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Table1. : : : : : : : :

:
! ! :
: " : : : :
LeadingTheorists:
EmileDurkheim,TalcottParsons,
KingsleyDavisandWilbertMoore,
RobertMerton
SystemsTheory(NiklasLuhman)
LeadingTheorists:
KarlMarx,MaxWeber,
GeorgSimmel,GaetanoMosca,
VilfredoPareto,ThorsteinVeblen,
CriticalSchool,AnalyticalSocio.
LeadingTheorists:
CharlesH.Cooley,GeorgeHerbert
Mead,WilliamI.Thomas,Herbert
Blumer
LabelingTheory(H.Becker)
Assumptions
1.Asocietyisarelativelyintegrated
whole.
2.Asocietytendstoseekrelative
stabilityordynamicequilibrium
3.Mostelementsofasociety
contributetothesocietyswell-
beingandsurvival.
4.Asocietyrestsontheconsensusof
itsmembers
Assumptions
1.Asocietyexperiences
inconsistencyandconflict
everywhere.
2.Asocietyiscontinuallysubjected
tochangeeverywhere.
3.Elementsofasocietytendto
contributetothesocietys
instability.
4.Asocietyrestsontheconstraint
andcoercionofsomeofits
membersbyothers.
Assumptions
1.Humanbeingsactaccordingto
theirowninterpretationofreality.
2.Subjectiveinterpretationsare
basedonthemeaningswelearn
fromothers.
3.Humanbeingsareconstantly
interpretingtheirownbehavioras
wellasthebehaviorofothersin
termsoflearnedsymbolsand
meanings.
Othermajortheories
: " ; # $ (ErvingGoffman); % & $ : " (G. :Homans); $ : $
(EdmundHusserl,AlfredSchutz,PeterBergerandThomasLuckmann),Ethnomethodology (H.Garfinkel)
$ : " (ex.A.Giddens,P.Bourdieu) : " (J.F.Lyotard,J.Baudrillardetc.)
" ` %: # ( " ! : ( " ( %: ) # " ( " ( %
takeninitswideethnographicsenseisthatcomplexwholewhich
includesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesand
habitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety(EdwardB.Tylor,1871,p.1)
2

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Her life, work and collaboration with D.W. Winnicott
www.clarewinnicott.net
habitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety(EdwardB.Tylor,1871,p.1)
iscomposedofapeoplelivingwithindefinedterritorialborderswho
shareacommonculture[andwhointeractmorewitheachotherthantheydowith
other individualwho ooperate witheachotherfortheattainmentofcertain
ends.
3
]Itisthelargestandmostnearlyself-sufficientsocialstructurein
existenceitcontainsenoughsmallersocialstructuresfamily,economy,
government,religiontofulfillalltheneedsofitsmembers
4

Note:So etyisgenerallyusedtorefertothepatternedrelationshipsobtaining
betweenpeople,while Culture isoftenregardedasthetheproductofsuch
patternedrelationships(i.e.,thetechnology,beliefs,values,andrulesthatboth
serveasguidesto,andresultfrom,suchpatternedrelationships).Whilethis
distinctionmaybeusefuloneforvariousanalyticalpurposes,itishighlyartificial
anditsharplydivorcedfromtheconcreterealityofthelivesofhumanbeings. "
: : : : : : : : : : : :
: : $ . $ : : : : : : : : : *
: * : : : : :
5
(Emphasismine)
1
BasedontheworkofRalfDahrendorf(1958)asquotedinShepard,J.(1993), So ology,5
th
ed.,St.Paul,MN:WestPub.Com.p.32
2
QuotedinHarris,M.(2000), CulturalAnthropology,5
th
ed.,Massachusettes:Ally&Bacon,p.9
3
Kluckholm,C.(2000,orig.pub.1968), QueerCustoms (fromMirrorforMan).InG.Massey(Ed.),ReadingsforSociology,3
rd
ed.,
NY:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.,pp.82-89
4
Shepard,1993,p.120
5
Sanderson,S.K.(1999),Ma roso ology:AnIntrodu tontoHumanSo e tes,4
th
ed.,NY:AddisonWesleyLongman,Inc.,p.32
Figure1,ThelinksbetweenCultureand
SocialStructure(Shepard,1993,p.114)

: [is]acollectionofpeoplewhomakeuseofvariousmeansofadaptingtotheirphysical
environment,whoengageinpatternedformsofsocialconduct,andwhocreatesharedbeliefsandvaluesdesignedto
makesenseoftheircollectiveactions.
6

) " ( % :(Biology) : + , : ) ( " ( % :(SocialandCulturalEnvironment)

aregeneticallyinherited,complexpatternsofbehaviorthatalwaysappearamongmembersofa
particularspeciesunderappropriateenvironmentalconditions & [are] :simple,biologically
inheritedautomaticreactionstophysicalstimuli
7

# aphysiologicalconditionwhichimpelstheorganismtobecomeactiveinbeinginitially
indiscriminate,withoutanappropriatedirection.
8
Drivesareimpulsestoreducediscomfort.
9

: : - referstothelearnedwaysoflivingandnormsofbehaviorsfolkways,mores,laws,
values,ideas,andpatternedwaysofthegroup referstothesumtotalofallthephysical,
mental,emotional,social,andbehavioralcharacteristicsoftheindividual...[the] :
referstothevariousgroupsandsocialinteractionsgoingoninthegroupsofwhichoneisamember
10

From : . / s 0 :
11

...Themembersofallhumangroupshaveaboutthesamebiologicalequipment.Allmenundergothesame
poignantlifeexperiencessuchasbirth,helplessness,illness,oldage,anddeath.Thebiologicalpotentialities
ofthespeciesaretheblockswithwhichculturesarebuilt.Somepatternsofeveryculturecrystallizearound
focusesprovidedbytheinevitableofbiology:thedifferencebetweenthesexes,thepresenceofpersonsof
differentages,thevaryingphysicalstrengthandskillofindividuals.Thefactsofnaturealsolimitculture
forms.Nocultureprovidespatternsforjumpingovertreesorforeatingironore.
Thereisnoeither-orbetweennatureandthatspecialformofnurturecalledculture.Culture
determinismisasone-sidedasbiologicaldeterminism.Thetwofactorsareinterdependent.Culturearisesout
ofhumannature,anditsformsarerestrictedbothbymansbiologyandbynaturallaws.Itisequallytruethat
culturechannelsbiologicalprocessesvomiting,weeping,fainting,sneezing,thedailyhabitsoffoodintake
andwasteelimination.Whenamaneats,heisreactingtoaninternaldrive,namely,hungercontractions
consequentupontheloweringofbloodsugar,buthisprecisereactiontotheseinternalstimulicannotbe
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consequentupontheloweringofbloodsugar,buthisprecisereactiontotheseinternalstimulicannotbe
predictedbyphysiologicalknowledgealone.Whetherahealthyadultfeelshungrytwice,threetimes,orfour
timesadayandthehoursatwhichthisfeelingrecursisaquestionofculture.Whatheeatsisofcourse
limitedbyavailability,butitalsopartlyregulatedbyculture.itisabiologicalfactthatsometypesofberries
arepoisonous;itisaculturalfactthat,afewgenerationsago,mostAmericansconsideredtomatoestobe
poisonousandrefusedtoeatthem.Suchselective,discriminativeuseoftheenvironmentischaracteristically
cultural.Inastillmoregeneralsense,too,theprocessofeatingischanneledbyculture.Whetheramaneats
tolive,livestoeat,ormerelyeatsandlivesisonlyinpartanindividualmatter,fortherearealsocultural
trends.Emotionsarephysiologicalevents.Certainsituationswillevokefearinpeoplefromanyculture.But
sensationsofpleasure,anger,andlustmaybestimulatedbyculturalcuesthatwouldleaveunmoved
someonewhohasbeenrearedinadifferentsocialtradition
: " 1 : " : $ : (TextadaptedfromSanderson,1999,pp.38-39)
...Sociobiologistsattempttodiscovertheextenttowhichhumansocialbehavioristheresultofgenetictraits
characteristicoftheentirehumanspecies.Inotherwords,theyareinterestedinidentifyingthebasicfeatures
of : .TheybasetheirassumptionsontheDarwinianmodelofbiologicalevolutionthrough
naturalselection.Theybelievethatashumansevolvedfromtheirprimateancestorstheyinheritedcertain
biologicaltraitsfromthoseancestorsthatcontinuetoexistinmodernhumans.Thesetraitsareheldtohavea
6
Sanderson,1999,p.42
7
Shepard,1993,p.78
8
Zulueta,F.M.&Paraso,M.S.(2004), GeneralPsy hology,Mandaluyong:NationalBookStore,p.437
9
Shepard,1993,p.78 10
Panopio,I.&Raymundo,A.(2004), So ology:Fo usonthePh lpp nes,4
th
ed.,QuezonCity:KenInc.pp.98-99
11
Kluckholm,C.(2000,orig.pub.1968), QueerCustoms (fromMirrorforMan).InG.Massey(Ed.),ReadingsforSociology,3
rd
ed.,
NY:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.,pp.82-89

directinfluenceonmanypatternsofsocialbehavior.Sociobiologistsdonotclaimthathumansocialbehavior
ismerelytheproductofourgeneticprogramming;theyrecognizethatmosthumanactivitiesresultfrom
specificformsoflearninginparticularsocialandculturalenvironments.Nevertheless,theyarguethathuman
behaviorisnotentirelylearned,andthatmanyaspectsofitmaybeundergeneticcontrol.
Awell-knownexampleofsociobiologicalreasoningisfoundintheworkofLionelTigerandRobin
Fox(1971).TigerandFoxarguethathumanscomeequippedwitha b ogrammar :abasicsetofbiological
instructionspredisposingthemtoactincertainways.Theydonotregardtheseinstructionsasconstituting
fixed,immutableinstincts.Rather,theyviewthemasgeneralbehavioraltendenciesthataresubjecttobeing
modifiedorevenneutralizedbycertainlearningexperiences.Theyseethefollowingasthemostessential
elementsofthehumanbiogrammar:
y Thetendencyofhumanstoformstronglyhierarchicalgroupsandsocietiesinwhichthecompetitionfor
statusisofparamountimportance.
y

Thetendencyofmalestobondtogetherinpoliticalcoalitionsinwhichtheyexercisepoliticaldominance
andcontroloverfemales.
y Thetendencyofmotherandchildtoformastrongmutualattachment.
y Thepredispositionofhumans(especiallymales)toengageinvariousformsofaggressionandviolence.
y Thetendencyofhumanstodefendterritorialspaceagainstintrusionsbyoutsiders.
TigerandFoxreachtheseconclusionsbydrawinganalogiesbetweenhumanbehaviorandthe
behaviorofcontemporarynonhumanprimates.Theynotthatmostnonhumanprimatesareorganizedinto
societiesbasedonstatushierarchieswithdominanceofmaleoverfemales,andtheyinferfromthisthata
basicprimatebiogramhasbeenretainedthroughouthumanevolutionaryhistory.Thetendencyformodern
humanstoformhierarchical,competitive,andmale-dominatedsocialsystemsisthereforeseenasresting
essentiallyinourgenes.ThesamekindofbioevolutionaryreasoningisappliedbyTigerandFoxinreaching
theconclusionthatmother-childboningandthepredispositiontowardaggressionandterritorialityarerooted
inourbiologicalnature.
TigerandFoxsargumentsareillustrativeofoneparticularversionofsociobiologicaltheorizing.
OtherSociobiologistsemploythe : : / : astheguidingprincipleintheirthinking(E.O.
Wilson,1975;Symons,1979;Trivers,k1985).Thistheoryisbasedontherecentassumptionmadebymany
evolutionarybiologiststhatthegene,ratherthantheorganismorspecies,istheunitonwhichnatural
selectionoperatives(cf.Dawkins,1976).Evolutionarybiologistswhomaintainthisassumptionclaimthat
naturalselectionoperatestopreservecertaingenesandmaximizetheirrepresentationinfuturegenerations.
Kinselectiontheorypositsthatmanyformsofbehaviorresultfromtheattemptsofindividualsto
maximizetheirinclusivefitness.Inclusivefitnessisthesumofanindividualsownfitness plus thefitness
presentinthegenesofallitsrelatives.Amajorapplicationofkinselectiontheoryhasbeentothecommonly
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presentinthegenesofallitsrelatives.Amajorapplicationofkinselectiontheoryhasbeentothecommonly
observedphenomenonofaltruismamongcloselyrelatedindividuals.Forexample,thetheoryholdsthat
whenaparentbehavesinaself-sacrificialmannertowarditsoffspringitisassistingthemtosurviveand
reproduceandthereforeleavemorecopiesofitsgenesinfuturegenerations.Suchaltruisticbehavior,then,
servestomaximizetheparentsinclusivefitness.
Sincethetheorysuccessfullyexplainstheimportanceofkinshipbondsinmayanimalspecies,it
hasbeenproposedthatithelpstoexplaintheuniversalityofhumankinshipsystemsandthegreat
significancethatisattachedtokinshipinsomanysocieties(vandeBerghe,1979)
:
AnthropologistMarvinHarris(1980)agreesthatthereissomebiologicalcontinuitybetween
humanandnonhumananimalsandthatthereisabasichumannature.Heobjects,however,tothe
Sociobiologistsattempttoexplainhumanbehaviorgenetically.Thereis,contendsHarris,toomuchcultural
diversityaroundtheworldtoexplainhumanbehaviorbiologically.Thehumanbrainandtheuniquehuman
capacityforusinglanguageandcreatingculturehaveallowedhumanstoovercomeanysignificant
contributiontobehaviorthatmightcomefromtheirgenes.Becauseofthesizeoftheircerebralcortex
whichpermits,amongotherthings,abstractthinkinghumanspossessagreatercapabilityforthecreation
andlearningofculture.Nonhumanspecies,whicheitherhavenocerebralcortexorhaveanundeveloped
cerebralcortex,behavesimilarlybecauseofageneticcode.Birdsdonotwalksouthforthewinter,salmon
donotflyupstream,andlionsdonotpreferfernstofreshmean.Humans,liberatedfromtheconfinesoftheir

genesbyalarge,well-developedcerebralcortex,ontheotherhand,createandtransmitadazzlingarrayof
waysofthinking,feeling,andbehaving.Moreover,abetterexplanationonebasedonculturealready
exists.Harrisandmanyothercriticsbelievethatsociobiologyshouldnotsidetrackusfromoureffortsto
understandandexplainhumanbehaviorinculturalterms.
12

` " % " : ( " ( % :

1. : : :
13

$ : : $ thedistinctivequalityofasignisthattherelationshipbetweenitandthemeaningitis
intendedtoconveyisgeneticallyfixed[instinctive]Signsarethus losed ,ornonprodu t e,mechanisms
ofcommunication;theirmeaningisrigidlypredetermined,andthereisnopossibilityofnewmeaningsbeing
added.
issomethingthatrepresentssomethingelse.
$ $ : 2 :isthesystematizedusageofspeechandhearingtoconvey,communicate,orexpressfeelings
andideas(EshelmanandCashion1983:93).
14
CharlesHockettandRobertAscher(1964)havespecified
fourprimarycharacteristicsoftruelanguage[1]languagehasthequalityof openness.Thesymbolsoutof
whichlanguageisbuildcantakeonnewandvariedmeaningsinaddition,speakerscanemitnew
utterancesthathaveneverbeenheardorsaidbefore[2][is] dspla ement [which]referstotheability
tospeakofthingsthatareoutofsight,inthepastorfuture,orevennonexistent[3] dualtyofpattern ngis
adistinctivecharacteristicoflanguage.Languagehas,ontheonehand,apatterningofabasicsetof
elementarysoundunits[i.e.phonemes],themselvesmeaninglessinisolation,and,ontheotherhand,a
patterningthatcombinestheseindividualsoundunitsintoprescribedsequencesthatrenderthemmeaningful
[i.e.morphemes,syntax]Finally,[4]languageis transm ttedbylearn ng
15

" : : 2 3 : `
AccordingtoEdwardSapir(1929)andBenjaminWhorf(1956),languageisourguidetoreality;ourviewof
theworlddependsontheparticularlanguagewehavelearned.Ourperceptionofrealityisatthemercyofthe
wordsandgrammaticalrulesofourlanguage.Andbecauseourperceptionsaredifferent,ourworldsare
different.Thisisknowasthe hypothessoflngust relat tyWhensomethingisimportanttopeople,the
languageofthosepeoplewillcontainmanywordstodescribethethingWhensomethingisunimportantto
people,suchpeoplemayhavenowordforthethingAlthoughtheprincipleoflinguisticrelativitystates
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people,suchpeoplemayhavenowordforthethingAlthoughtheprincipleoflinguisticrelativitystates
thatapersonsviewoftheworldiscoloredbyhisorherlanguage,itdoesnotstatethatpeopleareforever
trappedbytheirlanguagePeoplecanbegintoviewtheworlddifferentlyastheylearnanewlanguage.
Mostpeople,however,confinethemselvestotheirnativelanguage.Consequently,mostpeopleinterpret
theirenvironmentthroughthewordsandstructureoftheirlanguage.Thislimitstheirabilitytoperceiveand
understand.Language,then,sonecessaryforthecreationandtransmissionofculture,isalsoconstricting.
16

2. : :
3. : : : : :
4. : :
IdealCulturevs.RealCulture
5. : : $ $
6. : :
7. : : : $ : *
12
Shepard,1993,p.79
13
Sanderson,1999,p.32
14
Panopio&Raymundo,2004,p.53
15
Sanderson,1999,p.27
16
Shepard,1993,p.81
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