 1 ( z ) of order M = 6 for l = 1, 2, , 6 are 2 1 2 3 , 2 2 +2 6 , 1 + 2 3 2 5 , 2 1 + 2 3 2 6 , 1 + 2 3 2 5 , and 2 4 , respectively. The adaptor coefcients l of A 2 ( z ) of order N = 4 for l = 7, 8, 9, 10 are 1 + 2 2 + 2 5 , 2 5 , 1+2 2

7. CONCLUSION A straightforward two-step scheme has been developed for designing lattice wave digital lters with short coefcient wordlength. The rst step determines a parameter space of the innite-precision coefcients including the feasible space where the lter meets the given criteria. The second step involves then nding the coefcients in this space such that the given criteria are met by the simplest representation forms. The efciency of the proposed procedure has been demonstrated by several examples. Future work is devoted to making the search of the solutions satisfying the given amplitude criteria faster. Instead of going through all the combinations, there exist several alternatives of combining innite-precision optimization and the actual search procedure, resulting in a signicantly faster overall quantization scheme.
10 0 0

Amplitude in dB

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3

10 20

Amplitude in dB

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Angular Frequency

Fig. 8. Magnitude response for the quantized 10th-order lattice wave digital filter with 6-bit multiplierless adaptor coefficients.

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1.1 1 0.9

(a)

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2 1.1 1 0.9

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

(b)

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Fig. 9. Search spaces for 10th-order bandpass filters with 6-bit adaptor coefficients. (a) Fixed-point coefficients. (b) Multiplierless coefficients.

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[12] F. Catthoor, J. Vandewalle, and H. De Man, Simulated-annealing-based optimization of coefcient and data word-lengths in digital lters, Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl., vol. 16, pp. 371 390, 1988. [13] L. Gefferth, Discrete optimization of wave digital lters combining simulated annealing and line search methods, in Proc. Eur. Conf. Circ. Th. and Des., (Brighton, UK), pp. 502506, 1989. [14] N. Papamarkos and G. Vachtsevanos, On the design of 1D IIR digital lters with coefcients of nite word length, Int. J. Circuit Theory Appl., vol. 19, pp. 217227, 1991. [15] A. Jones, S. Lawson, and T. Wicks, Design of cascaded allpass structures with magnitude and delay constraint using simulated annealing and quasi-Newton methods, in IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst., pp. 24392442, June 1991. [16] S. Summereld, A. J. Wicks, and S. S. Lawson, Design and VLSI architecture of wave digital lters with short signed digit coefcients, in IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits. Syst. (San Diego, CA), pp. 260263, 1992. [17] T. Wicks and S. Lawson, Genetic algorithm design of wave digital lters with a restricted coefcient set, in IEE Proc. Natural Algorithms in Signal Processing (Chelmsford, Essex), Nov. 1993. [18] R. Hooke and T. A. Jeeves, Direct search solution of numerical and statistical problems, J. Ass. Comput. Math., pp. 212229, 1961. [19] D. E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989. [20] A. Fettweiss, H. Levin, and A. Sedlmeyer, Wave digital lattice lters, Int. J. Circuits Theory Appl., vol. 2, no. 2, pp 203211, June 1974. [21] A. Fetteweis, Wave digital lters: Theory and practice, Proc. IEEE, no. 2, vol. 74, pp. 270327, Feb. 1986. [22] L. Gazsi, Explicit formulas for lattice wave digital lters, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., vol. CAS-32, pp. 6888, Jan. 1985. [23] R. Nouta, The Jaumann structure in wave-digital lters, Int. J. Circuit Theory and Appl., vol. 2, pp. 163174, June 1974. [24] M. Renfors and E. Zigouris, Signal processor implementation of digital all-pass lters, IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech, Signal Processing , vol. ASSP-36, no. 5, pp.714729, May 1988. [25] T. Saramki and M. Renfors, A novel approach for the design of IIR lters as a tapped cascaded interconnection of identical allpass lters, in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst. (Philadelphia, PA), pp. 629632, May 1987. [26] T. Saramki and T. Ritoniemi, Optimization of digital lter structures for VLSI implementation, Automatica, Journal for Control, Measurenments, Electronics, Computing and Communications, vol. 34, pp. 111116, 1993. [27] M. Renfors and T. Saramki, A class of approximately linear phase digital lters composed of allpass sublters, in Proc. 1986 IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst. (San Jose, CA), pp. 678 681, May 1986. [28] B. Jaworski and T. Saramki, Linear phase IIR lters composed of two parallel allpass sections, in Proc. 1994 IEEE Int. Symp. Circuits Syst. (London, England), pp. 537540, May 1994. [29] K. Surma-aho, Design of Approximately Linear-Phase Recursive Filters, Diploma Engineer Thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Finland, 1997. [30] S. R. K. Dutta and M. Vidyasagar, New algorithm for constrained minimax optimization, Mathematical Programming, vol. 13, pp. 140155, 1977. [31] J. Yli-Kaakinen, Optimization of Recursive Digital Filter for Practical Implementation, Diploma Engineer Thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Finland, 1998.

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