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Pendahuluan
Manusia

TAKSONOMI TUMBUHAN BERPEMBULUH

Drs. Endang Dayat, M.Si. Drs. Didi Jaya Santri, M.Si.

dan Hewan sehari-hari bergantung hidupnya pada beranekaragam tumbuhan Sejak 20.000 th y.l., manusia purba sudah mengenali tumbuhan lokal sebagai bahan makanan, obat-obatan dan peralatan, dan potensi lainnya seperti racun. Untuk itu kita perlu mengenal keragaman tumbuhan mengenal tumbuhan, gambaran struktural yang signifikan (karakter kunci) dan mengidentifikasi berbagai jenisnya (species) Karena itu bidang Sistematik Tumbuhan mempunyai akar budaya yang mendalam di berbagai belahan dunia. Sistem klasifikasi angiospermae yang berkembang sekarang dikembangkan dari Eropa, tidak berarti bahwa tidak ada peran budaya African, Asian, and Native American dalam botani modern (see the Plant Trivia Timeline).

Sistematik Tumbuhan mencakup keanekaragaman, identifikasi, penamaan, klasifikasi dan evolusi tumbuhan. Taksonomi tumbuhan: prinsip, prosedur dan peraturan dasar klasifikasi tumbuhan; bagian dari sistematik tumbuhan Tujuan taksonomi tumbuhan Inventarisasi flora Memberikan metoda untuk identifikasi dan komunikasi e be a eto a u tu e t as a o u as Menghasilkan sistem klasifikasi terpadu dan universal Menunjukkan implikasi evolusi dari keanekaragaman tumbuhan Memberikan nama ilmiah tunggal dalam bahasa latin

Pendekatan dalam taksonomi Taksonomi tradisional (alfa taksonomi) Taksonomi modern / biosistematik (omega taksonomi) Taksonomi numerik

Fenetik Kladistik

Taksonomi kimia

Dasar-Dasar Taksonomi: Klasifikasi: Pengelompokan organisme dalam sistem menurut kategori tertentu. Satuan dasar klasifikasi: jenis (species). Setiap kesatuan taksonomi disebut takson Identifikasi: Pemberian nama suatu organisme dengan menggunakan pustaka (kuncideterminasi, flora), gambar, spesimen herbarium, tumbuhan hidup yang telah diketahui namanya, namanya kartu berlubang komputer dan lain-lain berlubang, lain-lain. Nomenklatur: sistem pemberian nama atau tatanama tumbuhan secara ilmiah (KITT), yakni dengan sistem binomial (Carolus Linnaeus)

Tingkatan Takson
Latin
Regnum Vegetabile Divisio Subdivisio Classis Subclassis Ordo Subordo Familia Sub Familia Genus Subgenus Spesies Subspecies

Indonesia
Dunia Tumbuhan Divisi Anak Divisi Kelas Anak Kelas Bangsa Anak Bangsa Suku Anak Suku Marga Anak Marga Jenis Anak Jenis

Contoh
Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Asteridae Asterales Asteraceae Vernonia V. angustifolia Michx.

Akhiran
-phyta -opsida -idae -ales -inae -aceae

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Nomenklatur
Pemberian

Sejarah Singkat Tatanama Tumbuhan

nama tumbuhan

Penting untuk penelitian dan komunikasi ilmiah Perlu adanya keseragaman dalam pemberian nama tumbuhan Nama tumbuhan non ilmiah (lokal, daerah) vs ilmiah

Pre Linnaeus

Beberapa

permasalahan nama non ilmiah

Eupatorium cannabinum, foliis in caule ad genicula ternis, floribus parvis, umbellatim in summis caulibus dispositis, Marilandicum polinomial nomenclature standarisasi sistem tata nama tumbuhan binomial nomenclature Species Plantarum (1753) Yang pertama kali membuat kode tata nama internasional

Nama berbeda untuk tumbuhan yang sama Nama yang sama untuk tumbuhan berbeda

Carolus Linnaeus (1700 an)

Augustin Pyramus de Candole (awal 1800 an) American vs European (akhir 1800 an hingga awal 1900 an) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) (1930) International Botanical Congres (4-6th)

Buttercup (East Texas) Oenothera speciosa

Buttercup (elsewhere) Ranunculus sp.

Modifikasi kode

Tidak menunjukkan tingkatan taksa

Saint Louis Code (online) (1999) ICBN terbagi menjadi Aturan (Rule) dan Saran (Recommendation)

Prinsip-Prinsip ICBN

Prinsip-Prinsip ICBN

Nomenklatur satu gugus takson didasarkan atas prioritas publikasi Cannabis sativa L. 1753 C. indica Lam. 1785 C ruderalis janischevsky 1924 C. Nama yang paling awal dipakai C. sativa. Nama ilmiah gugus taksonomi diperlakukan sebagai nama latin dari manapun asalnya Shorea palembanica Melaleuca cajuputi

Setiap gugus taksonomi, dengan sirkumskripsi, posisi dan rangking tertentu hanya dapat mempunyai satu nama yang betul, kecuali beberapa nama (Nomina conservanda)

Palmae Gramineae Cruciferae Leguminosae Guttiferae Umbelliferae Compositae

Arecaceae Poaceae Brassicaceae Fabaceae Clusiaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae

Binomial Nomenclature

Nama ilmiah dan Author

Morus alba L.
Genus (Marga) ( ) Epitheton specificum (Petunjuk Jenis) Author (Linnaeus)

Ditulis miring (italic) atau digaris bawahi

Solanum torvum L. Shorea javanica Kooders et Valeton Raphanus sativus L. var. radicula Pers. Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. Pithecelobium fagifolium Blume ex Miquel f gf q Hibiscus x archeri Wats Oryza sativa L. forma glutinosa Auct. Oryza sativa si gadis Sinonim : Thuya aphylla L (1753) & Tamarix articulata Vahl. (1791) Homonim : Viburnum fragrans Loisel (1824) dan Viburnum fragrans Bunge (1831) Azas Prioritas

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An overview of land plant evolution

Land plants Vascular plants Bryophytes (nonvascular plants) Seedless vascular plants Seed plants

Liverworts

Hornworts

Gymnosperms

Charophyceans

Lycophytes (club mosses, spike mos sses, quillworts)

Pterophyte e (ferns, hor rsetails, whisk fern)

Origin of seed plants (about ( b t 360 mya) )

Origin of vascular plants (about 420 mya)

Angiosperms

Vascular plants began to evolve during the Carboniferous period

Mosses

The Phyla of Extant Plant

Origin of land plants (about 475 mya)

Ancestral green alga

Figure 29.7 Table 29.1

Origins and Traits of Vascular Plants

Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes

Fossils of the forerunners of vascular plants

Date back about 420 million years

In contrast with bryophytes

These early tiny plants

Had independent branching sporophytes independent, Lacked other derived traits of vascular plants

Sporophytes of seedless vascular plants are the larger generation, as in the familiar leafy fern The gametophytes are tiny plants that grow on or below the soil surface

Figure 29.11

The life cycle of a fern

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Spore MEIOSIS Sporangium Archegonium Mature sporophyte Sporangium FERTILIZATION Sorus 6 On the underside of the sporophytes reproductive leaves are spots called sori. Each sorus is a cluster of sporangia. Fiddlehead New sporophyte Egg Zygote Sperm Young gametophyte 1 Sporangia release spores. Most fern species produce a single type of spore that gives rise to a bisexual gametophyte. 2 The fern spore develops into a small, photosynthetic gametophyte. 3 Although this illustration shows an egg and sperm from the same gametophyte, a variety of mechanisms promote cross-fertilization between gametophytes. Antheridium

Transport in Xylem and Phloem

Vascular plants have two types of vascular tissue

Xylem and phloem

Xylem
Conducts most of the water and minerals Includes dead cells called tracheids

Phloem
Distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products Consists of living cells

Gametophyte

4 Fern sperm use flagella to swim from the antheridia to eggs in the archegonia.

Figure 29.12

5 A zygote develops into a new sporophyte, and the young plant grows out from an archegonium of its parent, the gametophyte.

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Evolution of Roots

Evolution of Leaves

Leaves

Roots

Are organs that increase the surface area of vascular plants, thereby capturing more solar energy for photosynthesis Microphylls, leaves with a single vein Megaphylls, leaves with a highly branched vascular system

Are organs that anchor vascular plants Enable vascular plants to absorb water and nutrients from the soil May have evolved from subterranean stems

Leaves are categorized by two types

According to one model of evolution

Microphylls evolved first, as outgrowths of stems
Vascular tissue

Figure 29.13a, b

(a) Microphylls, such as those of lycophytes, may have originated as small stem outgrowths supported by single, unbranched strands of vascular tissue.

(b) Megaphylls, which have branched vascular systems, may have evolved by the fusion of branched stems.

Sporophylls and Spore Variations

Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants

Seedless vascular plants form two phyla

Sporophylls

Are modified leaves with sporangia Are homosporous, producing one type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte

Most seedless vascular plants

Lycophyta, including club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts Pterophyta, including ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns and their relatives

All seed plants and some seedless vascular plants

Are heterosporous, having two types of spores that give rise to male and female gametophytes

The general groups of seedless vascular plants

LYCOPHYTES (PHYLUM LYCOPHYTA)
Strobili (clusters of sporophylls)

Phylum Lycophyta:

Isoetes gunnii, a quillwort Selaginella apoda, a spike moss

Club Mosses, Spike Mosses, and Quillworts Modern species of lycophytes

Are relics from a far more eminent past Are small herbaceous plants

Diphasiastrum tristachyum, a club moss

PTEROPHYTES (PHYLUM PTEROPHYTA) Psilotum nudum, a whisk fern Equisetum arvense, field horsetail Vegetative stem Strobilus on fertile stem Athyrium filix-femina, lady fern

Figure 29.14

WHISK FERNS AND RELATIVES

HORSETAILS

FERNS

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Phylum Pterophyta:

The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants

Ferns, Horsetails, and Whisk Ferns and Relatives Ferns

The ancestors of modern lycophytes, horsetails, and ferns

Are the most diverse seedless vascular plants

Grew to great heights during the Carboniferous, forming the first forests

Figure 29.15

Seed Plants: Feeding the World

Seeds changed the course of plant evolution

The

growth of these early forests

May have helped produce the major global cooling that characterized the end of the Carboniferous period Decayed and eventually became coal

Enabling their bearers to become the dominant producers in most terrestrial ecosystems

Figure 30.1

The reduced gametophytes of seed plants are protected in ovules and pollen grains

Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes

In addition to seeds, the following are common to all seed plants

The gametophytes of seed plants

Reduced gametophytes Heterospory Ovules Pollen

Develop within the walls of spores retained within tissues of the parent sporophyte

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Gametophyte/sporophyte relationships
Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)

Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants

Seed plants evolved from plants that had megasporangia

Gametophyte (n)

Gametophyte (n)

Which produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes Which produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes

(a) Sporophyte dependent on gametophyte (mosses and other bryophytes).

(b) Large sporophyte and

small, independent gametophyte (ferns and other seedless vascular plants).

Seed plants evolved from plants that had microsporangia

Microscopic female gametophytes (n) in ovulate cones (dependent) Microscopic male gametophytes (n) inside these parts of flowers (dependent) Microscopic male gametophytes (n) in pollen cones (dependent)

Microscopic female gametophytes (n) inside these parts of flowers (dependent)

Sporophyte (2n) (independent)

Sporophyte (2n), the flowering plant (independent)

Figure 30.2ac

(c) Reduced gametophyte dependent on sporophyte (seed plants: gymnosperms and angiosperms).

Ovules and Production of Eggs

Pollen and Production of Sperm

An ovule consists of

A megasporangium, megaspore, and protective integuments

Microspores develop into pollen grains

Which contain the male gametophytes of plants Is the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules

Pollination

Integument Spore wall

Megasporangium (2n) Megaspore (n) (a) Unfertilized ovule. In this sectional view through the ovule of a pine (a gymnosperm), a fleshy megasporangium is surrounded by a protective layer of tissue called an integument. (Angiosperms have two integuments.)

Figure 30.3a

If a pollen grain germinates

It gives rise to a pollen tube that discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte within the ovule
Female gametophyte (n) Egg nucleus (n)

Pollen, which can be dispersed by air or animals

Eliminated the water requirement for fertilization

Spore wall

Male gametophyte (within germinating pollen grain) (n) Micropyle

Discharged sperm nucleus (n) Pollen grain (n)

Figure 30.3b

(b) Fertilized ovule. A megaspore develops into a multicellular female gametophyte. The micropyle, the only opening through the integument, allows entry of a pollen grain. The pollen grain contains a male gametophyte, which develops a pollen tube that discharges sperm.

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The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds

Gymnospermae / Pinophyta

A seed

Develops from the whole ovule Is a sporophyte embryo, along with its food supply, packaged in a protective coat
Seed coat (derived from Integument) Food supply (female gametophyte tissue) (n) Embryo (2n) (new sporophyte) (c) Gymnosperm seed. Fertilization initiates the transformation of the ovule into a seed, which consists of a sporophyte embryo, a food supply, and a protective seed coat derived from the integument.

Gymnosperms bear naked seeds, typically on cones Among the gymnosperms are many well-known conifers

Or cone-bearing trees, including pine, fir, and redwood

Figure 30.3c

Exploring Gymnosperm Diversity

PHYLUM CYCADOPHYTA PHYLUM GINKGOPHYTA

The gymnosperms include four plant phyla

Cycadophyta Gingkophyta Gnetophyta Coniferophyta p y

Cycas revoluta

PHYLUM GNETOPHYTA Gnetum

Welwitschia

Ovulate cones Ephedra

Figure 30.4

Exploring Gymnosperm Diversity

PHYLUM CYCADOPHYTA Douglas fir Common juniper

Gymnosperm Evolution

Fossil evidence reveals that by the late Devonian

Pacific yew

Wollemia pine

Some plants, called progymnosperms, had begun to acquire some adaptations that characterize seed plants

Gymnosperms appear early in the fossil record

Bristlecone pine

Sequoia

And dominated the Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystems Can be divided into two groups: gymnosperms and angiosperms
Figure 30.5

Living seed plants

Figure 30.4

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A Closer Look at the Life Cycle of a Pine

The life cycle of a pine

1 In most conifer species, each tree has both ovulate and pollen cones. Ovulate cone Longitudinal section of ovulate cone

2 An ovulate cone scale has two ovules, each containing a megasporangium. Only one ovule is shown. Key Ovule Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Key features of the gymnosperm life cycle include

Dominance of the sporophyte generation, the pine tree The development of seeds from fertilized ovules The role of pollen in transferring sperm to ovules

Megasporocyte (2n) Integument Micropyle

Pollen cone Mature sporophyte (2n)

Microsporocytes (2n)

MEIOSIS

Germinating pollen grain Pollen grains (n) MEIOSIS (containing male gametophytes) Surviving megaspore (n)

Megasporangium

4 A pollen grain enters through the micropyle and germinates, forming a pollen tube that slowly digests through the megasporangium.

Longitudinal section of pollen cone Seedling

Sporophyll
Microsporangium

3 A pollen cone contains many microsporangia held in sporophylls. Each microsporangium contains microsporocytes (microspore mother cells). These undergo meiosis, giving rise to haploid microspores that develop into pollen grains.

Germinating pollen grain Archegonium Egg (n) Female gametophyte Germinating pollen grain (n) Integument

Seeds on surface of ovulate scale

5 While the pollen tube develops, the megasporocyte (megaspore mother cell) undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid cells. One survives as a megaspore.

Fertilization usually occurs more than a year after pollination. All eggs may be fertilized, but usually only one zygote develops into an embryo. The ovule becomes a seed, consisting of an embryo, food supply, and seed coat. Embryo (new sporophyte) (2n)

Food reserves (gametophyte tissue) (n)

Seed coat (derived from parent sporophyte) (2n)

Discharged sperm nucleus (n) Pollen tube

6 The female gametophyte develops within the megaspore and contains two or three archegonia, each with an egg. 7 By the time the eggs are mature, two sperm cells have developed in the pollen tube, which extends to the female gametophyte. Fertilization occurs when sperm and egg nuclei unite.

FERTILIZATION

Egg nucleus (n)

Figure 30.6

Angiospermae / Magnoliophyta

Flowers

The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits Angiosperms

The flower

Is an angiosperm structure specialized for sexual reproduction

A flower is a specialized shoot with modified leaves

Sepals, which enclose the flower Petals, which are brightly colored and attract pollinators Stamens, which produce pollen S hi h d ll Carpels, which produce ovules
Stigma Stamen Anther Style Ovary Filament Carpel

Are commonly known as flowering plants Are seed plants that produce the reproductive structures called flowers and fruits Are the most widespread and diverse of all plants Are flowers and fruits

The key adaptations in the evolution of angiosperms

Petal Sepal

Receptacle Ovule

Fruits

Fruits

Can be carried by wind, water, or animals to new locations, enhancing seed dispersal
(a) Wings enable maple fruits to be easily carried by the wind.

Typically consist of a mature ovary

(a) Tomato, a fleshy fruit with soft outer and inner layers of pericarp

(b) Ruby grapefruit, a fleshy fruit with a hard outer layer and soft inner layer of pericarp

(c) Nectarine, a fleshy fruit with a soft outer layer and hard inner layer (pit) of pericarp

(b) Seeds within berries and other edible fruits are often dispersed in animal feces.

Figure 30.8ae

(d) Milkweed, a dry fruit that splits open at maturity

(e) Walnut, a dry fruit that remains closed at maturity

Figure 30.9ac

(c) The barbs of cockleburs facilitate seed dispersal by allowing the fruits to hitchhike on animals.

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The Angiosperm Life Cycle

The life cycle of an angiosperm

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) 1 Anthers contain microsporangia. Each microsporangium contains microsporocytes (microspore mother cells) that divide by meiosis, producing microspores. Microsporangium Microsporocytes (2n) Mature flower on sporophyte plant (2n) 2 Microspores form pollen grains (containing male gametophytes). The generative cell will divide to form two sperm. The tube cell will produce the pollen tube. Anther

In the angiosperm life cycle

Double fertilization occurs when a pollen tube discharges two sperm into the female gametophyte within an ovule One sperm fertilizes the egg, while the other combines with two nuclei in the center cell of the female gametophyte and initiates development of food-storing endosperm food storing Nourishes the developing embryo

MEIOSIS

When a seed germinates, the embryo develops into a mature sporophyte. Ovary Germinating Seed

Microspore (n) Ovule with megasporangium (2n) Male gametophyte (in pollen grain)

Generative cell

Tube cell

MEIOSIS 3 In the megasporangium of each ovule, the megasporocyte divides by meiosis and produces four megaspores. The surviving megaspore in each ovule forms a female gametophyte Seed (embryo sac). Stigma Pollen tube Sperm Surviving megaspore (n) Pollen tube Style Antipodal cells Polar nuclei Synergids Egg (n) Pollen tube

Pollen grains

The endosperm

6 The zygote develops into an embryo that is packaged along with food into a seed. (The fruit tissues surrounding the seed are not shown).

Embryo (2n) Endosperm (food Supply) (3n) Seed coat (2n)

Megasporangium (n)

Female gametophyte (embryo sac)

Zygote (2n) Nucleus of developing endosperm (3n) Egg Nucleus (n) Sperm (n) 4 After pollination, eventually two sperm nuclei are discharged in each ovule.

FERTILIZATION 5 Double fertilization occurs. One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote. The other sperm combines with the two polar nuclei to form the nucleus of the endosperm, which is triploid in this example.

Figure 30.10

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

Angiosperm Evolution

Fossil Angiosperms

Clarifying the origin and diversification of angiosperms

Primitive fossils of 125-million-year-old angiosperms

Poses fascinating challenges to evolutionary biologists And during the late Mesozoic, the major branches of the clade g diverged from their common ancestor

Display both derived and primitive traits

Carpel

Angiosperms originated at least 140 million years ago

Stamen

5 cm
(a) Archaefructus sinensis, a 125-million-yearold fossil.

(b) Artists reconstruction of Archaefructus sinensis

Figure 30.11a, b

An Evo-Devo Hypothesis of Flower Origins

Angiosperm Diversity

In hypothesizing how pollen-producing and ovule-producing structures were combined into a single flower

The two main groups of angiosperms

Are monocots (Monocotyledonae/Liliopsida) and eudicots (Dicotyledonae/Magnoliopsida) Are less derived and include the flowering plants belonging to the oldest lineages Share some traits with basal angiosperms but are more closely related to monocots and eudicots

Scientist Michael Frohlich proposed that the ancestor of angiosperms had separate pollen-producing and ovule-producing structures

Basal angiosperms

Magnoliids

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Exploring Angiosperm Diversity

BASAL ANGIOSPERMS

Exploring Angiosperm Diversity

MONOCOTS Orchid (Lemboglossum fossii) Monocot Characteristics Eudicot Characteristics Embryos One cotyledon Two cotyledons EUDICOTS California poppy (Eschscholzia californica)

Leaf venation Veins usually parallel Veins usually netlike

Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica)

Amborella trichopoda

Water lily (Nymphaea Rene Gerard)

Star anise (Illicium floridanum)

Pygmy date palm (Phoenix roebelenii) Lily (Lilium Enchantment)

HYPOTHETICAL TREE OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Star anise and relatives Water lilies Magnoliids Amborella Monocots Eudicots

Stems Vascular tissue usually arranged in ring Roots Dog rose (Rosa canina), a wild rose Taproot (main root) usually present Pollen Pea (Lathyrus nervosus, Lord Ansons blue pea), a legume

Vascular tissue scattered

Barley (Hordeum vulgare), a grass

Root system Usually fibrous (no main root)

MAGNOLIIDS

Pollen grain with one opening Flowers Anther

Pollen grain with three openings

Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora)

Stigma Filament Ovary

Figure 30.12

Figure 30.12

Floral organs usually in multiples of three

Floral organs usually in multiples of four or five

Zucchini (Cucurbita Pepo), female (left) and male flowers

Evolutionary Links Between Angiosperms and Animals

Pollination of flowers by animals and transport of seeds by animals

Are two important relationships in terrestrial ecosystems

(a) A flower pollinated by honeybees. This honeybee is harvesting pollen and nectar (a sugary solution secreted by flower glands) from a Scottish broom flower. The flower has a tripping mechanism that arches the stamens over the bee and dusts it with pollen, some of which will rub off onto the stigma of the next flower the bee visits.

(b) A flower pollinated by hummingbirds. The long, thin beak and tongue of this rufous hummingbird enable the animal to probe flowers that secrete nectar deep within floral tubes. Before the hummer leaves, anthers will dust its beak and head feathers with pollen. Many flowers that are pollinated by birds are red or pink, colors to which bird eyes are especially sensitive.

(c) A flower pollinated by nocturnal animals. Some angiosperms, such as this cactus, depend mainly on nocturnal pollinators, including bats. Common adaptations of such plants include large, light-colored, highly fragrant flowers that nighttime pollinators can locate.

Figure 30.13ac

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